Geology Chapters 1-3

How much of the earth's surface do the oceans cover?

71 percent

How do rocks differ from minerals? a. Minerals aggregate to form rocks, but rocks do not aggregate to form minerals. b. Rocks aggregate to form minerals, but minerals do not aggregate to form rocks. c. Rocks can be synthesized, whereas minerals only naturally occur. d. Minerals can be synthesized, whereas rocks only naturally occur. e. Some minerals contain amorphous glassy debris or organic matter. However, these components are never found in rocks.

a. Minerals aggregate to form rocks, but rocks do not aggregate to form minerals.

Geologists from which continent were initially the least receptive to the continental drift hypothesis? a. North America b. Antarctica c. Africa d. Australia e. South America

a. North America

Which of the following is a mineral? a. Sugar b. Granite c. Ice d. Obsidian e. Bronze

c. Ice

Which of the choices below is a diagnostic characteristic of a mineral? a. Minerals lack a repetitive geometric structure. b. Minerals may occur naturally or may be synthetically made. c. Minerals only occur as solids. d. Each mineral has a defining chemical composition with no possibility for variation or the substitution of elements. e. Minerals are only made of organic material from living organisms.

c. Minerals only occur as solids.

Which of the choices below is a feature of the oceanic ridge system? a. a transform fault b. the destruction of lithosphere c. a mountain range d. a rift valley e. a deep-sea trench

d. a rift valley

What type of rock results from the crystallization of molten rock? a. calcium carbonate b. salt c. evaporites d. igneous rock e. chert

d.igneous rocks

What percentage of the earth's water supply do the oceans represent?

97 percent

Explain the difference between catastrophism and uniformitarianism.

Catastrophism: Uniformitarianism:

What are the three layers of the earth based on composition?

Core, Mantle, Crust

What process of the earth does the sun drive?

External; all else is internal processes

What epic of the earth do we currently live in?

Holocene (Recent) Epic : The time of when modern man has been on earth.

What are the four spheres of the Earth?

Hydrosphere Geosphere Atmosphere Biosphere

What are the characteristics of the lithosphere and the asthenosphere?

Lithosphere: Cool and rigid Asthenosphere:

Why is the earth's core solid? (inner core)

Pressure is so high that even at the high temperatures, it cannot be a solid.

What is the difference between a scientific hypothesis and a scientific theory?

Scientific Hypothesis: Untested idea Scientific Theory: Well tested and widely accepted idea

What are the two sources of energy that drives the earth's processes?

Sun ; external Heat of the Earth ; internal

What is the theory that describes how the solar system was formed?

The Nebular Theory

What is the height of the atmosphere compared to the geosphere?

The atmosphere is very shallow compared to the geosphere. (Atmosphere: about 16 miles, Geosphere:

What are the names of the four spheres that: 1. includes all life on Earth, 2. extends form the surface of the Earth to its center, 3. is comprised to all water and ice on the Earth, and 4. is a gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth? a. 1. biosphere, 2. geosphere, 3. hydrosphere, 4. atmosphere b. 1. hydrosphere, 2. geosphere, 3. biosphere, 4. atmosphere c. 1. atmosphere, 2. geosphere, 3. hydrosphere, 4. biosphere d. 1. geosphere, 2. biosphere, 3. atmosphere, 4. hydrosphere e. 1. biosphere, 2. atmosphere, 3. hydrosphere, 4. geosphere

a. 1. biosphere, 2. geosphere, 3. hydrosphere, 4. atmosphere

How old is Earth? a. 4.6 billion years old b. 4.6 million years old c. 460 million years old d. 4600 years old e. 46 billion years old

a. 4.6 billion years old

How are a continental volcanic arc and a volcanic island arc different from each other? a. A continental volcanic arc is a result of an oceanic plate subducting under a continental plate, whereas a volcanic island arc is a result of an oceanic plate subducting under another oceanic plate. b. A continental volcanic arc is a result of two continental plates colliding into each other, whereas a volcanic island arc is a result of an oceanic plate subducting under another oceanic plate. c. A continental volcanic arc is a result of a continental plate subducting under an oceanic plate, whereas a volcanic island arc is a result of an oceanic plate subducting under another oceanic plate. d. A continental volcanic arc is a result of an oceanic plate subducting under a continental plate, whereas a volcanic island arc is a result of two oceanic plates colliding into each other. e. A continental volcanic arc is a result of a continental plate subducting under another continental plate, whereas a volcanic island arc is a result of an oceanic plate subducting under another oceanic plate.

a. A continental volcanic arc is a result of an oceanic plate subducting under a continental plate, whereas a volcanic island arc is a result of an oceanic plate subducting under another oceanic plate.

How did core samples drilled from various locations in the ocean floor support the concept of seafloor spreading? a. Cores containing younger sediment were located closer to the ridge crest than were cores containing older sediment, meaning that older material is continuously being pushed away from the ridge. b. Cores containing younger sediment were located closer to the trench than were cores containing older sediment, meaning that older material is continuously being pushed away from the ridge. c. All cores contained sediment that was roughly the same age regardless of their proximities to the ridge crest. d. Cores containing older sediment were located closer to the trench than were cores containing younger sediment, meaning that older material is continuously being pushed away from the ridge. e. Cores containing older sediment were located closer to the ridge crest than were cores containing younger sediment, meaning that older material is continuously being pushed away from the ridge.

a. Cores containing younger sediment were located closer to the ridge crest than were cores containing older sediment, meaning that older material is continuously being pushed away from the ridge.

Which among the plates listed below is one of the largest plates on the Earth? a. Pacific plate b. Scotia plate c. Juan de Fuca plate d. Cocos plate e. Caribbean plate

a. Pacific plate

Which of the following statements is true regarding Steno's Law? a. Steno's law explains that angles between equivalent crystals faces of the same mineral are consistent regardless of sample size, the size of crystal faces, or where the crystals were collected. b. Steno's law explains that angles between equivalent crystals faces of different minerals are consistent regardless of sample size, the size of crystal faces, or where the crystals were collected. c. Steno's law explains that angles between equivalent crystals faces of the same mineral are consistent regardless of sample size or where the crystals were collected as long as the size of the crystal faces are all equal to each other. d. Steno's law explains that angles between equivalent crystals faces of the same mineral are consistent regardless the size of crystal faces or where the crystals were collected as long as the sample size of the crystals is at least 100 specimens. e. Steno's law explains that angles between equivalent crystals faces of the same mineral are consistent regardless of sample size or the size of crystal faces as long as the crystals were collected together.

a. Steno's law explains that angles between equivalent crystals faces of the same mineral are consistent regardless of sample size, the size of crystal faces, or where the crystals were collected.

How do the lithosphere and asthenosphere differ? a. The lithosphere is a cool, rigid outer shell that overlies the asthenosphere, which is softer and weaker than the lithosphere. b. The asthenosphere is a cool, rigid outer shell that overlies the lithosphere, which is softer and weaker than the asthenosphere. c. The lithosphere is a warm, soft outer shell that overlies the asthenosphere, which is more rigid than the lithosphere. d. The asthenosphere is a warm, soft outer shell that overlies the lithosphere, which is more rigid than the asthenosphere. e. The lithosphere is a warm, rigid outer shell that overlies the asthenosphere, which is softer and weaker than the lithosphere.

a. The lithosphere is a cool, rigid outer shell that overlies the asthenosphere, which is softer and weaker than the lithosphere.

Why must geologists understand the magnitude of geologic time? a. The magnitude of geologic time spans billions of years and thus differs greatly from the magnitude of time people deal with on an everyday basis (e.g., hours, weeks). b. Most fossils are found in the very oldest rocks on Earth, dating back 4600 years ago. c. Most fossils are found in the very oldest rocks on Earth, dating back 4600 million years ago. d. Geologic time deals mostly in 1000-year increments. e. The magnitude of geologic time spans thousands of years and thus differs greatly from the magnitude of time people deal with on an everyday basis (e.g., hours, weeks).

a. The magnitude of geologic time spans billions of years and thus differs greatly from the magnitude of time people deal with on an everyday basis (e.g., hours, weeks).

In Wegener's hypothesis of continental drift, how did the continents and the ocean floor move with respect to one another? a. Wegener believed that the continents plowed through the thin ocean floor as they changed positions. b. Wegener believed that the ocean floor and the continents simply moved around each other without deformation to either. c. Wegener believed that the continents bent downwards and subducted under the ocean floor. d. Wegener believed that the ocean floor bent downwards and subducted under continents. e. Wegener believed that the continents floated over the ocean floor like ice floating across water.

a. Wegener believed that the continents plowed through the thin ocean floor as they changed positions.

a) In what kind of bonds are electrons shared in a common pool? b) In what kind of bonds are electrons are transferred between atoms? c) In what kind of bonds are electrons shared between two atoms? a. a) metallic, b) ionic, c) covalent b. a) covalent, b) metallic, c) ionic c. a) metallic, b) covalent, c) ionic d. a) ionic, b) covalent, c) metallic e. a) covalent, b) ionic, c) metallic

a. a) metallic, b) ionic, c) covalent

What are the three major layers of Earth from its center to its exterior? a. core (an iron-nickel alloy), mantle (which is composed mainly of peridotite), and crust (with a granitic or basaltic composition) b. core (which is composed mainly of peridotite), mantle (with a granitic or basaltic composition), and crust (an iron-nickel alloy) c. crust (with a granitic or basaltic composition), mantle (which is composed mainly of peridotite), and core (an iron-nickel alloy) d. crust (an iron-nickel alloy), mantle (which is composed mainly of peridotite), and core (with a granitic or basaltic composition) e. mantle (an iron-nickel alloy), core (which is composed mainly of peridotite), and crust (with a granitic or basaltic composition)

a. core (an iron-nickel alloy), mantle (which is composed mainly of peridotite), and crust (with a granitic or basaltic composition)

Where is continental rifting currently taking place? a. in the East African Rift Valley b. at the East Pacific Rise c. at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge d. along the Cascade Mountains e. between India and the rest of Asia

a. in the East African Rift Valley

At a transform plate boundary, the two plates move: a. laterally past each other. b. under and/or over each other. c. towards each other. d. away from each other. e. perpendicular to the length of the plate boundary.

a. laterally past each other.

The flat stable interior of a continent within a craton is called a ____. a. shield b. continental slope c. abyssal plain d. mountain belt e. continental rise

a. shield

What evidence first indicated to scientists that the continents were once connected? a. the apparent jigsaw-like fit of continents together, as in the case of South America and Africa b. the distribution of coal from tropical swamps of the past among North America, Europe, northern Africa, and Asia c. deformed igneous rocks in Brazil that highly resembled similar rocks in Africa d. the presence of Glossopterison fossils on five different continents e. the evidence of past isthmian links which allowed land animals to reach other landmasses across the ocean

a. the apparent jigsaw-like fit of continents together, as in the case of South America and Africa

What are the two characteristics of a rock that help geologists determine how the rock was created? a. the rock's composition and texture b. the rock's current geographic location and composition c. the size of the rock and its current geographic location d. the rock's texture and current geographic location e. the size of the rock and its composition

a. the rock's composition and texture

At divergent plate boundaries, a. two plates move away from each other. b. one plate remains stationary while the other plate moves away from it. c. two plates more laterally past each other. d. two plates move towards each other. e. one plate remains stationary while the other plate moves towards it.

a. two plates move away from each other.

______ is a feature that results from processes associated with an oceanic-oceanic convergent plate boundary. CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY. a. A rift valley b. A deep ocean trench c. An oceanic ridge d. A volcanic island arc e. Slivers of oceanic crust in a large mountain range

b. A deep ocean trench d. A volcanic island arc

Distinguish between a mineral species and a mineral variety. a. Mineral species differ from each other only in color, whereas mineral varieties differ from each other in color and internal structure. b. A mineral variety, which is a single type of mineral that varies due to the impurities that it contains, is a subsection within a mineral species, which is a collection of mineral specimens that exhibit similar internal structures and chemical compositions. c. Mineral varieties are assigned to mineral classes, whereas mineral species are subgroups of mineral varieties. d. Mineral species are differentiated solely by mineral composition, whereas mineral varieties are differentiated solely by mineral structure. e. A mineral species, which is a single type of mineral that varies due to the impurities that it contains, is a subsection within a mineral variety, which is a collection of mineral specimens that exhibit similar internal structures and chemical compositions.

b. A mineral variety, which is a single type of mineral that varies due to the impurities that it contains, is a subsection within a mineral species, which is a collection of mineral specimens that exhibit similar internal structures and chemical compositions.

Which of the following is consistent with the plate tectonic theory? a. Gravity-driven "ridge push" moves plates at convergent plate boundaries. b. As a plate subducts into the asthenosphere, it pulls the trailing plate along. c. Lunar tidal forces drive continental movement. d. Lithosphere convection drives mantle movement. e. Convection driven by cool rocks rising in the mantle moves the overlaying lithosphere.

b. As a plate subducts into the asthenosphere, it pulls the trailing plate along.

What is the most direct way to determine if a mineral is probably calcite? a. Hold a magnet to the mineral. If you feel a pull, the mineral is calcite. b. Drop dilute hydrochloric acid on the mineral. If it effervesces, it is probably calcite. c. If the mineral has cleavage in three directions, then it is calcite. d. Drop dilute hydrochloric acid on the mineral. If it does not effervesce, it is probably calcite. e. If the mineral has a conchoidal fracture, then it is calcite.

b. Drop dilute hydrochloric acid on the mineral. If it effervesces, it is probably calcite.

Aside from avoiding geological hazards, why else do we study geology? a. Geology is also studied to learn how to completely prevent geological hazards from occurring b. Geology is also studied to learn how to locate and extract resources that are necessary for life and industry c. Geology is also studied in an attempt to cause the global sea level to rise d. Geology is studied as a sole resource to place monetary values on precious metals e. Geology is studied as an attempt to figure out how to colonize other planets in the solar system

b. Geology is also studied to learn how to locate and extract resources that are necessary for life and industry

How did Aristotle's explanations about the natural world influence progress in geological research? a, His explanations propelled geologic research over the next several centuries, resulting in the presently accepted principle of uniformitarianism b. His explanations were considered to be the authority on the subject, which inhibited the acceptance of novel scientific ideas for many centuries c. His explanations were and still are considered to be the authority on the subject. d. His explanations were immediately rejected, which led to a lull in scientific progress e. His explanations propelled geologic research over the next several centuries, resulting in the presently accepted doctrine of catastrophism

b. His explanations were considered to be the authority on the subject, which inhibited the acceptance of novel scientific ideas for many centuries

How did Vine and Matthews relate the seafloor-spreading hypothesis to magnetic reversals of the Earth's poles? a. New crust created at a transform fault recorded high magnetism during periods of normal polarity and low magnetism during periods of reversed polarity. Older crust of alternating magnetism is pushed away from the ocean ridge as new crust is created. b. New crust created at an ocean ridge recorded high magnetism during periods of normal polarity and low magnetism during periods of reversed polarity. Older crust of alternating magnetism is pushed away from the ocean ridge as new crust is created. c. New crust created at an ocean ridge recorded low magnetism during periods of normal polarity and high magnetism during periods of reversed polarity. Older crust of alternating magnetism is pushed away from the ocean ridge as new crust is created. d. New crust created at an ocean ridge recorded high magnetism during periods of normal polarity and low magnetism during periods of reversed polarity. Newer crust of alternating magnetism is pushed away from the ocean ridge as new crust is created. e. New crust created at deep-sea trench recorded high magnetism during periods of normal polarity and low magnetism during periods of reversed polarity. Older crust of alternating magnetism is pushed away from the ocean ridge as new crust is created.

b. New crust created at an ocean ridge recorded high magnetism during periods of normal polarity and low magnetism during periods of reversed polarity. Older crust of alternating magnetism is pushed away from the ocean ridge as new crust is created.

Which of the following features would you find in an ocean basin? CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY. a. circum-Pacific mountain belt b. Peru-Chili Trench c. Mid-Atlantic Ridge d. the Alps e. Canadian shield

b. Peru-Chili Trench c. Mid-Atlantic Ridge

How do transform faults and the spreading centers that they transect relate to the direction of movement of the plates they border? a. Plates move parallel to both the spreading center and the transform fault that transects it. b. Plates move parallel to the transform fault as they both move away from the spreading center. c. Plates move parallel to the transform fault as they both move toward the spreading center. d. Plates move perpendicular to the transform fault as they both move toward the spreading center. e. Plates move perpendicular to the transform fault as they both move away from the spreading center.

b. Plates move parallel to the transform fault as they both move away from the spreading center.

Before the 1960s, how did geologists view the ocean basins and continents of the Earth? a. Scientists believed that continents and ocean basins changed shape and location over time through the repeated erosion and deposition of sediments. b. Scientists believed that all ocean basins and landmasses were permanently fixed in their positions. c. Scientists believed that the formation of mountain chains and new ocean basins caused the movement of continents and oceanic sea floor. d. Scientists believed that continents moved over time as a result of convection in the mantle. e. Scientists believed that continents moved over time by plowing through oceanic crust.

b. Scientists believed that all ocean basins and landmasses were permanently fixed in their positions.

What is the tenacity of a mineral, and how can it be described? a. Tenacity is the mineral's resistance to breaking, bending, or otherwise deforming, although the deformation always reverts to the original shape of the mineral. A mineral's tenacity can be described as tenacious, very tenacious, or not tenacious. b. Tenacity is the mineral's resistance to breaking, bending, or otherwise deforming. A mineral's tenacity can be described as brittle, elastic, malleable, or sectile. c. Tenacity is the mineral's resistance to breaking, bending, or otherwise deforming. A mineral's tenacity can be described as tenacious, very tenacious, or not tenacious. d. Tenacity is the mineral's crystal's ability to stay attached to other crystals. It can be described as tenacious, very tenacious, or not tenacious. e. Tenacity describes how easily a mineral crystal can be separated from other crystals and is described as brittle, elastic, malleable, or sectile.

b. Tenacity is the mineral's resistance to breaking, bending, or otherwise deforming. A mineral's tenacity can be described as brittle, elastic, malleable, or sectile.

Which is an example of Steno's Law? a. A microscopic crystal of garnet will have a different crystalline shape from a gemstone-grade crystal of garnet. b. The crystal faces of quartz, regardless of the size of the crystal, are always 120 degrees apart. c. Only large, well-developed minerals are crystalline. d. The polymorphs graphite and diamond have the same crystal shape. e. Fluorite, magnetite, and garnet have unit cells that are the same shape and therefore have the same crystal structure.

b. The crystal faces of quartz, regardless of the size of the crystal, are always 120 degrees apart.

How much of the surface of the Earth do oceans cover, and what percentage of Earth's total water supply do they represent? a. The oceans of the Earth collectively cover 97% of its surface, thus representing 97% of the Earth's total water supply. b. The oceans of the Earth collectively cover 71% of its surface, and represent 97% of the Earth's total water supply. c. The Earth's oceans cover 3800 square meters of the Earth, and represent 71% of the Earth's total water supply. d. The oceans of the Earth collectively cover 97% of its surface, and represent 71% of the Earth's total water supply. e. The oceans of the Earth collectively cover 71% of its surface, thus representing 71% of the Earth's total water supply.

b. The oceans of the Earth collectively cover 71% of its surface, and represent 97% of the Earth's total water supply.

How old are the oldest sediments that have been recovered by deep-sea drilling? Are they younger or older than the oldest continental rocks? a. The oldest ocean sediments are 180 million years old and are older than the oldest continental rocks on Earth. b. The oldest ocean sediments are 180 million years old and are younger than the oldest continental rocks on Earth. c. The oldest ocean sediments are 4 billion years old and are the same age as the oldest continental rocks on Earth. d. The oldest ocean sediments are 4 billion years old and are younger than the oldest continental rocks on Earth. e. The oldest ocean sediments are 4 billion years old and are older than the oldest continental rocks on Earth.

b. The oldest ocean sediments are 180 million years old and are younger than the oldest continental rocks on Earth.

Which of the following pieces of evidence supports the plate tectonic theory? a. The polar wandering paths of Europe show that the magnetic north pole has migrated from near Hawaii to its current position over the Arctic Ocean. b. The stripe patterns of high- and low-intensity magnetism are the same on both sides of an oceanic ridge. c. The volcanic islands that make up the Hawaiian Island chain are all the same age. d. The seafloor is oldest at the ridge crest. e. Ocean-floor sediments are thickest at the ridge crest.

b. The stripe patterns of high- and low-intensity magnetism are the same on both sides of an oceanic ridge.

Which nonsilicate mineral has carbonate as a negatively charged complex ion? a. gypsum b. calcite c. quartz d. halite e. olivine

b. calcite

When contrasting catastrophism with uniformitarianism, a. catastrophism was published first and proposed that all of Earth's landscapes were formed by a single catastrophic event, whereas uniformitarianism, which was published over a century later, proposed that the physical, chemical, and biological processes that operate today have also operated in the geologic past. b. catastrophism was published first, and it proposed that Earth's landscapes were formed by catastrophic events. On the other hand, uniformitarianism was published over a century later and proposed that the physical, chemical, and biological processes that operate today have also operated in the geologic past. c. catastrophism was published first and proposed that Earth's landscapes were formed by catastrophic events, whereas uniformitarianism, which was published over a century later, proposed that all of Earth's landscapes were formed by a single event. d. uniformitarianism was published first and proposed that all of Earth's landscapes were formed by a single event, whereas catastrophism, which was published over a century later, proposed that Earth's landscapes were formed by catastrophic events. e. uniformitarianism was published first, and it proposed that the physical, chemical, and biological processes that operate today have also operated in the geologic past. On the other hand, catastrophism was published over a century later and proposed that Earth's landscapes were formed by catastrophic events.

b. catastrophism was published first, and it proposed that Earth's landscapes were formed by catastrophic events. On the other hand, uniformitarianism was published over a century later and proposed that the physical, chemical, and biological processes that operate today have also operated in the geologic past.

Which of the following were used by Wegener to support the continental drift hypothesis? CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY. a. evidence for glacial ice near the North Pole b. matching geologic units in the Appalachian and Caledonian Mountains c. Mesosaurus fossils found on South America and Africa d. major coal fields found in the eastern United States e. the jigsaw fit of the continents

b. matching geologic units in the Appalachian and Caledonian Mountains c. Mesosaurus fossils found on South America and Africa d. major coal fields found in the eastern United States e. the jigsaw fit of the continents

What are the eight most common elements found in the Earth's crust, listed from most common to least common (by percent)? a. oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium b. oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium c. magnesium, potassium, sodium, calcium, iron, aluminum, silicon, oxygen d. oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium e. oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium

b. oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium

Where are the two broad expanses of the Earth's youngest mountains (i.e., those that are younger than 100 million years)? a. the Appalachians and the Andes b. the circum-Pacific Mountain belt and the belt that extends eastward from the Alps all the way into southern Indonesia c. the Appalachians and the Himalayas d. the Andes and the circum-Pacific mountain belt e. the circum-Pacific mountain belt and the Appalachians

b. the circum-Pacific Mountain belt and the belt that extends eastward from the Alps all the way into southern Indonesia

Sedimentary rocks are formed from igneous rocks beginning with the process of _____. a. lithification b. weathering c. erosion d. transportation e. crystallization

b. weathering

______ is a feature of a divergent plate boundary. CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY. a. A continental volcanic arc b. A subduction zone c. A rift valley d. A deep-ocean trench e. An oceanic ridge

c. A rift valley e. An oceanic ridge

How does an atom become a positive or a negative ion? a. An atom becomes a positive ion by gaining a proton; it becomes a negative ion by losing a proton. b. An atom becomes a positive ion by gaining a proton; it becomes a negative ion by gaining an electron. c. An atom becomes a positive ion by losing an election; it becomes a negative ion by gaining an electron. d. An atom becomes a positive ion by losing a neutron; it becomes a negative ion by gaining an electron. e. An atom becomes a positive ion by gaining an electron; it becomes a negative ion by losing an electron.

c. An atom becomes a positive ion by losing an election; it becomes a negative ion by gaining an electron.

Please compare and contrast muscovite and biotite. a. Both muscovite and biotite are feldspars that have cleavage in two directions and have a shiny luster. However, unlike clear muscovite, biotite is black because it contains iron and magnesium. b. Both muscovite and biotite are micas that have cleavage in two directions and have a shiny luster. However, unlike clear muscovite, biotite is black because it contains iron and magnesium. c. Both muscovite and biotite are micas that have cleavage in one direction and have a shiny luster. However, unlike clear muscovite, biotite is black because it contains iron and magnesium. d. Both muscovite and biotite are micas that have cleavage in one direction and have a shiny luster. However, unlike clear biotite, muscovite is black because it contains iron and magnesium. e. Both muscovite and biotite are feldspars that have cleavage in one direction and have a shiny luster. However, unlike clear muscovite, biotite is black because it contains iron and magnesium.

c. Both muscovite and biotite are micas that have cleavage in one direction and have a shiny luster. However, unlike clear muscovite, biotite is black because it contains iron and magnesium.

Which of the following can be used to measure the rate of plate motion? CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY. a. the frequency of volcanic activity in continental volcanic arcs b. the rate of uplift of the Himalayan Mountains c. GPS satellites d. the number of transform faults near a divergent plate boundary e. the ages of the seafloor at different locations

c. GPS satellites e. the ages of the seafloor at different locations

Why is talc a slippery mineral whereas quartz is a hard mineral? a. Quartz is composed of sheet structures, whereas talc is composed of single chain structures. b. Quartz has sheet structures that are held together very strongly by magnesium ions, whereas talc lacks such strong bonds between its sheet structures. c. Quartz only has silicon-oxygen bonds, which are equally strong in all directions, whereas talc is made of sheet structures. d. Quartz is composed of single chain structures, whereas talc is composed of sheet structures. e. Talc only has silicon-oxygen bonds, which are equally strong in all directions, whereas quartz is made of sheet structures.

c. Quartz only has silicon-oxygen bonds, which are equally strong in all directions, whereas talc is made of sheet structures.

Which two geologic processes result from vertical circulation within the mantle? a. The upwelling of hot rock at trenches results from the mantle's downward circulation, while the subduction of oceanic plates along oceanic trenches results from the mantle's upward circulation. b. The upwelling of hot rock along oceanic ridges results from the mantle's downward circulation, while the subduction of oceanic plates at trenches results from the mantle's upward circulation. c. The upwelling of hot rock along oceanic ridges is the result of the mantle's upward circulation, while the subduction of oceanic plates at trenches is the result of the mantle's downward circulation. d. The subduction of hot rock along oceanic ridges results from the mantle's downward circulation, while the upwelling of oceanic plates at trenches results from the mantle's upward circulation. e. The upwelling of hot rock along oceanic ridges is the result of the mantle's upward circulation, while the subduction of oceanic plates at trenches is the result of the mantle's downward circulation.

c. The upwelling of hot rock along oceanic ridges is the result of the mantle's upward circulation, while the subduction of oceanic plates at trenches is the result of the mantle's downward circulation.

When contrasting a scientific hypothesis from a scientific theory, a. a theory requires that predictions be made before it can be tested, supported, and ultimately become a hypothesis. b. a scientific theory must first be established before the hypothesis can be tested. c. a hypothesis is a yet untested explanation for a phenomenon, whereas a theory is a repeatedly-tested and widely accepted explanation for a phenomenon. d. a hypothesis is a repeatedly-tested and widely accepted explanation for a phenomenon, whereas a theory is a yet untested explanation for a phenomenon. e. a hypothesis must first be established before the theory can be tested.

c. a hypothesis is a yet untested explanation for a phenomenon, whereas a theory is a repeatedly-tested and widely accepted explanation for a phenomenon.

Please select the proper description of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron. a. a pyramidal shape with four triangular faces, an oxygen ion at three vertices and one oxygen ion in the center, and a silicon ion at the remaining vertex b. a pyramidal shape with four triangular faces, a silicon ion at each vertex, and an oxygen ion at the center of the pyramid c. a pyramidal shape with four triangular faces, an oxygen ion at each vertex, and a silicon ion at the center of the pyramid d. a pyramidal shape with three triangular faces, an oxygen ion at each vertex, and a silicon ion at the center of the pyramid e. a pyramidal shape with three triangular faces, a silicon ion at each vertex, and an oxygen ion at the center of the pyramid

c. a pyramidal shape with four triangular faces, an oxygen ion at each vertex, and a silicon ion at the center of the pyramid

Which of the following is a basic structural component of the most common mineral group? a. a sulfate ion b. a water molecule c. a silicon-oxygen tetrahedron d. metallic bonds e. a carbonate ion

c. a silicon-oxygen tetrahedron

The air we breathe is part of the __________. a. asthenosphere b. geosphere c. atmosphere d. biosphere e. all of the above

c. atmosphere

What are the two most common carbonate minerals? a. calcite and limestone b. calcite and dolostone c. calcite and dolomite d. limestone and dolostone e. limestone and dolomite

c. calcite and dolomite

Compared to the Earth's asthenosphere, the Earth's lithosphere is: a. warmer and more rigid. b. warmer and more able to flow. c. cooler and more rigid. d. cooler and less rigid. e. cooler and more able to flow.

c. cooler and more rigid

Which of the following is considered a ferromagnesian silicate? CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY. a. potassium feldspar b. muscovite c. garnet d. quartz e. biotite

c. garnet e. biotite

A(n) ___ is a tentative explanation, whereas a(n) ____ has survived extensive scrutiny over many years. a. theory; hypothesis b. observation; hypothesis c. hypothesis; theory d. theory; observation e. result; hypothesis

c. hypothesis; theory

The inner core is a. liquid due to its low density. b. liquid due to the intense heat at the center of the Earth. c. solid due to the immense pressure at the center of Earth. d. liquid due to its iron content. e. solid due to its iron content.

c. solid due to the immense pressure at the center of Earth.

The largest layer (by volume) of Earth, ____, is composed primarily of _____. a. the mantle; iron and nickel alloy b. the crust; peridotite c. the mantle; peridotite d. the crust; quartz e. the core; iron and nickel alloy

c. the mantle; periodtite

Transform faults are different from convergent and divergent plate boundaries because: a. there is neither the creation nor the destruction of lithosphere at a transform fault, and plate movement is perpendicular to the length of a transform fault. b. transform faults are only found within ocean basins. c. there is neither the creation nor the destruction of lithosphere at a transform fault, and plate movement is parallel to the length of a transform fault. d. there are both the creation and the destruction of lithosphere at a transform fault, and plate movement is parallel to the length of a transform fault. e. transform faults never offset any other plate boundary types.

c. there is neither the creation nor the destruction of lithosphere at a transform fault, and plate movement is parallel to the length of a transform fault.

Which mineral property is the least useful for identifying minerals, and why? a. Color is the least useful property for identification because it is the most obvious property. b. Streak is the least useful property for identification, as the same mineral type can be found with several different colors of streak due to impurities in the mineral. c. Density is the least useful property for identification because different specimens of the same type of mineral can vary in size. d. Color is the least useful property for identification, as the same mineral type can be found in several different colors due to impurities in the mineral. e. Streak is the least useful property for identification because it does not work for minerals with metallic lusters.

d. Color is the least useful property for identification, as the same mineral type can be found in several different colors due to impurities in the mineral.

How did the density and buoyancy of the materials that formed Earth affect its internal structure? a. Denser materials, such as nickel and iron, pushed their way up to the Earth's surface and became it's crust, whereas less dense, more buoyant materials such as silicon and aluminum, were displaced down to the Earth's core. b. Denser materials, such as silicon and aluminum, pushed their way up to the Earth's surface and became its crust, whereas less dense, more buoyant materials such as nickel and iron, were displaced down to the Earth's core. c. Denser materials, such as nickel and aluminum, sunk to the Earth's center and became its core, whereas less dense, more buoyant materials such as iron and aluminum rose to the Earth's surface and became its primitive crust. d. Denser materials, such as nickel and iron, sank to the Earth's center and became its core, whereas less dense, more buoyant materials such as silicon and aluminum, rose to the Earth's surface and became its primitive crust. e. Denser materials, such as silicon and aluminum, sank to the Earth's center and became its core, whereas less dense, more buoyant materials such as nickel and iron rose to the Earth's surface and became its primitive crust.

d. Denser materials, such as nickel and iron, sank to the Earth's center and became its core, whereas less dense, more buoyant materials such as silicon and aluminum, rose to the Earth's surface and became its primitive crust.

Which of the following statements explains why the presence of Mesosaurus in both South America and Africa supports the continental drift hypothesis? a. Mesosaurus was a freshwater aquatic reptile and swam from South America to Africa. b. Mesosaurus was a terrestrial reptile that rafted across the ocean from South America to Africa. c. Mesosaurus was a saltwater aquatic reptile and swam from South America to Africa. d. Mesosaurus was a freshwater aquatic reptile with fossil remains in both South America and Africa. e. Mesosaurus was a terrestrial reptile that was able to cross from Africa to South America by an isthmian link.

d. Mesosaurus was a freshwater aquatic reptile with fossil remains in both South America and Africa.

In the early twentieth century, what was the prevailing view among scientists of how land animals were able to travel from one continent to another? a. Land animals that traveled between continents were also capable of swimming. b. Land animals that moved from continent to continent did so by hopping on stepping stones across the ocean. c. All continents had been connected together as a supercontinent. d. Some type of land connection allowed land animals to reach other continents. e. Land animals that moved from continent to continent did so by rafting on materials across the ocean.

d. Some type of land connection allowed land animals to reach other continents.

Why does oceanic lithosphere subduct under continental lithosphere, whereas continental lithosphere does not subduct under oceanic lithosphere? a. The oceanic lithosphere contains more water than the continental lithosphere, which floats on top of the oceanic lithosphere. b. The oceanic lithosphere is thinner and less dense than the continental lithosphere, which is thicker and denser. c. Due to mountains and land relief on the continental lithosphere, it is heavier than oceanic lithosphere, pushing it downwards into the mantle. d. The oceanic lithosphere is thinner and denser than the continental lithosphere, which is thicker and less dense.

d. The oceanic lithosphere is thinner and denser than the continental lithosphere, which is thicker and less dense.

What is the average rate of seafloor spreading occurring in the Atlantic Ocean and occurring in the Pacific Ocean? a. The rate of seafloor spreading at the East Pacific Rise is 2 centimeters per year, whereas the rate of seafloor spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is 15 centimeters per year. b. The seafloor at both the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise is spreading at the rate of 5 centimeters per year. c. The seafloor at both the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise is spreading at a rate of 2 centimeters per year. d. The rate of seafloor spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is 2 centimeters per year, whereas the rate of seafloor spreading at the East Pacific Rise is 15 centimeters per year. e. The seafloor at both the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise is spreading at a rate of 15 centimeters per year.

d. The rate of seafloor spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is 2 centimeters per year, whereas the rate of seafloor spreading at the East Pacific Rise is 15 centimeters per year.

After World War II, what was discovered about the ocean floor? a. Earthquakes occur at extreme depths at oceanic ridges. b. The seafloor is much thicker than was previously expected. c. A deep-sea trench system winds through the centers of all the major oceans. d. There is no oceanic crust older than 180 million years old. e. There is no oceanic crust that is younger than 180 million years old.

d. There is no oceanic crust older than 180 million years old.

What is the particular significance of valence electrons? a. Unlike electrons in other shells, valence electrons have no charge. b. Valence electrons always balance the charge produced within the nucleus. c. The number of valence electrons is the atomic number for that element. d. Valence electrons form chemical bonds between atoms by being transferred or shared. e. The number of valence electrons defines the type of element.

d. Valence electrons form chemical bonds between atoms by being transferred or shared.

What are plate boundaries at which lithospheric plates that a) move toward each other, b) move past each other, and c) move away from each other called? a. a) transform, b) divergent, and c) convergent b. a) transform, b) convergent, and c) divergent c. a) convergent, b) divergent, and c) transform d. a) convergent, b) transform, and c) divergent e. a) divergent, b) transform, and c) convergent

d. a) convergent, b) transform, and c) divergent

Which of the below is studied under the discipline of historical geology but not physical geology? a. physical aspects of Earth materials b. how the Earth works as a whole c. processes that operate on the Earth's surface d. biological changes overtime e. processes that operate below the Earth's surface

d. biological changes overtime

Correctly complete the following sentence using the terms in the lists below: ____ is the chemical name of the mineral ____, which is secreted by most marine organisms. This makes up the rock ____. a. silicon dioxide, calcite, limestone b. calcium carbonate, quartz, limestone c. silicon dioxide, quartz, chert d. calcium carbonate, calcite, limestone e. calcium carbonate, calcite, chert

d. calcium carbonate, calcite, limestone

The doctrine of _________ held that the major features of the surface of the earth were created by sudden, short-lived, violent events. a. uniformitarianism b. gradualism c. metamorphism d. catastrophism e. evolution

d. catastrophism

Based on the definition of a mineral, which of the choices below lists only minerals? a. water, ice, gold, and synthetic diamonds b. ice, water, wood, gold, and synthetic diamonds c. wood, ice, and gold d. gold and ice e. synthetic diamonds and gold

d. gold and ice

The ______ determines the chemical and physical properties of an atom. a. number of electrons b. electrical charge c. size of the valence electron shell d. number of protons e. size of the nucleus

d. number of protons

Which of the below is an example of a feature associated with an oceanic-continental convergent plate boundary? a. the San Andreas Fault b. the Himalayas c. the Mariana Islands d. the Cascade Mountain Range e. the East African Rift

d. the Cascade Mountain Range

A mineral's streak is _________. a. the appearance of light reflected from the mineral's surface b. the tendency to break along weak bonds c. the common shape of an aggregate of crystals d. the color of the mineral in powdered form e. the mineral's resistance to breaking

d. the color of the mineral in powdered form

What did Wegener propose as the driving force behind continental drift? a. the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea b. convection within the Earth's mantle c. pressure from ocean tides moving the continents around d. the gravitational forces of the sun and the moon e. momentum from the Earth's rotation

d. the gravitational forces of the sun and the moon

What is luster? a. a mineral's ability to transmit light through itself b. the color of a mineral in powdered form c. an indication that a mineral has double refraction d. the quality of light reflected from a mineral's surface e. the color of a mineral

d. the quality of light reflected from a mineral's surface

What are the economic uses of three common nonsilicate minerals? a. Silver is used for photography, fluorite is used as a fertilizer, and anhydrite is used in plaster. b. Halite is used for common salt, anhydrite is used in plaster, and graphite is used as an abrasive. c. Fluorite is used in steel-making, dolomite is used in plaster, and corundum is used as an abrasive. d. Galena is used as pencil lead, halite is used as common salt, and calcite is used in Portland cement. e. Halite is used for common salt, gypsum is used in plaster, and graphite is used as pencil lead.

e. Halite is used for common salt, gypsum is used in plaster, and graphite is used as pencil lead.

Which of the below statements accurately describes the components of an atom? a. Protons, which have a positive charge, and neutrons, which have a negative charge, occupy the nucleus. Electrons with no charge orbit the nucleus in shells. b. Protons, which have no charge, occupy the nucleus. Positively charged neutrons and negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus in shells. c. Protons, which have a positive charge, and electrons, which have a negative charge, occupy the nucleus. Neutrons with no charge orbit the nucleus in shells. d. Neutrons, which have no charge, occupy the nucleus. Positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus in shells. e. Protons, which have a positive charge, and neutrons, which have no charge, occupy the nucleus. Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus in shells.

e. Protons, which have a positive charge, and neutrons, which have no charge, occupy the nucleus. Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus in shells.

Which statement correctly describes rock-forming minerals and economic minerals? a. Rock-forming minerals consist of a few types of minerals that are sparse in Earth's crust, whereas economic minerals are very abundant and are used extensively in the manufacture of products. b. Only minerals that are not rock-building minerals can have economic value. c. Silicates are important economic resources and include gypsum, which is used for plaster. Nonsilicate minerals are only important as rock-building minerals. d. Economic minerals consist mostly of silicate minerals, whereas rock-building minerals consist mostly of nonsilicates. e. Rock-forming minerals consist of a few types of minerals that are abundant in Earth's crust, whereas economic minerals are less abundant and are used extensively in the manufacture of products.

e. Rock-forming minerals consist of a few types of minerals that are abundant in Earth's crust, whereas economic minerals are less abundant and are used extensively in the manufacture of products.

Which of the following pairs of elements are the most abundant in the continental crust? a. Calcium and oxygen b. Sodium and silicon c. Silicon and iron d. Aluminum and oxygen e. Silicon and oxygen

e. Silicon and oxygen

What is the most effective way to differentiate potassium feldspar from plagioclase feldspar? a. Plagioclase feldspars have cleavage planes in two directions at 90∘, whereas potassium feldspars have cleavage planes in two directions not at 9∘. b. Potassium feldspars have cleavage planes in two directions at 90∘, whereas plagioclase feldspars have cleavage planes in two directions not at 90∘ c. Some cleavage planes of potassium feldspars have striations, whereas no plagioclase feldspars have striations. d. Potassium feldspar is harder than plagioclase feldspar. e. Some cleavage planes of plagioclase feldspars have striations, whereas no potassium feldspars have striations.

e. Some cleavage planes of plagioclase feldspars have striations, whereas no potassium feldspars have striations.

Which of the following statements about mineral formation is true? a. Minerals precipitate from groundwater only when it is moving quickly though coarse sediments. b. Minerals can form when a solution becomes under-saturated with ions. c. Minerals form only from abiotic (nonbiological) processes. d. Minerals form only by the crystallization of lava. e. Some minerals can form from water-dwelling organisms.

e. Some minerals can form from water-dwelling organisms

____ is/are an example of a transform plate boundary. a. The Himalayas b. The Aleutian Islands c. The Andes Mountains d. The Cascade Range e. The San Andreas Fault

e. The San Andreas Fault

Which statement about the theory of plate tectonics is correct? a. The rigid lithosphere plates ride over a pool of magma. b. The rigid asthenosphere plates overlay the hotter and weaker lithosphere. c. The rigid asthenosphere plates overlay the crust. d. Rigid lithosphere plates move through oceanic crust. e. The rigid lithosphere plates overlay the hotter and weaker asthenosphere.

e. The rigid lithosphere plates overlay the hotter and weaker asthenosphere.

What is a system? a. a repeating cycle of events that occur in a predictable order b. an individual part or idea that never interacts with other individual parts or ideas c. a collection of individual items or ideas that are grouped together based solely on a single physical characteristic they have in common d. an ordered way of performing the scientific method e. a group of individual parts that interact and form a more complex whole

e. a group of individual parts that interact and form a more complex whole

At which type of convergent plate boundary did the Himalaya mountain belt form, and why? a. at a continental-continental convergent boundary because when one of the continental plates subducted under the other continental plate, debris was scraped off the top of the plate and that formed the Himalayas b. at an oceanic-continental convergent boundary because when the oceanic plate subducted under the continental plate, a volcanic chain was formed which later cooled and became the mountains now known as the Himalayas c. at an oceanic-oceanic boundary because when the two oceanic plates collided, they crumpled up at the zone of collision to form a landmass with mountains d. at an oceanic-continental convergent boundary because when the oceanic plate subducted under the continental plate, debris was scraped off the top of the oceanic plate and formed the Himalayas e. at a continental-continental convergent boundary, because the two continental plates buckled and thickened vertically when they collided

e. at a continental-continental convergent boundary, because the two continental plates buckled and thickened vertically when they collided

Groundwater dissolving limestone bedrock is an example of interactions between the _______. a. biosphere and hydrosphere b. geosphere and biosphere c. hydrosphere and atmosphere d. geosphere and atmosphere e. hydrosphere and geosphere

e. hydrosphere and geosphere

Which bond would you expect to find in halite (NaCl)? a. valence electron bonds b. covalent bonds c. metallic bonds d. hybrid bonds e. ionic bonds

e. ionic bonds

What are the six common nonsilicate mineral groups? a. oxides, feldspars, carbonates, halides, sulfides, sulfates b. feldspars, micas, pyroxenes, amphiboles, olivines, clays c. oxides, native elements, carbonates, halides, sulfides, pyroxenes d. oxides, native elements, carbonates, micas, sulfides, sulfates e. oxides, native elements, carbonates, halides, sulfides, sulfates

e. oxides, native elements, carbonates, halides, sulfides, sulfates

What theory describes how our solar system was created? a. catastrophism b. the big bang theory c. uniformitarianism d. the theory of planetary evolution e. the nebular theory

e. the nebular theory

What are the two sources of energy for the Earth system? a. the revolution of the Earth along its orbit, which drives external processes, and heat inside the Earth, which drives internal processes b. the sun, which drives external processes, and the Earth's rotation, which drives both external and internal processes c. the revolution of the Earth along its orbit, which drives external processes, and the Earth's rotation, which drives internal processes d. the sun, which drives external processes, and the Earth's rotation, which drives internal processes e. the sun, which drives external processes, and heat inside the Earth, which drives internal processes

e. the sun, which drives external processes, and heat inside the Earth, which drives internal processes

How can minerals and/or rocks form? a. by the cooling of sediments into rock b. by the melting of sediments directly into a rock c. by the undersaturation of ions in water d. through the accumulation of mineral matter from the dissolved organic material by organisms e. through the accumulation of mineral matter from the dissolved inorganic material by organisms

e. through the accumulation of mineral matter from the dissolved inorganic material by organisms