GHS 2
it took franklin 100 hours to obtain... of the B form dna
"photo 51"
what are the next generation sequencing techniques
-attaching short dna pieces in a flow cell for sequencing -adding dna to tiny beads and using a laser to read the synthesized sequence -using grapheme to measure how each base disrupts an electrical field
pcr has been used to amplify dna from
-extinct animals -microorganisms that cannot grow in lab -brain of 7k year old mummy -digestive tracts of carnivores to reveal food webs -roadkills and carcasses washed ashore to identify endangered species -genetically altered bacteria that are released in field tests to follow their dispersions -poached moose meat in hamburger -remains in jesse hame's grave for positive identification -intestines of genital crab lice on a rape victim which matched the dna of the suspect
transcription factor
-interacts and forms an apparatus that binds DNA at certain sequences -initiate transcription at specific sites on chromosomes -respond to signals from outside cell -link the genome to the environment -mutations may cause wide range of effects
translation requires...
.mRNA, tRNAs with amino acids, ribosomes, energy molecules (ATP and GTP) and protein factors
distinguished two forms of DNA "A' form- dry and crystalline "B" form- wet and cellular
Franklin and Wilkins
In the context of Frederick Griffith's experiment, which of the following experimental steps lead to the death of the mouse after developing pneumonia? Multiple select question.
Type S bacteria injected into a mouse Type R and heat-killed type S bacteria injected into a mouse
tRNA anticodon that binds met
UAC
the codons ... , ..., and ... signify stop
UGA, UAA, UAG
example of synonymous codons
UUU and UUC encode phenylalanine
initiation complex
a complex of protein factors, mRNA, met-tRNA, and the small and large ribosomal subunit which is required to start translation
Isoforms are different versions of Blank______ due to Blank______. Multiple choice question.
a protein; alternative splicing joining different combinations of exons from a single gene
explain how complementary base pairing results in a symmetrical double helical structure
a purine (A or G) consists of two rings and pyrimidine (c or t) of one, so purine-pyrimidine base pairs establish a consisten width of the double helix
define gene
a sequence of dna nucleotides that encode the amino acid sequence of a protein
-stabilize partially folded regions in their correct form -prevent a protein from getting stuck in an intermediate form -developed into drugs to treat diseases that result from misfolded proteins
chaperaone proteins
The method of DNA sequencing developed by Sanger uses an approach called Blank______.
chain termination
he proteins that stabilize partially-folded regions in their correct form, and prevent a protein from getting "stuck" in an intermediate form are Blank______.
chaperone proteins
proteins called... help fold the polypeptide
chaperones
dna wraps at several levels until it is compacted into a ...
chromatid
dna and its associated proteins
chromatin
dna is highly coiled and complexed with a protein to form..
chromatin
2d shape of tRNA
cloverleaf
When transcription occurs, the nontemplate strand of the DNA double helix is called the
coding strand
nontemplate strand of the dna double helix is called the
coding strand
each three mRNA bases in a row form a ...
codon
determination that dna contains equal amounts of guanina and cytosines and adenine and thymine
comlpementary base pairing is part of dna structure and maintains a symmetrical double helix
when does transcription and translation occurs
continuously except during M phase
two types of amino acids that contain sulfur and can form sulfur bridges
cysteine and methionine
the genetic code is termed ... because most amino acids are specified by more than one codon
degenerate
Rosalind Franklin and research student Raymond Gosling provided a pivotal clue to deducing the three-dimensional structure of DNA by Blank______.
developing the image of the structure of B DNA
replication proceeds in a 5' to 3' direction, so the process must be ...
discontinuous over short stretches on one strand
discovery of dirty bandages of an acidic substance that includes nitrogren and phosphorus
discovery of nuclein-> nucleic acid
stores rna and protein encoding information and transferes information to daughter cells
dna
list the components of the dna double helix
dna consists of two aniparallel strands of nucleotides, each includes a deoxyribose, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base (A,C,T, orG)
blender experiments showing that the part of a virus that infects bacteria contains phosphorous not sulfur
dna is the heridetary molecule
explain the significance of dna loops
dna loops bring together genes that function together
PCR uses ... to rapidly replicate a specific dna sequence in a test tube
dna polymerase
Which of the following is NOT a component of chromatin? dnap, rna, scaffold proteins, histones
dna polymerase
proofreads and corrects incorrect bases/nucleotides
dna polymerase
an enzyme that adds new bases to replicating dna and corrects mismatched base pairs
dna polymerase (dnap)
why must dna be replicated continuoously as well as discontinuously
dna polymerase adds nucleotides to the exposed 3' carbon of the deoxyribose. thus the strand can only build in 5' to 3' directions. however, both parental strands must be replicated even though they run in opposite directions. so on one strand the replicaiton is discontinuous and the small okazaki fragments are sealed together at the end
density shift experiments
dna replication is semiconservative
describe how a dna molecule is wound so that it fits inside a cells nucleus
dna winds around histone proteins, forming structures called nucleosomes
compare and contrast dna and rna
dna- double stranded. thymine. deoxyribose. maintains protein encoding info. cannot function as an enzyme. persists rna- single stranded. uracil. ribose sugar. carriers protein encoding information and controls how information is used. can function as an enzyme. short lived
a genetic material must carry out two jobs...
duplicate itself and control the development of the rest of the cell in a specific way
how does mRNA transmit instructions to build proteins
each contihguous three bases of mRNA encode an amino acid
DNA replication is called semiconservative because Blank______.
each new DNA double helix conserves half of the original
trasncription factors are controlled by
each other and other classes of molecules
prion diseases in humans are caused by
either a mutation in the prion related protein gene (PRPN) or a transmissable prion protein (sporadic) in the rare conformation
rna nucleotides are added during
elongation
... has been crucial in reconstructing long-gone human habitats even when fossils have deterioated into nothingness
environmental dna
the 20,325 or so proteins the human has are coded by protein coding genes...
exomes
the ... of the mrna are join and are proofread
exons
The mRNAs of the COVID-19 mRNA vaccines are wrapped in Blank______.
fatty coats
progressive inability to sleep and vivid dreams during scant sleep. physical and mental deterioriation, coma, death within a few months
fetal familial insomnia (prion disease)
discovery that bacteria can transfer a factor that tranforms a harmless strain into a lethal one
first hereditary experiments
a mutation that alters the reading frame
frameshift mutation
discoverers of dna
francis crick and james watson
...connected heredity to enzyme abnormalities
garrod
The term "inborn error of metabolism" is associated with the English physician ...
garrod
who was the first to link inherited disease and protein
garrod
The section of a DNA molecule whose sequence of building blocks specifies the sequence of amino acids in a particular protein is called a Blank______.
gene
section of DNA that provides the instructions for making a protein
gene
connection between gene and protein
genes are the instructions that tell cells which types of amino acids to attach in a specific sequence to form a particular protein
The relationship between the sequence of bases in mRNA and the amino acids in the polypeptide synthesized from it is the Blank______.
genetic code
often the media use ... when they mean dna sequence
genetic code
the ... is the correspondence between mrna codons and the 20 amino acids of life. it enables cells to construct proteins using dna instructions that have been transribed into rna
genetic code
The mRNA vaccine for COVID-19 was made possible by the sequencing of the SAR-CoV-2
genome
a child with ... can no longer walk because her motor neurons cannot manufacture gigaxonin protein
giant axonaly neuropathy
new techniques in dna sequencing use solid surfaces such as.. or ... to display aligned dna pieces
glass or beads
...indentified a transforming principle that transmitted infectiousness in pneumonia causing bacteria
griffith
describe the experiments that revealed the nature of the genetic material
griffith identified a transforming factor that transmitted infectiousness in bacteria. avery, macleod, and mccarty showed that the transforming factor is dna. hershey and chase used blender experiments to confirm that dna, not protein, is the genetic material
the P site in translation elongation bears .... the A site holds ...
growing amino acid chain; the next amino acid to be added to the chain
in response to signals from outside the cell, such as ... and ... , transcription factors form a pocket to which rna polymerase binds and begins building rna molecules at specific genes along locally unwoudn parts of chromosomes
growth factors and hormones
.. the blood protein that carries oxygen has four polypeptide chains
hemoglobin
Taq1 polymerase from a special bacterium is used in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) because it can withstand Blank______.
high temps
a type of protein around which dna coils in a regular pattern
histone
place in increasing size order: nucleosomes, histone, chromatin
histone, nucleosomes, chromatin
dna winds around... proteins and forms beadlike structures called...
histone; nucleosomes
dna coils around proteins called ... forming a bead on a string like structure. the bead part is called the ...
histones; nucleosome
normal function of prion protein may be...
important in protecting nervous system
where is mrna translated
in cytoplasm
Griffith mixed heat killed "S" bacteria with "R" bacteria and injected a mouse with both types of bacteria. As a result, the mouse died, and Griffith obtained living "S" bacteria from the dead mouse. This process was called
transformation
The genetic code includes directions for starting and stopping Blank______. Multiple choice question.
translation
uses rna information to manufacture a protein by aligning and joining specified amino acids
translation
the genetic code is ...
triplet
general characteristics of the genetic code
triplet, usually nonoverlapping, universal, and degenerate
A DNA molecule that is rich in cytosine and guanine is more stable than one that is rich in adenine and thymine.
true
After introns are spliced out, RNA proofreading also monitors tRNAs. True false question.
true
a protein may be able to assume more than one conforomation. t or f
true
all organisms use the same genetic code to form proteins
true
memore loss, dementia, ataxiss, amyloid plaques in brain. death within 7 years
prion disease called Gerstmann-Straussler disease
when dna is replicated it separated and h bonds holding the base pairs together break. ... are built from one, as the bases form pairs
two identical nucleotide chains
UAU encodes
tyrosine
the next generation sequencing technique in which genome fragments are captured onto a solid surface, and then a copy of each fragment is made and read one base at a time is called
sequencing by synthesis
prion disease were described in ...
sheep which develop a disease called scrapie
leader sequence
short sequence of bases at the start of each mrna that enables the mrna to form H bonds with rrna in a ribosome
The first few amino acids in a protein that will be secreted or lodge in a membrane form a(n) sequence.
signal
A molecule of nucleic acid with deoxyribose sugar has 25% C, 25% G, 20% A, and 30% T. This molecule consists of Blank______.
single-stranded DNA
introns associate wiht...
small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) or snurps. four snuprs form a structure called a splieceosome that cuts introns out and attaches exons to each other forming the mature mRNA that exits to the nucleus
Which DNA fragments travel the farthest/ run closest to the bottom of the sequencing gel?
smallest dna fragments.
a ... in the dna terminates transcription
specific sequence
gene indicating maleness
sry
binding proteins
stabilize separate strands
.. specify the same amino acid
synonymous codons
a pcr occurs in 3 steps...
temp shift, hybridization, and extension
occurs when a stop codon enters the A site
termination
three dimensional forms shaped by bonds between r groups, interaction between r groups and water
tertiary structure
dna encodes information that...
the cell uses to synthesize proteins. dna is also replicated, passing on its information during cell division
why would a dna structure in which each base type could form h bonds with any of the other three base types not produce a molecule that is easily replicated
the double helix would have different widths throughout because purines have 6 membered ring and 5 membered ring and pyrimidines have a single six membered ring
explain how dna is a directional molecule in a chemical sense
the phosphate is attached to 5' carbon and the hydroxyl to the 3' carbon. a phosphodiester bond forms between 3' and a different 5' phosphate group
explain the basis of aniparallelism
the two sugar phosphate backbones are opposite in configuration according to the 5' and 3' carbons of the deoxyribose
In Griffith's experiment, when a combination of type R and heat-killed type S bacteria were injected into mice, the mice developed pneumonia and died. This was because Blank______. Multiple choice question.
the type S bacteria transferred their killing trait to type R bacteria
explain how an mRNA vxn does not introduce viruses into the body
the vxn induces cells to produce spike proteins which the virus uses to attach to human cells.
a sequence of dna has ... reading frames
three
the minimum number of of mrna bases in a codon is
three
why must several copies of a genome be cut up to sequence it
to generate all possible sized pieces so that the derived sequence is contigious
explain why dna must be replicated
to retain a full copy of the dna information so that it can be transmitted to the next cell generation
prevents dna from supercoiling
topoisomerase
synthsized an rna molecule
transcription
processes that supply the proteins essentail to be alive as well as those that give a cell its specialized characterisitcs
transcription and translation
activator
transcription factor promoting transcription
repressor
transcription factor turning transcription off
During transcription initiation, what binds to a promoter?
transcription factors and rna polymerase
list the steps of transcription
transcription factors bind a promoter sequene in the dna to attract rna polymerase dna unwinds locally and rna polymerase attaches rna bases that are complementary to the template strand a termination sequence in the dna ends the process
The assembly of components like the TATA binding protein and RNA polymerase on a specific DNA sequence are part of the process of
transcription initiation
differentiated cells produce certain mRNA molecules called...
transcripts. information in transcripts is used to manufacture the encoded protiens
A major type of RNA that binds an mRNA codon at one end and a specific amino acid at the other is ...RNA (tRNA).
transfer
the start codon is ... and it attracts...
AUG; an initiator tRNA that carries methionine
place the following enzymes in the order in which they function in dna replication: ligase, primase, helicase, dna polymerase
1. helicase 2. primase 3. dna polymerase 4. ligase
list the steps in dna replication
1. helicase opens the strasnds at origin or replicaiton 2. primase attracts an rna primer to begin replication 3. dna polymerase brings in complimentary nucleotids to the 3' carbon of the sugar. conintuous syntehsis occurs in 5' to 3' direction 4. dna polymerase proofreads strands .5. enzymes remove rna primer when synthesis is complete 6. ligase seals the sugar phosphate backbone of the okasaki fragments
how are very long strands of dna replicated without becoming twisted into a huge tangle
1. helicase opens up a localized region which allows enzymes to guide a new strand 2. the strands are held apart by binding proteins
most rRNAs are ... nucleotides long
100-3000
if a codon consisted of only one mrna base then could specify only four different amino acid (4^1). if each codon consisted of two bases then only... different amino acids could be sepecified
16 (4^2)
cytosine has .. donor and ... acceptor. guanine has ... and ... acceptor
1; 2; 2; 1
During cell division, the smallest human chromosome is only... micrometers long
2
difference in ribose and deoxyribose
2' carbon contain OH in ribose. 2' carbon contains H in deoxyribose
a typcial rate of transcripton in humans is ...
20 bases per second
the poly A tail consists of about ...
200 adenines
a ribosome from a eukaryotic cell has ... subunits. together, they consist of ... proteins and ... rRNA molecules
2; 79; 4 (large subunit is 47 proteins. small subunit is 32 proteins)
Transcription occurs in the Blank______ direction along the DNA template strand forming an mRNA in the Blank______ direction.
3' -5' ; 5'-3'
Arrange the following events in the proper sequence for translation. 1 = Movement of ribosome down the mRNA by one codon 2 = Complete ribosome is formed 3 = Peptide bond formation 4 = mRNA binds to the small ribosome subunit 5 = Binding of second tRNA molecule Multiple choice question.
4,2,5,3,1
In what direction is the new RNA molecule synthesized?
5' to 3'
The template strand for DNA replication has the sequence 5'-AAACGCTT-3'. What is the sequence of the newly-synthesized DNA?
5'-AAGCGTTT-3'
most mRNAs are ... bases long
500 - 4500
the genetic code consists of a total of ... codons
64
there are ... codons
64
length of tRNA
75-80 nucleotides
... or the 20 amino acids are considered essential because the human body cannot synthesize them. the essential amino acids must come from the diet
9
tRNA anticodon that binds cys
ACA
each tRNA ends with .... where a particular amino acid covalently bonds
CCA
tRNA anticodon that binds Gly
CCU
an anchor protein called... brings together parts of the dna sequence within the same long dna molecule to form the overall loopome structure
CTCF
central dogma
DNA -> RNA -> Protein. directional flow of genetic information
Which ingredients are required for the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
DNA primers Taq1 polymerase DNA nucleotides
Hershey and Chase differentially tagged the DNA and proteins of bacteriophages and allowed them to infect bacteria. Which of the following statements best describes the top portion of a centrifuge tube at the end of the experiment?
It contained the viral coats and radioactive sulfur.
-identified 5 carbon sugars ribose and deoxyribose -revealed chemical destinction between rna and dena -discovered that the three parts of nucleotide are found in equal proportions (sugar, phosphate, base)
Levene
What is the first and best-known method for using DNA polymerase to amplify a specific DNA sequence?
PCR
how are many copies of dna pieces generated to obtain the sequence
PCR
In the context of DNA replication, how can the growing fork proceed in one direction, when both parental strands must be replicated and run in opposite directions?
Replication is discontinuous on one strand.
a binding protein recognizes the ... region and binds to the dna. this allows other transcription factors to bind
TATA
In the context of transcription, what is the name for the first transcription factor to bind a required DNA molecule?
TATA protein
how did space affect Scott Kelly
a year in space did not change scotts dna, but it did change his gene expression. (the trasncription of genes into mRNA). DNA function had been altered. not structure. changes in expression of genes controlling proteins in urine and inflammation. telomers extended slighlty, then shrunk back. intestinal microbiome changed.
In the nuclei of white blood cells, Friedrich Miescher discovered an unusual substance that was Blank______.
acidic and contained nitrogen and phosphorous
contractile proteins
actin and myosin
primase
adds short primer to remplate strands
sanger sequencing deduces a dna sequence by
aligning pieces of differenct sizes that differ from each other at the end base. variations on this theme label, cut, and immobilize the dna pieces in different ways, greatly speeding the process
the simplest explanation for the universality of the genetic cods is that
all life evolved from a common ancestor
A reason for the manifestation of Parkinson disease is the aggregation of misfolded Blank______. Multiple choice question.
alpha synuclein
combines exons of a gene in different ways, forming instructions for slightly different variants of a protein
alternative splicing
... cuts mrna in different ways, forming slightly different combination of exons and some genes. the proteins that result from different combinations of exons are called...
alternative splicing; isoforms
diseases associated with protein misfolding
alzheimer disease, familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal dimentia, heriditary attr amyloidosis, huntingtion disease, parkinson disease, lewy body dementia, PKU, prion diseases
Protein aggregates found in prion diseases are also seen in which of the following diseases?
alzheimers and parkinson
Francis Crick explained the central dogma as the specificity of a piece of nucleic acid being expressed solely by the sequence of its bases, and this base sequence is a code for the ...sequence of a particular protein.
amino acid
what is the most important determinant of protein conformation
amino acid sequence
what factors determine how a protein folds into its characteristic conformation
amino acid sequence, interaction betwen amino acids, and environment of the protein
A misfolded protein that causes Alzheimer disease is Blank______. Multiple choice question.
amyloid beta precursor protein
one loop of tRNA forma an ... which is complementary to specific mRNA codon
anticodon
two ends of tRNA
anticodon which is complementary to an mRNA codon. opposite end strongly bonds to specific amino acid
what charcateristic of the dna structute does the following statement refer to? new dna forms in the 5' to 3' direction, but the template strand is read in the 3' to 5' direction.
antiparallelism
opposing orientation of dna double helix
antiparallelism (5' end is phosphate. 3' end is hydroxyl)
Introns are important Blank______. Multiple choice question.
as regulators for gene expression
infectious forms of prions have
beta pleated sheets in places where their normal counterparts have alpha helices
In the replication fork, separate strands of DNA are stabilized by
binding proteins
dna polymerase
binds nucleotides to form new strands
proteins are responsible for...
blood clotting, muscle contractions, antibodies fighting infection, hair, skin, CT, biochemical rxns that require enzymes
conditionally essentail amino acids
body can manufacture them except for under certain circumstances, such as being porn prematurely or having a metabolic disease (6 of these)
how do prions cause disease
both by spreading the alternate form (infectious or mutant) and by aggregation of protein
is downloading a document from the internet analogous to replicating dna? cite a reason
both copies involve creating an identical copy of an original
overexpressed transcription factors cause
cancer
explain how the steps of semiconservative dna replication differ from the steps of the two other possible mechanisms (conservative and dispersive)
in semiconservative, the two sides of the helix part and new bases are brought in, so that each new double helix is half new, half old. in conservative, one double helix forms another. in dispersive, double helix shatters and then reforms into two by incorporating free nucleotides
control point that determines which genes are transcribed
initiation
three steps of transcription
initiation, elongation, termination
describe three ways RNA is altered after its transcribed
insertin, deletion, or modification of nucleotides
example of posttranslational modifications
insuline is initially translated at the 80 amino acid long polypeptide but enzymes cut it to 51 amino acids.
about 40% of human proteins have parts that may fold into many shapes. these proteins are called
intrinsically disordered
the ... of genes maximizes genetic information
intron/exon organization
sequences that are transcribed but then are cut out of the mrna before it exits the nucleus.
introns
3d shape of tRNA
inverted L
people who have cystic fibrosis have respiratory and digestive problems because
ion channel proteins cannot fold properly
AUA encodes
isoleucine
describe the basis for the idea of using mRNA as a vaccine
it can carry the instructions for a cell to manufacture a protein that is part of a pathogenic virus
ligase
joins okazaki fragments and seals other nicks in sugar phosphate backbone
-affected native fore people who lived in the remote mountains of papua new guinea -was traced to a ritual in which the people ate their war heroes
kuru
the first prion disease recognized in humans was ...
kuru
continuous strand = discontinuous strand=
leading strand; lagging strand
describe the experiments that revealed the 3d structure of genetic material
levene showed that dna has equal proportions of deoxyribose, nitrogenous bases, and phosphates. chargaff demonstrated that a=t and g=c. wilkins, franklin, and gosling analyzed the structure of dna using x-ray diffraction. these observations and experimental results enabled watson and crick to deduce the double helical structure of dna
an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of covalent bonds in the sugar phosphate backbone of a nucleic acid
ligase
overall effect of trasncription factors
link genome to environment
the closer to the end of the gene, the ...
longer the polypeptide
... enable different regions of the same dna molecule to interact
loops
when chromatin is loose (not condensed into chromosomes that are visible upon staining) it forms...
loops at about 10000 places int the genome
why do microorganisms from hippos gut thrive in pools of water in their environment
low-oxygen aquatic environement is similar to that of the gut
The type of RNA that carries the information that specifies a particular protein is
mRNA
...carries info for a particular protein. ... associated with certain proteins to form ribosomes. ... binds to mRNA at one end and a specific amino acid at the other end.
mRNA; rRNA; tRNA
The RNA molecules that are actually translated are ...RNA molecules.
messenger
steps of modifying/processing pre-mrna into mature mrna before it leaves the nucleus
methylated cap added to 5' end. (recognition site for protein synthesis)poly a tail added to 3' end. (necessary for protein synthesis to begin and stabilizes mrna)
A flow cell that is used in DNA sequencing resembles a Blank______.
microscope slide
... idenitified dna in white blood cells
miescher
the genetic cod is universal, with exceptions in ...
mitochondria and a few single-cells organisms
protein synthesis requires several participants:
mrna, trna, ribosomes, ATP and GTP, and protein factors
what causes protein misfolding
mutation or having more than one conformation
rhett syndrome results from
mutations in transcription factor genes
the muscle protein ... has a single polypeptide chain
myoglobin
... uses a massively parallel approach, and different types of materials on which to immobilize dna pieces. these techniques read and overlap millions of pieces at once. greatly speeding dna sequencing
next generation sequencing
what part of the dna moleclue encodes information
nitrogenous bases because they form sequences with their complementary pairing
the protein encoding dna sequence is ...
non-overlapping
codons specify different amino acids
nonsynonymous
a unit of chromatin structure consisting of dna coiled around an octet of histone proteins
nucleosome
A single building block of DNA is called a(n)
nucleotide
If they are too short or too long after introns are spliced out, mRNAs may be stored in the
nucleus
in eukaryotes, mrna must exit the ... to enter the ...
nucleus; cytoplasm
define semiconservative replication
one longitudinal half of a dna double helix is from the last dna generation
an ... is a sequence of dna that does not include a "stop" codon
open reading frame
discuss how the polymerase chain reaction is based on dna replication
pcr makes many copies of the same dna sequence using dna polymerase
amino acids link by a ... with the help of ... that functions as a ...
peptide bond; rRNA; ribozyme
tRNA with anticodon GAA always picks up ...
phenylalanine
list the components of a nucleotide
phosphate, sugar, nitrogenous base
distinguish between the locations of the phosphodiester bonds and the h bonds in a dna molecule
phosphodiester= between phosphate of a nucleotide and hydroxyl attached to 3' carbon of the deoxyribose sugar on another nucleotide h-bond= between nitrogenous base pairs
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase proved that DNA is the hereditary material when they discovered that the part of the virus that entered bacteria and directed them to mass produce more virus contained the radioactive element phosphorous
phosphorus
a nucleic acid amplification technique in which dna sequence is relpicated in a test tube. it is used to rapidly produce many copies of a specific dna sequence
polymerase chain reaction (pcr)
mutations alter the ... protein structure
primary
At the start of each segment of DNA to be replicated, an enzyme called... builds a short piece of rna and the dna template
primase
explain how rna participates in dna replication
primase attracts a complementary rna primer to begin replicaiton. dna polymerase can only add nucleotides to an existing strand
... protein can fold into any of several conformations. moreover, it can be passed on to other proteins upon contact, propagating like an infectious agent
prion
memory loss, nervousness, trembline hands, blank facial expressions, jerky movements, unsteady gait, personality changes, anxiety, depression, impaired thinking, insomnia, visual loss, difficulty speaking and swallowing, coma, with death from heart failure, pneumonia, or infections
prion disease known as creutzfeldt-jako disesae
In the context of transcription, a special sequence that signals the start of a gene is called the .
promoter
in transcription initiation, transcription factors bind a ... sequence in a gene. this attracts rna polymerase
promoter
identify and degrade misfolded or excess proteins
proteasomes
in several disorders that affect the brain, misfolded proteins aggregate causing...
proteasomes to clog and inhibit their function
malfunctioning proteasomes lead to ...
protein aggregation that can cause disease
all prion disease are diseases of ...
protein folding
prion is short for
protinaceuous infectious agent
In the mRNA vaccine for COVID-19, instead of uracil, the synthetic vaccine mRNA has
pseudouridine
the ... of a gene is the amino acid sequence that is encoded from a certain point in a gene. adding or subtracting 1 or 2 dna bases to a gene disrupts that reading frame. adding or deleting 3 contiguous bases adds or deletes one amino acid to the protein product but does not disrupt the reading frame
reading frame
Next-generation sequencing refers to high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies. Millions of DNA strands can be sequenced using an approach called "massively parallel DNA sequencing". The sequenced short pieces are called Blank______. Multiple choice question.
reads
identify where in a cell dna replication, transcription, and translation occurr
replication and transcription in nucleus. translation in cytoplasm
a locally opened portion of replicating dna double helix
replication fork
during replication, the dna unwinds locally at several sites. ... form as h bonds break between base pairs. primase builds short rna primers, which dna sequences eventually replace. next, ... fills in dna bases, and .... seals remaining gaps, filling in the sugar phosphate backbone
replication forks; dna polymerase; ligase
explain how dna cna be replicated fast enough to sustain a cell
replication occurs at several forks at once
The process of translation occurs on cellular structures called
ribosomes
physically support other structures involved in protein synthesis
ribosomes
RNAs that have an enzymatic function and catalyze the formation of the peptide bonds between amino acids, like certain ribosomal RNAs, are called
ribozymes
carriers protein encoding info and helps make proteins
rna
why must transcription happen over and over
rna is short lived
builds an rna molecule
rna polymerase
the dna template strand is 3' CCTAGCTAC 5' what is the rna sequence and coding dna sequence
rna sequence- 5' GGTUCGAUG 3' coding dna - 5' GGATCHATUG 3'
what makes translation efficient
rna, ribosomes, enzymes, and key proteins are recycles. transcription produces many copies of mRNA, and each mrna can bind dozens of ribosomes
deduces a dna sequence by aligning pieces that differ from each other b the end base
sanger sequencing (if 3' hydroxyl group absent there would not be a reaction)
explain how sanger sequencing works
sanger sequencing uses an enzyme to terminate a dna molecule, generating a series of dna fragments of identical sequence complementary to a sequence of interest. the fragments are aligned and the type of chain terminator at each point used to derive the sequence
Two identical double helices form from one original, parental double helix. Each new helix has one strand from the parent paired with a new complementary strand. This route to replication is
semiconservative
dna synthesis along each separated strand of the double helix
semiconservative replication
meselsone and stahl demonstrated the ... nature of dna replication with ...
semiconservative; density shift experiments
what are next-generation sequencing technologies
sequences millions of very short sequences at one, and can assemble much larger dna pieces than original sanger sequencing
misfolded proteins are tagged with ... protein with more than one tag is taken to a ... a tunnel like multiprotein structure.
ubiquitin; proteasome (as the protein moves through the tunnel, it is straightened and dismantled. proteasomes also destroy properly folded proteins that are in excess of no longer needed)
If a protein misfolds, protein synthesis is slowed and transcription of genes that encode chaperone proteins and the other folding proteins increases in an " response".
unfolded protein
in transcription elongation, enzymes ... the DNA and ... inserts complementary free rna bases opposite the template strand of the dna double helix, synhesizing rna in a 5' to 3' direction
unwind; rna polymerase
helicase
unwinds parental double helix
Identify the technique employed by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin to deduce some aspects of the structure of DNA. Multiple choice question.
x-ray diffraction