gov - chapter 8,9,10

Media as Linkage Institutions and Political Actors

The mass media traditionally act as a conduit for information, both up and down, between the political elite and their constituents. As political actors, the mass media are: •Reporters of objective fact. •Neutral adversaries or watchdogs. •Public advocates. •Profit seekers. •Propagandists - Fake News(Info-Wars, Prager University and others)

Media Sources: Print, Broadcast, and Online

The media are typically categorized by type of message and type of medium. •Print media typically include newspapers and magazines. •Electronic media include both broadcast media (television and radio) and the Internet and social media. •Where broadcast media function as one-to-many transmissions, digital content is often many-to-many. Each medium contains within it the medium that came before.

The Media in Political Campaigns

The media in their various roles helps politicians gain name recognition and thereby make it possible for them to win elections.

TABLE 8.5 Top 10 Radio Stations in Texas.

1.KRLD-FM - Dallas. 2.KILT-AM - Houston. 3.KESN-FM - Dallas. 4.KTCK-AM - Dallas. 5.KFN C-FM - Houston. 6.KBME-AM - Houston. 7.KVET-AM - Austin. 8.KTXX-FM - West Lake Hills. 9.KTKR-AM - San Antonio. 10.KZDC-AM - San Antonio.

TV Penetration % by Local Television Market (Texas)

5 Dallas-Ft. Worth 2,563,320 2,623,878 8 Houston 2,330,180 2,359,266 31 San Antonio 916,970 1,014,100 40 Austin 736,770 874,900 82 Waco-Temple-Bryan 333,300 391,300

Explaining Voter Turnout

A significant number in Texas are not eligible to vote. •Including ineligible groups—namely, noncitizens and convicted felons (Felons off paper can vote)—in Texas's VAP negatively exaggerates commonly cited turnout levels. •Even using VEP, however, voter participation is low. The political culture discourages participation. There is a legacy of restricted access to the ballot-poll taxes, violence, literacy tests, Jim Crow Law, etc. Other social, economic, and political factors also play a role.

Ongoing Controversies with Voting 1

Advocates of voter ID laws say they reduce voter fraud; opponents argue they restrict the right to vote. In 2011 when the voter ID law was passed, Texas was among the states required to obtain federal "preclearance" before the law could go into effect. •The U.S. Justice Department denied preclearance on the basis that minority groups would be adversely affected. The law went into effect in 2013, however, when a section of theVoting RightsAct (VRA)involved with preclearance was struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court. This is an ongoing battle in the Civil Rights community to restore and improve all sections of the VRA.

Categories of Public Opinion

Aggregation "The simple sum of many individual opinions" Majoritarian "The values and beliefs of the majority of citizens"; "people do pay close attention to the opinions of friends, coworkers, and neighbors and tend to conform to the majority opinion among their significant others." Majoritarian rule can be a dangerous thing. Interest Group Conflict "Groups are constantly engaged in a struggle to define social problems and provide solutions to them" Media/Elite Opinion "Projection of what journalists, politicians, and other 'elites' believe" Fiction "Rhetorical construction used so freely in our newspapers and on television as to be meaningless"

Why Is It Important?

Although democracy means "rule by the people," in practice in the United States it is "majority rule" led by an elite. When conflict arises, public opinion is mobilized and affects the political elite. The media are the means by which this process happens.

The Legacy of Restricted Ballot Access in Texas 3

Another past practice of many southern states was the white primary. •In Texas from 1923 to 1945, despite numerous Supreme Court challenges, African Americans were prohibited from the Democratic Party primaries. Political ideology has shifted to the Republicans who are using voter suppression tactics. •All-white primaries ended with Smith v. Allwright, 1944. As in many other states, property ownership was used to restrict the right to vote, especially in local elections. Until the Nineteenth Amendment (Passed in 1920), women were also disenfranchised in Texas. Even after this act was passed, black women were prohibited from voting.

Focus Groups 2

Benefits: 1)More flexible than surveys. 2)Make observable the dynamic forces of opinion formation through. communication (its inconsistency and subjective construction over time). 3)Allow for unanticipated responses in participants. 4)Can supplement survey research. Problems: 1)Less quantitatively measurable. 2)Used less than survey methods.

Traditional Media

Candidates use traditional media to connect with voters and get their message out, but it is expensive. •Traditional media generally refers to conventional forms such as television, print, radio, direct mail, and billboard signage. When possible, candidates rely on free coverage of speeches and rallies and on doing interviews. •Newspaper endorsements can also be important. Ads produced by or for campaigns can be positive, negative, or a combination.

Print Media: Newspapers and Magazines

Competition came from radio in the 1920s and then television in the 1950s. Many Americans still rely on print media for news. •Magazines are far fewer in number than newspapers. •News magazines typically offer more in-depth coverage, using investigativestyle journalism—deeply researched stories. Americans once relied on the print media for information about their local communities, politics and war, and domestic and international events. •Newspapers also played the role of "public watchdog."

The Future of Media

Consumers drive content as much as owners and producers do. In 2016, for the first time, both major parties simulcast their presidential debates in Spanish, and candidates faced questions of specific importance to the Latino community

Surveys 1

Definition: "A research technique for measuring characteristics of a given population of individuals." Specific Types: 1)Census survey, which counts the individuals within a population. 2)Sample survey, which interviews a nonscientific sampling of people within a population. 3)Probability sample survey, which interviews a scientifically determined sampling of people within a population; results can be extrapolated to overall population. 4)Panel survey, which reinterviews people to determine changes in opinion over time.

Focus Groups 1

Definition: "Carefully planned discussions designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, non-threatening environment." Process: 1)Identifying a population. 2)Sampling that population in small, random doses; typically fewer than 10 individuals at a time. 3)Developing an instrument (usually a written questionnaire with a few focused demographic questions). 4)Talking with a moderator. 5)Determining the type of analysis (can be qualitative or quantitative).

Digital Campaigning and Citizen Participation

For some individuals, online communities have increased exposure to political issues and events, which has increased users' political participation. The Internet also allows campaigns to connect directly with the public without the interference or interpretation of the traditional media. •Candidates who fail to utilize the power of social media do so at their own peril. The Internet does not forget inappropriate or ill-timed statements, however. Be Careful: Whatever you post is a permanent record.

The Media and Their Functions

Freedom of speech was intended not just for "newsmongers" but for everyone. •All should be allowed to give their opinion. But, not all speech is protected by the First Amendment. Libel and slander are not free speech under the First Amendment, nor is terrorist threats. •Understanding the First Amendment can be complicated. Freedom of the press meant freedom to use printing technology, the print medium—no one opinion should have more access than any other. Over time, the meanings of the press and the media have broadened and come to overlap.

Top 10 Newspapers in Texas with Daily Circulation

Houston Chronicle 223,900 Dallas Morning News 161,977 Fort Worth Star-Telegram 104,419 San Antonio Express-News 87,942 Austin American-Statesman 70,563 Focus Daily News (Desoto, TX) 35,786 Corpus Christi Caller-Times 29,682 Waco Tribune-Herald 25,677 El Paso Times 25,456 El Diario De El Paso 21,626

What Are the Media?

In a basic sense, the media are a set of technological mediums; but in modern terms "the media" means much more. Political scientist Harold Lasswell: "Who, Says What, In Which Channel, To Whom, With What Effect?" •The media comprise a complex system of messaging by private companies, journalists, citizens, and public institutions, motivated by economic, ideological, or professional interests.

Voter Turnout in Texas 2

In general, Texans are not avid voters. •Texas consistently falls below the national average in terms of percentage of the VEP in elections of the past 30 years. •Texas's voter turnout also ranks at or near the bottom when compared to other states. •Note that voter turnout is typically lower for midterm elections than in presidential election years. In Texas, as in other states, 2016 saw record-breaking turnout; but Texas's turnout was still low in comparison with other states.

Ongoing Controversies with Voting 2

Legal challenges to the voter ID law have continued. There is also controversy over the "motor voter" law providing for voter registration when obtaining a driver's license. Voters in 2015 complained their registration applications were not properly processed. A more recent lawsuit has been filed against the state, arguing that differences between online and in-person procedures constitute a violation of prospective voters' rights. •In March 2018 the U.S. District Court ruled that this disparate treatment violated voters' rights. •One of the most outrageous attempts to stifle voting is preventing people from receiving water while waiting in line to vote.

The Legacy of Restricted Ballot Access in Texas

Like other southern U.S. states, Texas has a history of restrictive laws that are in keeping with its traditionalistic political culture (based on white supremacy). •Jim Crow laws extended beyond the ballot box to create a racially and ethnically segregated society. In 1902 the Texas legislature adopted a poll tax, which was in effect for about 60 years,andwas used to prevent blacks, poor whites, and Hispanics from voting. Women could not vote until the 19thAmendment was passed in 1920 and even then black women were still prevented from voting. After the poll tax was invalidated entirely in 1966, the number of registered voters increased dramatically

Party Competition and Gerrymandering

Lower voter turnout in Texas can also be explained by the lack of party competition. •Texans elected Republicans to all statewide offices from 2002 through 2018 and has been solidly Republican in U.S. presidential elections. This trend in different in the big cities. •Party competition and closeness of elections are important factors in voter turnout, with voters more likely to believe their votes will actually "count." •In competitive districts, both parties have a big incentive to increase voter turnout. •Gerrymandering has made for very few truly competitive districts in Texas.

Felony Conviction and Voting

Maine and Vermont are the only states that allow felons to vote. Texas prohibits persons convicted of a felony, including those on probation or parole, from voting.HOWEVER: •Felons may register, however, after they have served out their sentence and completed their time on probation and parole (Once they are "off-Paper"). Most people and convicted people do not know this. In 2016, 495,928 felons could not vote in Texas. •When one examines who makes up those affected by felony disfranchisement, political power and demographics such as race, ethnicity, class, and gender are linked to lower rates of participation.

Current Voting Requirements

On Election Day, voters must present their government-issued photo ID. •Individuals who have been unable to obtain one of the seven forms can sign a declaration that they had a "reasonable impediment" to obtaining one, then show an alternative form of identification. •A provisional ballot may also be cast.

Reality of Media Bias

Media bias plays a large role in public opinion by reinforcing political beliefs. •Journalists perceive themselves as being more liberal than both the owners of the media and the public in general. •Bias can also result from journalistic norms. •Citizens increasingly self-select news sources that match their ideological biases and reject other sources—contributing to growing ideological gaps and division among citizens. There are, however, legal limits on what is considered reasonable political communication.

Media Bias and Perceptions of Media Bias

Media bias refers to the actual or perceived failure of the media to report news objectively. •Selection bias involves the systematic selection of particular news that presents a distorted view—reflecting partisan ideological positions on the issues. •Presentation bias involves the tone of a story reflecting a significantly distorted view, such as in favoring one political party over another. There is no firm evidence that partisan media are making ordinary Americans more partisan.

How Can It Be Measured? 2

Much of measuring public opinion depends on who is doing the polling and the techniques they choose. •Less scientific methods are still in use, including both the straw poll and exit polls—interviews with citizens right after they have voted. One method that is considered outright illegitimate is the push poll, in which opposing candidates and ideas are attacked during the interview. •Push polls are specifically used to mobilize public opinion, in the guise of gathering data.

New Media: The Internet and Social Media Networks 3

One of the more recent examples of how social media move the public occurred in the summer of 2016 after the "Brexit" vote in Britain to leave the European Union. Twitter feeds list up with calls for "#Texit," which would allow for a referendum for Texas to secede from the United States. •Referendum: a direct public vote on a single political issue.

Voting in Texas

One of the most common forms of participation isvoting in elections. According to the U.S. Constitution, voting cannot be denied on the basis of race, color, sex, failure to pay a tax, or age (provided the voter is at least 18). •Poll tax: a tax citizens were required to pay each year to be eligible to vote. The poll tax was used against blacks, Mexican Americans, and poor whites to keep them from voting. Today the issue has become voter suppression-things that are done in law to make it harder to vote. States still have considerable discretion in who is eligible and what election system will be used and this has become a problem.

Political Participation 2

Participation can be conceptualized in terms of levels and types of activities. •Inactive folks take no part. •Voting specialists confine their efforts to voting. •Parochial participants are active when an issue has a direct effect on them and seem to disappear after that. •Campaigners enjoy the nature of political campaigns. •Communalists enjoy nonpartisan, noncontroversial community activity. •Complete activists get involved in all levels and kinds.

Other Forms of Political Participation 1

People participate in many other ways. •One can be "involved" intensely by becoming a candidate; or superficially by signing a petition. •Thanks to the Internet, donating to a campaign has become one of the easiest forms of participation. Participation requires free time, expendable income, and political interest. Declining civic involvement may contribute to a loss of "social capital"—the sense of shared purpose and values that social connection promotes. Extreme polarization of the political atmosphere has created deep divisions that are generally fueled by conservative fake news and a small amount of liberal fake news. Conservative fake news on internet sites is the most numerous.

Surveys 2

Process: 1)Identifying a population. 2)Sampling that population. 3)Determining an instrument method (personal, phone, or mail interviews). 4)Developing an interview instrument (typically some kind of questionnaire). 5)Determining the type of analysis (quantitative). Problems: 1)Low response rates; people are not required to respond. 2)Biased sampling; those who respond may not be representative of larger population. 3)Leading questioning/poor questionnaire design. 4)Potential ignorance on issue being studied.

What Is Public Opinion? 2

Public opinion can mean a number of things, depending on who is discussing it, who is trying to measure it, and for what purpose it is being used. Politicalopinions are formed through political socialization—the learning of political attitudes and opinions through agents of socialization. •The AGENTS OF POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION ARE: Family, education, peers, ethnicity, gender, economics, religion, events, and the media. In Texas, the individualistic and traditionalistic political culture, Republican government, and conservative media affect individual public opinion in major ways.

How Can It Be Measured? 1

Public opinion is measured formally through voting and informally through public opinion polls and the mass media. Straw polls, unofficial personal interviews surrounding a formal vote, emerged in the mid-1800s. •Since then, polling has become more scientific and now uses statistical methodology such as probability sampling. Today, scientific methods such as opinion surveys and focus groups are common.

Social and Economic Factors

Rates of participation are affected by socioeconomic factors, such as educational level, family income, and minority status. Age also contributes, with young voters less likely to vote than older adults. Educated people vote more than less educated, and women vote more than men. Race is another factor: minority groups register and vote in smaller proportions than non-Hispanic whites (Non- Hispanic whites is a controversial term as many Hispanics do not identify themselves as "white") •2008, 2010, and 2012 were notable exceptions. Women, blacks, and Hispanics, and young people tend to be Democratic, this spells trouble for Republicans as some state and national elections have shown.

What Are the Media?: How the Media Shape Perceptions- TERMS TO KNOW

Regardless of intent, whether a story appears and remains in the headlines influences public opinion. •Gatekeepingdetermines newsworthiness. •Agenda settingis deciding what is news—the power to bring issues and problems to the public's attention. •Priminginvolves the ability to shape public opinion respecting an event or a person in the public sphere. •Framing: The media also frameissues—that is, place them within a particular context or perspective—to shape public perception. •Resonancerefers to reinforcement and magnification of existing beliefs about events due to how they are presented by the media.

Whose Media?: Who Owns the Media?

Since 1996 giant corporations have been allowed to own hundreds of media outlets, creating a monopolistic flow of information. Nationally, several conglomerates have emerged as major providers of both traditional and digital media. Many Texas-owned media outlets have also been purchased by large conglomerates. The result is less local news and a selection bias increasingly slanted toward national issues.

New Media: The Internet and Social Media Networks 2

Social media can complement traditional media, as individuals share information from television, radio, and newspapers via their personal networks. •Another medium by which citizens obtain information is the podcast: a digital audio file made available on the Internet for downloading, often available as part of a series. More of a threat to traditional media's longevity are streaming servicesthat transfer music or video data over the Internet, usually by subscription.

Rationalist Explanations for Low Voter Turnout

Some voters find voting irrational. •A single vote is unlikely to be the "deciding" vote in large-scale elections. But does this really ever happen? •The act of voting is not all that valuable relative to the costs, especially in terms of one's time. Some people may not vote because they are satisfied with (or alienated from) the political system. Finally, some may be principled nonvoters who do not want to give legitimacy to what they see as an illegitimate system.

Regulating the Media: State and Local Regulation

State and local agencies are working to create their own internal rules for connecting with communities via social media. In the past few years, more police departments have been using social media to help find criminals and provide community updates. Whose Media?: Who Owns the Media?States use their police powers to regulate aspects of the Internet. •In 2009, the Texas Legislature amended the Penal Code to prohibit criminal harassment through electronic means.

Broadcast Media: Radio and Television

Television and radio transmit information over the air. •Since the early 1920s, traditional radio stations have provided news and information, along with entertainment. In the 1950s and 1960s, television completely disrupted the public's relationship with print media and their perceptions of political reality. Today more than half of Americans still access information and news through television. •The CNNeffect—24-hour broadcasts of live news media—is a major factor.

In Comparison with Other States

Texas is fairly demanding in terms of voting requirements. Most states impose some restrictions on voting. •In most, prospective voters must register by a certain deadline. •Nineteen states have no pre-election registration requirements and allow same-day registration, which research has shown results in greater turnout. All states provide paper registration forms, but 37 states also offer online voter registration. As of 2020, 36 states had adopted voter ID laws.

The Legacy of Restricted Ballot Access in Texas 2

Texas still retained a restrictive annual registration system, requiring individuals to register at the courthouse between October 1 and January 31.Atsome courthouses the Sheriff and other law enforcement would threaten blacks, browns, and poor whites to prevent registration. Threats against their families were sometimes usedif one could read or pay the poll tax.This legacy of outright hatred lasted for decades. Voting rights advocates now say it is still being done using voter suppression methods. When a 1971 court decision prohibited annual registration systems, Texas adopted a progressive permanent registrationsystem. In the first year, voter registration increased yet again.

Regulating the Media: Federal Regulation of the Internet 2

The Internet presents something of a conundrum for policy makers in terms of how to address obscene material on the Internet. •The Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA) requires federally funded schools and public libraries to prevent minors from gaining access to certain materials. Many Internet service providers require users to agree to terms of service (TOS) that include general and specific prohibitions.

Regulating the Media: Federal Regulation of the Internet 1

The Internet remains largely unregulated. Network (net) neutralityis the principle that Internet service providers should enable access to all content and applications regardless of the source. •The FCChas sought to protect net neutrality in the courts. •In 2017, however, some protections of net neutrality were ended. This may end with a Democratic presidency.

What Are the Media?: Media as Sources of Information

The media provide information: coverage of the goings-on in a community. •Newsis those stories that provide timely information about important events or individuals in the community, state, nation, or world. •Hard news covers important events involving elected leaders, major issues, or significant disruptions. •Soft news, such as human interest stories, aims to entertain. •Soft news can take the negative tone of critical journalism—focusing on political scandal, vice, or mistakes of the government or politicians.

What is Public Opinion? 1

The role of the public in political decision-making has transformed over time. •A "public" is self-aware, interactive, and engaged. •The public sphere is a community's arena that allows individuals to freely discuss and identify societal problems and influence political action. •Political communication is concerned with social and political matters between and among citizens, the media, and the governing elite.

Other Factors Affecting Voter Turnout

The timing of an election can be significant. •Voter turnout is highest in November presidential elections. •In Texas, local elections are generally not held in conjunction with general elections; they are commonly held in May. •Local elections also receive less attention, are not perceived as being important, and are often not contested. •The day of the week is also important (Tuesday is most common), as is the fact that elections are generally held on a single day, typically for just 12 hours. Some advocates say this must change to several days and for 24 hours each day.

Voter Turnout in Texas 1

There are several ways to calculatevoter turnout—the proportion of people who vote in an election. •Varying requirements make it difficult to compare turnout rates using the percentage of registered voters. •Voting-age population (V A P)is generally the preferred measure, but it includes a fair number of people who meet the age requirement but are unable to register and vote. •A third measure, voting-eligible population (V E P), is calculated by eliminating ineligible groups from V A P; but V E P is not universally available at this time. Voter turnout at the national level is lower in the U.S. than in most other industrialized nations. Saying we are the democratic leader in the world is not accurate since many other countries have much better turnout

Regulating the Media: Federal Regulation of Print and Broadcast Media 2

There are some rules that affect how the media treat political candidates and campaigns. •The equal time rule requires broadcasters to provide equal air time to opposing views. •The right of rebuttal gives candidates an opportunity to respond to criticisms. The FCChas been criticized for being lax in its enforcement. •The FCCwould argue the growth of less regulated information sources such as the Internet allows for a sufficient number of alternative views.

FOCUS ON

Using the Media to Appeal to Hispanic Voters: •Latinos now make up about 18.3% of the U.S. population and about 39.6% of the population of Texas. •Telemundo (owned by NBC/Universal) and Univision are the two largest Spanish-language programming providers. •In 2015, Telemundo unveiled a multiplatform voter information campaign, #yodecido, aimed at younger Spanish-speaking voters. •In 2016, Univision launched its own, "Destino2016."

Civil and Political Participation in America

Voted in an election 77% Participated in a volunteer organization 54% Posted comments on political issues online 37% Signed an online petition 37% Encouraged others' political action online 34% Attended a campaign event or speech 29% Participated in an organized protest 16%

Current Voting Requirements

Voters in Texas must be at least 18, citizens of the U.S., resident in the state, and registered to vote. Convicted felons and the "mentally incompetent" are excluded. However, once a felon is "off paper"- not on probation or parole, their right to vote is restored

Regulating the Media: Federal Regulation of Print and Broadcast Media 1

While print media are largely unregulated, broadcast media work under certain constraints. •Laws prohibit the publishing of libelousinformation. •The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) issues regulations regarding broadcast media. Media outlets have little control over the content of political ads, especially those placed by super PACs. Groups can also use newspaper and TV news stories without permission as part of fair use—even in ways that distort the original intent.

New Media: The Internet and Social Media Networks 1

With the Internet, citizens can now interact with live events, becoming part of the news as it happens. •Users often self-select information consistent with their existing beliefs, leaving little room for dissent. Social media and cell phones have also become important for information gathering, leading to the emergence of citizen journalism, Cell phone cameras, etc. •Social media sites often spread news of stories the traditional media sources don't cover: Face Book, Twitter, etc. •False (Fake News) information can also be spread more easily, claiming to be news based upon facts. Generally, conservative news outlets are the biggest Fake New spreaders.

Political participation

all forms of involvement citizens can have that are related to governance. Online ways to participate are on the rise

Candidates have begun to turn to digital media to create websites or social media sites to share information with the public. Digital media represent a huge opportunity to save precious campaign dollars for more direct, capital-intensive efforts to get out the vote.Digital Media

digital media

absentee voting

early voting by mail—voters must request their mail-in ballot, and it must usually be received by 7 p.m. on the date of the election. Texas also allows early voting, in person or by mail

Political power

influence on government based on some combination of numbers of people; wealth; social norms; ideas; force and violence; and government actions (including laws and regulations).

Voter registration

is the act of qualifying by formally enrolling on an official list. •Voters must register at least 30 days before an election, either by paper form or when applying for or renewing a driver's license. •When registered, voters receive a voter registration card by mail; voters who move must re-register.

Mass media

transmit information to mass audiencestransmit information to mass audiences

Explain concerns about control of the media in Texas:

•A few companies now control almost 90 percent of all prime-time viewing in the United States, and media consolidation is a concern for citizens across the globe. With media consolidation, there is a concern that there will be fewer alternative viewpoints shared with citizens and that media will be less able to fulfill the role of adversary to the government.

Describe forms of political participation other than voting:

•Although voting in an election is the most common form of political participation, other forms include donating money to a campaign, volunteering for a campaign, supporting an advocacy group, contacting an elected official, attending a rally or protest, or using online social networks to support a candidate or group. Alternatively, individuals might try to influence governmental decisions by running for public office, signing a petition, or writing a letter to the editor of the local newspaper.

Describe bias in the Texas media:

•Charges of media bias exist, but there is a disagreement about its effect on the public. Selection bias, which reflects which stories are chosen, and presentation bias, which refers to the perspective from which a story is told, can both affect the substance of the information of the public receives. There is some evidence to support the idea that bias in media is really a result of consumer demands and the self-selection of sources of information.

Describe ways in which the state of Texas has, historically, restricted access to voting:

•For part of its history, Texas required citizens to pay a poll tax each year to be eligible to vote in the next election cycle. After the poll tax was eliminated, Texas had an annual registration system, which required citizens to reregister to vote every year. For a time, the Democratic Party in Texas prohibited African Americans from participating in primary elections. Boss and machine politics manipulated the Hispanic vote. All these practices have been invalidated by court decisions.

Explain the functions of media in U.S. and Texas politics:

•Media's primary role is to serve as a means by which citizens obtain information, news, and entertainment. The media prime, frame, and set the agenda for citizens as they consumer information and news. Both hard and soft news provide readers, viewers, and listeners with a variety of stories that shape perceptions of the world around them and affect their daily lives.

Explain political participation:

•Political participation refers to all the ways citizens can be involved in governance. Voting in elections is the most obvious (but not the only) way that citizens take part in politics. We can discuss participation in terms of activities and degree or level of involvement.

Explain how the media are regulated in Texas:

•Print media are the oldest form of information, and as such, they receive significant protection under the U.S. Constitution's First Amendment. Television and radio are more heavily regulated because of the limited resources available for broadcasting their messages to the public. In terms of content, there are laws in place that regulate content with respect to obscenity, but political speech is more heavily regulated among broadcasters because of the nature of the medium and the speed with which information is provided. The Internet is the least regulated of all forms of media; however, there are laws that specifically reference criminal behavior, such as cyberbullying, stalking, harassment, and specific types of fraud. Attempts to regulate content contained on the Internet have been largely unsuccessful.

Describe the various sources of media in Texas:

•The media include traditional forms such as newspapers, magazines, broadcast outlets, and radio outlets. Cable and satellite television and radio emerged as alternatives to traditional media sources and have eroded viewers and readers. The Internet has brought new sources of media to citizens, including podcasts, blogs, social networking, and streaming audio and video.

Explain the role of the media in Texas political campaigns:

•The media shape and frame the processes and discourse of political communication as well as the society in which that communication takes place. Media have allowed more citizens to become active participants in political events and processes. Campaign advertisements are an important part of the election process and can affect how citizens vote. Negative attack ads can harm targeted candidates or backfire and benefit the targeted candidates.

Explain the role of public opinion in U.S. and Texas politics:

•There are five broad definitions of public opinion: aggregation of individual opinion, majoritarian, interest group conflict, media/elite opinion, and fiction. Individuals form political opinions through a process called political socialization; that is, learning political attitudes and opinions through agents of socialization such as family, education, religious institutions, generational effects, and the media. Public opinion is typically measured through surveys and focus groups using statistical methodology. It is important because when conflict arises (such as on marijuana use and other political issues), public opinion can help determine policy.

Discuss voter turnout in Texas, including citizens' rights and responsibilities:

•Voter turnout is the proportion of people who cast ballots in an election. Regardless of the method used to calculate it, Texas has low voter turnout. Over the past 30 years, Texas has consistently fallen below the national average in terms of percentage of the population participating in elections. The state's voter turnout also ranks at or near the bottom when compared to other states. In Texas today, any individual who is at least 18 years of age, a U.S. citizen, and a resident of the state may vote. Texans must register 30 days before an election and provide some form of identification in order to vote. Young voters and Latinos have seen recent increases in voting rates.