Grammar unit 3
he
= who
him
= whom
Conjunctive adverb
Adverbial conjunctive
Noun
A word or word group that is used to name a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
Abstract Nouns
Names ideas, qualities, and emotions Ex: freedom
And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet
are the seven coordinating conjunctions. To remember them, the acronym FANBOYS can be used.
Singular
grammatical number category referring to a single item or unit. Ex. person, dog, bone
present / present participle
play / (is, are, am) playing --> adding -ing used with form be
Compound subject
Two or more subjects joined by a conjunction. My wife and my three sons are off on a white-water rafting trip.
require a singular verb
Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor
linguistic insecurity
an anxious desire to be correct sometimes felt by speakers who believe their language does not always conform to SAE
hypercorrection
an attempt to be overly "correct" resulting in the production of language different from the standard ("between Harlan and I" instead of "between Harlan and me")
compare/contrast
pattern used for an essay about the beliefs of one program versus the beliefs of another
direct object
receives the action of the verb
Reflexive Pronoun
refers back to the person to whom the pronoun refers, usually refers to the subject of a sentence; examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves
lexicon
the complete stock of words known by any speaker
climax
the most emotional or suspenseful moment in the story
main verb
the most important verb in a phrase
indirect object
the noun or pronoun that receives the direct object
point of view
the perspective from which the author writes the story
Prepositional Phrase
the preposition, its object, and its modifiers
alliteration
the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words
Demonstrative pronouns
this, that, these, those
Words used to INTENSIFY
"...become intense or more intensive" Above all, Accentuate, Act of increasing, Added to, Amp up, Amplify, Beef up, Boost, Consolidate, Deepen, Enhance, Exaggerate, Heighten, Increase in extent, Increase the contrast, Incremental, Intensifying, Magnify, Make stronger, More, More extreme, Redouble, Sharpen, Step up, Strengthen, To enlarge, To stress.
Imperative
A command.
dialogue
Bob said, "Hi."
adjectives
Describe, modify, or limit nouns
may
Originally meant "have the power" (compare the noun might). Now it means "permission." Also, may is used to indicate possibility. <You may leave if you are finished with your work.> May is also used in wishes. <May you recover soon.>
Compound Preposition
Preposition that consists of more than one word.
Than
Use ____ to show comparison.
adjective
describes a noun
Among
is used for three or more.
enumeration
...
general
...
introductory
...
question
...
fragment
does not express a complete thought; example: Tells an interesting story.
Nominative Case of the Noun
subject, predicate noun, noun of direct address., noun in apposition.
anecdotal
...
Imperative Mood
Expresses a command or makes a request. Call me next week. Please send me your latest catalog.
Descriptive adjective
Names a quality of an object: BLUE notebook
adjective
a word that modifies a noun or pronoun
common articles
a, and, the
Prescriptive Grammar:
concerned with correct usage
four kinds of sentences
declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory
less
definitely use___ when referring to statistical or numerical expressions:
the affective filter hypothesis
describes external factors that can act as a filter that impedes acquistion, such as motivation level, self-confidence level, and anxiety
positive
don't use two negatives to make a
intermediate development stage
follows the telegraphic stage
logical order
pattern of organization used for an expository essay
Infinitive form of a verb:
to be, to walk, to see e.g.: I need to work today. I like to work on writing
To compare more than two things
we should say poorest, as in, "She is the poorest of them all."
adjective questions
what kind, which one, how much, how many
complement
word or group of words that completes the meaning of a verb
Gerund
A verb form ending in ing and used as a noun. Selling requires special skills. (Subject] I enjoy selling. (Direct object of enjoy!) She is experienced in selling. (Object of preposition in.)
Active voice
A verb is in the active voice when its subject is the doer of the act. About a dozen people reviewed the report in draft form
Verb
A word expresses action or a state of being.
Object
Words that receive the action of transitive verbs.
Modifier
Words or groups of words that limit or describe other words. If improperly placed, modifiers can confuse the reader or suggest an illogical relationship
verb
a word that shows action or state of being
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is a proper noun or the pronoun I. Two courses are required: English and Economics.
Intransitive verbs:
e.g.: sleep (Sleep cannot be transitive.)
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
between
for two
coordinating conjunctions
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Capitalize The First Word
of every sentence. Twenty-one people attended the secret presentation given by the chief of staff. Nonessential government employees were furloughed from 14 to 19 November 2002.
demonstrative pronoun
points out particular person, place, or things
complex
s-lv
Communicative Competence
the ability to use a language appropriately for a variety of social and cultural circumstances
Passive Voice
the action is performed by an unknown agent. Ex. The papers were carried to the desk.
plot
the action or events in a story
Interrogative Pronoun
used to ask a question Who, whom, which, what, whose
Coordinating conjunction
Connects words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank. The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, and nor.
interruptions
He looked, well, a little dazed.
Conjugation of Verb: to be
I am You are He is She is it is We are You are They are One is
Sentence Types: Complex
If the sentence has an independent clause and a dependent clause, it is complex.
dangling modifier
If you start a sentence with an action, place the actor immediately after or you will have created the infamous ___., A phrase or a clause, which says something different from what is meant, because words are left out. Place modifiers near the words they modify!
a noun
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? The light is on.
an adverb
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? The light pink color looks nice on you.
an adjective
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? This book is light, not heavy.
a verb
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? We light the fire with a match.
an interjection
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "well"? Well, I don't know the answer.
set off dates
January 1, 1900, is when Excel begins to calculate dates.
Adverb
Modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Tells how, when, where, why, how often, and how much.
Antecedent
Noun, phrase or clause to which a pronoun refers or replaces.
Numerical adjectives
ONE ticket, SECOND half of the game
ought
Originally the past tense of owe, but now it points to a present or future time. Ought expresses necessity or obligation, but with less force. See the difference. <We must go. We ought to go.> Ought is nearly the equivalent of should.
refers to people
Who
simile
a figurative comparison that uses "like" or "as"
independent clause
a sentence contains a subject, a verb, and it expresses a complete thought
forms of have
have, has, had, having
nouns and pronouns
other parts of speech that can be used as adjectives
Transitive verbs:
require an object e.g.: Chris writes books in the morning.
past perfect
tense with the past participle and helping verb HAD
whom
use as an object pronoun; example: To _____ am I speaking?
linking
verb that links the subject with the predicate
accept
verb, receive
emphasis
"It may be those who do most, dream most." - Stephen Leacock
Predicate Nominative
"place" describes "my apartment" follows linking verb, "is" Ex: My apartment is a place that is small and cheap.
Reciprocal pronouns
each other, one another
numbers
65,000,390
Introductory clause
A dependent clause that introduces an independent clause., main clause + subordinating conjunction
Adjective
An adjective describes nouns or pronouns and answers three questions about them: amount, type, and which one is being referred to Ex. blue, seven, high
Object Pronoun
An object pronoun shows the object of a sentence Ex. me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
Relative Pronoun
Introduces a subordinate clause (who, whom, whose, which, & that).
Common Noun
Any noun which does not name any particular person, place, thing, or idea. Common nouns are not capitalized.
And
As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by ___?
Comparative and Superlative adjectives
BIGGER house, ROUNDER shape, HOTTER weather BIGGEST house, ROUNDEST shape, HOTTEST weather
sentence fluency
trait has to do with sentence length and varied beginnings
Intransitive verbs
Do not require an object: The chorus WAS SINGING as they entered the building.
Coordinated Conjunction
FANBOYS = For + And + Nor + But + Or + Yet + So
interjections
Show emotion, mild or strong
pronouns
Instead of nouns, the pronouns stand - Her head, his face, your arm, my hand.
Use an em Dash (—)
Instead of parentheses when a nonessential item requires strong emphasis (dashes emphasize; parentheses de-emphasize). Call Lieutenant Colonels Kessler, Sims, and Forbes—the real experts—and get their opinion.
Possessive Pronouns
Shows possession or ownership Used as both a pronoun and an adjective Ex: my, our, your (singular), your (plural), his, her, its, their
separate adjectives
It was a difficult, stubborn animal.
Number
Shows the singular or plural of nouns, pronouns, or verbs.
Declarative sentence
Makes a statement.
near the words they modify.
Place modifiers
Possessive Pronoun
Possessive pronouns show possession Ex. mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs
Past participle
Regularly ends in ed (as in asked or filed) but may be irregularly formed (as in lost, seen, and written).
Preposition
Relates a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence. (Anywhere a squirrel can go)
Indicative Mood
States a fact or asks a question. Our lease has expired. When does our lease expire?
Verb
The VERB means action, something done - To read, to write, to jump, to run
Ordinal number
The form of a number that indicates order or succession; for example, first, second, twelfth or 1st, 2d, 12th.
interjection
The interjection shows surprise, As Oh! How pretty! Oh! How wise!
Demonstrative Pronouns
Used to demonstrate Ex: this, these, that, those
Use more or most in front of the words.
Usually with words of three or more syllables, don't add -er or -est. Use ___.
The Verb Family
Verb, Adverb
Verb
Verbs show action and state of being Ex. run, running, am,
explanatory words
We worked, standing in the hot field, all day.
Use a comma
When names are reversed. Adams, Angie Middleton, Mary Baldwin, Sherwood, Jr. Parks, James, III Brown, Carolyn Price, William, Esq
Interjection
Word used to express emotion.
Gender of Nouns
masculine, Feminine, Neuter, and Common
Understood Subjects
occur in imperative sentences, and (you) is the implied subject.
To compare two things
we should say poorer, as in, "She is the poorer of the two women."
Verbal
A word that is derived from a verb but functions in some other way. (See Gerund; Infinitive; Participle.)
Conjunction
A word that may connect words, phrases, and clauses.
Interrogative Pronoun
Introduces a question.
Subject Pronoun
Subject pronouns show the subject of a sentence Ex. I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
indefinite pronoun
a pronoun that does not refer to a specific, person, place, thing, or idea; examples: everyone, everything, everybody, anybody, many, most, few, each, some, someone, all, nothing, nobody, and no one
subordinating conjunctions
if, as, since, when, because
indefinite pronoun
points out person, places, or things, but less clearly;
Use a ____ and a subject in every sentence.
predicate
singular possessive noun
shows ownership by one person or thing; example: my aunt's house
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE:
they will be thinking
words that CONCEDE
"...to accept as true, valid, or accurate...". Admittedly After all Albeit Although Although this may be true At the same time But even so Certainly Clearly Doubtless Doubtlessly Even so Even though Granted Granted that Naturally Nevertheless No doubt Of course Still Surely Though To accede To accommodate To acknowledge To acknowledge defeat To acquiesce To adjust To admit To admit the truth To agree To capitulate To comply with To compromise To concede To concur To confess To conform To consent To give up To make a concession To reconcile To settle To submit To succumb To surrender To withdraw To yield Unfortunately While it is true Yet
Principal or Principle
"A princi"pal at a school is your pal, and a principle you believe is a rule"
division
...
Infinitive phrase
A clause containing an infinitive as its main or only verb form., phrase that includes the infinitive, it's objects, and the objects modifiers, consists of an infinitive and its related words, such as modifiers and complements
Subject, Object, or Possessive
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns can be in one of three cases: .
Pronoun
A pronoun takes the position and function of nouns but do not specifically name them Ex. he, she, it, they, him, her, them
Use an En Dash (-)
Before the source of a quotation or credit line in typed material (use an en dash in printed material). The ornaments of a home are the friends who frequent it. - Anonymous
Conjunction
CONJUNCTIONS join, in many ways, Sentences, words, or phrase and phrase
CLICHÉS
Clichés are expressions that have lost their impact because they have been overused. Strive for originality in your choice of words and phrases.
adverbs
Describe, limit or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
must
Expresses necessity or obligation. It is somewhat stronger than should. <You must call the director's office immediately.> Must also expresses likelihood. <It must have rained last night.>
Sentence
Expresses one complete thought with one subject and one verb; either or both may be compound.
Appositive
Follows a noun to add more detail.
whom
For who/whom should I vote? Should I vote for him? Therefore, ___ is correct.
series
I like chicken, beef, and bacon.
join 2 independent clauses
I ran up the hill, but he fell down it.
Pronoun
In place of noun the PRONOUN stands As he and she can clap their hands
contrasted elements
Playing soccer, not volleyball, requires a lot of running.
Pronouns
Substitutes for a noun.
Subject
Tells what the sentence is about; the person, place or thing that performs the action or that has the state of being indicated by the verb.
Stem
The root or main part of a word to which inflections or formative elements are added
require a singular verb
Two singular subjects connected by or or nor
after
Two spaces ___ the em dash at the end of a sentence that breaks off abruptly (rule 10)— unless manuscript format and using right justified, then one space after.
Use a comma
Use a what, After introductory words such as yes, no, or oh? Yes, I'll do it. Oh, I see your point.
Relative Pronouns
Used to relate an adjective clause to a main clause Often begin short adjective clauses that interrupt main clauses Ex: who, whose, whom, which, what
No space before. One space after, unless a closing quotation mark immediately follows the comma. No space after within a number.
When using spacing and commas
Use an em Dash (—)
With quotation marks. Place the dash outside the closing quotation mark when the sentence breaks off after the quotation and inside the closing quotation mark to indicate the speaker's words have broken off abruptly. If I hear one more person say, "See what I'm saying!?"— Thomas Hardy said, "When I get to 25 Barberry Street, I'll —"
external conflict
a character struggles against some outside force. This outside force may be another character or society as a whole.
grammatical feature
a characteristic of a subclass of words that determines how it may be used
adverb
a form-class word (modifies any part of language other than a noun)
subjunctive
a mood that represent an act or state (not as a fact but) as contingent or possible, uses different form of the past and present to express matters of urgency, formality, possibility, or speculation, ie. "If I WERE...", setting up a hypothetical situation
count noun
a noun that can be preceded by a number
fiction
a prose account that is made up rather than true
frame sentence
a sentence with an empty slot in the position typically occupied by a member of a particular form class
Linguistic Competence
a speaker's knowledge of the phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics of a particular language
informal style
a speech used in casual settings, among friends, etc.
1st person
a story told by one of the characters. The character uses the first person pronoun "I"
dialect
a subdivision of a language that are related to regional differences and/or social class; may differ in sound (phonology), in vocabulary, and in grammar from the orignal language
grammar
a way of thinking about language
prepositions
a word that shows a relationship between nouns or pronouns and some other words in a sentence
verb
a word that shows action, being or links a subject to a subject compliment
pronoun
a word that takes the place of a noun
Comparative Adjective
adjectives used to compare two things. Usually using the suffix -er and the word 'than'. i.e. faster than or slower than
predicate adjective
an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject of a sentence; includes forms of taste, look, feel, smell, appear, seem, and become; example: I look TIRED, but I feel FINE.
proper adjective
an adjective that is formed from a proper noun; example: Africa --> African; Scotland --> Scottish
superlative adjective
an adjective used to compare three or more items; example: This is the HOTTEST day of the year.
types of indefinite articles
another, each, neither, many, all, more, other, both, either, few, several, any, most, some
forms of be:
be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being
Noun clause as Predicate Nominative
begins with "what" follows "is" (linking verb) Ex: Running on pavement is what my doctors told me not to do.
Helping verbs
can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, would
compound subject
consists of two or more nouns or pronouns joined by one of these conjunctions: and, but, or, for or nor. Some compound subjects are plural; others are not.
Origin
denominal adjectives denoting source of noun (e.g., French, American, Canadian)
adverb
describes a verb, adjective, or adverb
correlative conjunctions
either and or, neither and nor, not only and but also
style
how the author writes rather than what the writer writes
indirect object
is a noun or a pronoun that follows an action verb; example: The vet sent ME a reminder to bring my dogs in for their shots.
Preposition
is a word (or goup of words) that shows the relationship between its object (a noun or pronoun that follows the preposition) and anouth word in the sentence.
subject complement
is a word or group of words that follows a linking verb and renames or describes the subject., the name of a grammatical unit that is comprised of predicate moninatives and predicate adjectives, The word or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes the subject or the sentence by either renaming it or describing it
Verb Phrase
is made up of a main verb and one or more helping verbs.
prepositional phrase
is made up of a preposition, the object of the preposition, and all the words in between: example: Who lives IN THAT HOUSE?
will
is the common future auxiliary used in the second and third persons. In addition it is used with special emphasis to express determination. <You will finish by 4 p.m.>
simple predicate
is the main word or words in a predicate; example: Everyone in my house IS KEEPING a secret.
receptive language
language that is spoken or written by others and recieved by an individual, that is listening or reading (decoding or getting meaning from spoken words or written symbols)
Principal Verb
last verb in a verb phrase.
plural
more than one
Proper Nouns
name particular people, places, objects, or ideas. They ALWAYS begin with a capital letter!!, Has 2 distinctive features; 1) It will name a specific item. 2) It will start with a capitol letter, no matter where it is in the sentence.
Noun
names a person, place,thing, or idea.
common
noun used often and is usually not capitalized
Proper Noun
nouns that are capitalized and name specific persons, places, or things. <Major Palmisano, Ohio, Air War College>
Collective Noun
nouns that are singular in form but plural in meaning; names a group of persons or things. <audience, army, company, flock, committee, trio>
Concrete Noun
nouns that can be seen or touched. <table, book>
Abstract Noun
nouns that name qualities rather than material things. <love, danger>
figures
numbers 10 and above should be expressed in
Words
numbers one through nine should be expressed in
adjectives, adverbs, verbs
parts of speech that adverbs modify
past / past participle
played / (have, has, had) played --> adding -ed or -d with form have
Subject-Verb-Object /s-v-o
s-v-o; subject does the action, verb transfers it to object, and object receives it, E.g. I like rice., in this type of sentence the subject does the action to someone or something, which is the direct object,Verb will be a transitive verb in the active voice. I bought a coat. She invited him.
Prelinguistic stage
silent period with only crying and later cooing and babbline
substantiated
supported or established by evidence or proof, verified, to give substance or form to; proved true with evidence, verified, , Backed up
How do you find the Predicate Noun?
take the subject and the verb and ask who or what. The answer to the who or what is the predicate noun if its verb is a linking verb.
Personal Pronoun
takes the place of a name of a person, place, or thing. 1st person- I, me, my mine; 2nd person- You, your, yours; 3rd person- He, him, his, she, her, hers, they, them, theirs, we, us, ours, it is, who whom
pronoun
takes the place of one or more noun; example: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, it
predicate
tells something about the subject; example: One person DESCRIBED HER EXPERIENCE.
present perfect
tense with the past participle and helping verb HAVE and HAS
future perfect
tense with the past participle and helping verb WILL HAVE
internal logic
the cultural beliefs that give a context to a behavior, custom, or artifact, What happens in the story makes sense in the story, the rules which will govern the film in question-- usually established at the beginning of the movie
plural verb
the expression "a number" is followed by a ____. "A number" of people "have" written in about this subject.
Do Not Capitalize
the first word of an independent clause after a colon if the clause explains, illustrates or amplifies the thought expressed in the first part of the sentence. Essential and nonessential elements require altogether different punctuation: the latter should be set off by commas, whereas the former should not.
formal style
the language used in public speech, such as lectures, sermons, writing, and political addresses
resolution
the last part of a story when the character's problems are solved and the story ends
TO SHOW RESULTS
therefore as a result thus consequently hence
Use a hyphen
to avoid doubling a vowel when the last letter of the prefix "anti," "multi," and "semi" is the same as the first letter of the word. Also, use a hyphen when the second element is a capitalized word or a number. anti-inflammatory; anti-Nazi; antiaircraft semi-icing; semi-Americanized; semiofficial multi-industry; multielement; multimillion pre-1914, post-World War II; ultra-German
TO COMPARE IDEAS
like just as similar this
conjunction
links words or groups of words
noun or pronoun
part of speech usually a direct object
reflexive
pronoun that refers to, or reflects on, the subject of the sentence and ends in -self or -selves. necessary to the meaning of the sentence
possessive
pronoun that shows ownership
object pronouns (definition)
pronouns used for objects
Infinitive
simple verb form used as a noun, adjective, or adverb and usually preceded by to. <to go, to type>
a
singular noun with a consonant sound Ex: a unicorn
Are
sometimes plural in England Ex: The flock are heading South for the winter.
infer
to try and understand and interpret the author's message
action
verb that shows action
Sentence fragment
A phrase or clause that is incorrectly treated as a sentence.
conjunctions
Connect words, phrases, sentences, ideas
might
Sometimes functions as simple past tense of may. <He said he might have time to talk to us.> Often it is used to express a more doubtful possibility than may does. <He might returned before then.> Might is also used after contrary-to-fact conditions. <If I were off today, I might go fishing.>
if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So,
Ignore them
Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as, besides, or not. ____ what to these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb?
Use a comma
To separate repeated words. That was a long, long time ago. Well, well, look who's here.
Place I second, and follow it with the singular verb am.
When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor? Like : Neither she nor I am going to the festival.
modifiers
Words that describe a noun that can include adjectives, verbs and nouns themselves, adjectives and adverbs are also known as
Capitalize
a common noun or adjective that forms an essential part of a proper name, but not a common noun used alone as a substitute for the name of a place or thing. Statue of Liberty; the statue Potomac River; the river Air War College; the college Berlin Wall; the wall Washington Monument; the monument Vietnam Veterans Memorial; the memorial
Determiners: Quantifier:
a determiner that expresses a number or amount - functions as a modifier of a noun or pronoun. Examples: All (All are welcome; All these people) Five, Many, Some
main idea
a figurative comparison that does not use "like" or "as"
third person
a point of view that does not include the author, does not use the word "I"
compound sentence
a sentence that properly combines two sentences into one
Quotation
a short note recognizing a source of information or of a quoted passage
summarize
a shortened form of the story and main idea
fact
a statement that is true or can be proven
figure of speech
a word or phrase that describes one thing in terms of something else and is not literally true
modifier
a word or phrase whose function is to give grammatical or lexical information about another word in the sentence
adjective
a word that describes a noun or pronoun
adverb
a word that describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb
complete predicate
all the words in a predicate; example: Everyone in my house IS KEEPING A SECRET.
Predicate Adjective
an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject., an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject of a sentence; includes forms of taste, look, feel, smell, appear, seem, and become; example: I look TIRED, but I feel FINE.
The Parts of the Sentence
are a set of terms for describing how people construct sentences from smaller pieces. There is not a direct correspondence between the parts of the sentence and the parts of speech -- the subject of a sentence, for example, could be a noun, a pronoun, or even an entire phrase or clause.
Subject pronouns
are also used if they rename the subject. They follow to be verbs such as is, are, was, were, am, and will be.
verbs
are the critical element of the predicate of a sentence.
Adverbs
are words that modify everything but nouns and pronouns. They modify adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. A word is an adverb if it answers how, when, or where.
metaphor
comparison of two unlike objects without using the words like or as
conjunction
connects words or word groups
form
denotes the part of speech of a word or the makeup of a grammatical structure
Objective Case of the Noun
direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition.
Phrases between the subject and verb
do not change the requirement that the verb must agree in number with its subject.
Direct Address
A noun which interrupts like an interjection because it names the person being talked to: It can be mild or extreme and will be punctuated accordingly Ex. Chris, do your homework Chris! Do your homework!
Object of the Preposition
a noun that relates to another word in the sentence through a preposition., Before setting the table, you should wash your hands. What does the Gerund act as in this sentence
Interrogative sentence
Asks a question.
Determiners: Indefinite determiners
include: a(n) and numerals like two, and many.
Coordinating conjunction
Joins words, phrases or clauses of equal rank: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.
Parsing a Noun
Part of speech, Kind, Class, Number, Gender, Use, Case,
Pronoun
Replaces a noun or a noun phrase with a very general reference.
Limiting adjective
Restricts the meaning or indicates quantity or number.
adjective
a form-class word (describe or modify another person or thing in a sentence)
phrase
a group of words that work together; example: from the kitchen window
meter
a poem or song's rhythmical pattern. The pattern is determined by the number and types of stresses, or beats, in each line
interjections
a word or group of words that expresses strong feeling; example: WELL, Snoopy is at the typewriter again.
noun
a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea; example: boy, Juan, river, Texas
predicate adjective
an adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies the subject of a sentence; example: A freshly baked pie is DELIGHTFUL to the eye and nose.
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events, a belief that can guide behavior, a tentative theory about the natural world, , a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, a well-tested explanation for a broad set of observations,
most indefinite pronouns
another, anybody, anything, each, everyone, everybody, everything, neither, nobody, nothing, one, no one, someone, somebody and something.
When this, that, these, and those
are followed by nouns, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.
Appositive phrases:
are offset with commas, further describe nouns eg: Mr. Dobbs, our teacher, is here. That car, a brand new Toyota, is what I want.
A verb or compound verb
asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events, or states of being.
TO CONTRAST IDEAS
but yet nevertheless however still conversely on the one hand instead of neither of these (to) (on) the contrary rather than no matter what much less as in contrast otherwise on the other hand in the (first) (second) place nor according to
informal writing
like may be used as a preposition and in what kind of writing, as a conjunction.
external transitions
link separate paragraphs together within the body of your communication.
common noun
person, place, thing, feeling, idea
noun
person, place, thing, idea
appositive
phrase that identifies or gives more information about the subject
adjective phrase
prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or pronoun; examples: The killer whale is a species of PORPOISE. (tells what kind of species) or That whale WITH THE UNUSUAL MARKINGS is our favorite. (tells which whale)
adverb phrase
prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb; examples: The porpoises performed WITH EASE. (tells how) or Shows begin ON THE HOUR. (tells when)
relative
pronoun that introduces a subordinate clause
indefinite
pronoun that may or may not be already named
personal
pronoun that names the one speaking, spoken to, or spoken about,
s-v
subject/verb agreement, subject/verb agreement s+v+do
indefinite article
the adjectives "a" or "an"
among
three or more
entertain
to use writing to amuse a reader or keep the reader interested
persuade
to use writing to convince a reader to accept an author's viewpoint or perspective
coordinate clauses
two clauses that have equal importance. ex. the ice melted. the sun came out. "the ice melted and the sun came out." occur in sentences where there are two or more independant clauses. They're joined together by words like 'and' 'or' 'but' s-v-con-s-v / s-v-do
indirect characterization
used when a writer depends on the reader to draw conclusions about the character's traits
verb
a form-class word having an {-s} affix in the third person singular and an {-ing} affix in the present participle form
Elliptical clause
A clause from which key words have been omitted. Now, for the next topic. Really? If possible, arrive at one.
Interrogative sentence
A sentence that asks a question. When will the conference begin?
When referring to health
use well rather than good.
Standard Written English
the edited variety of language appropriate for use in writing; also known as Standard Edited English
pragmatics
the rules for social language
Suffix
A letter, syllable, or word added to the end of a word to modify its meaning; for example, trendy friendly, countless, receivership, lonesome.
Dangling modifier
A modifier that is attached either to no word in a sentence or to the wrong word.
Appositive
A noun or a noun phrase that identifies another noun or pronoun that immediately precedes it. Mr Mancuso, our chief financial officer, would like to meet you. My brother Kyle and his wife Martha are planning to move to Colorado.
Noun
A noun's the name of anything As school or garden, hoop or swing.
Exclamatory sentence
A sentence that expresses strong feeling. Don't even think of smoking here!
abstract noun
names an idea, quality, action, or feeling
Future Perfect
They will have walked. Designates action that will have been completed at a specified time in the future.
telegraphic stage
(about 28 months) when the child may omit syllables in words, substitute sounds, and use only a pivot word with other words--much like a telegram
autobiography
(form of nonfiction) a __________ is a story that the author writes about his/her own life
Adverb phrase
a prepositional phrase used as an adverb
Use a singular verb
for a compound subject whose parts are considered a single unit
Preposition
A preposition states position, time, and relationship Ex. above, before, of
subordinating conjuction
AFTER, IF, SINCE, UNTIL, WHETHER, or WHEN connects the two clauses into one sentence; example: The senators left the capitol AFTER THE SESSION WAS ADJOURNED.
Nouns of Direct Address
Address someone directly Ex: "Friends, Romans, countrymen, ..."
Independent clause
Clause that contains both a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
The -tion Family
Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection
Use a
before consonant sounds
Do not capitalize
systems of government or individual adherents to a philosophy; compass directions or seasons
pronoun
takes the place of a noun; he, she, you, I, me
a, the, an
commonly used articles
direct object
sentence with an indirect object has a...
Conjunction
A word used to join words or groups of words.
Conjunction
A word or phrase that connects words, phrases, or clauses.
Adjective
Modifies a noun; a describing word.
Use an em Dash (—)
To emphasize or restate a previous thought. One day last week—Monday, I think—Congress finally voted on the amendment.
USE A COMMA
With the coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, or nor when joining two or more independent clauses.
conclusion
a decision reached based on information presented in a selection
comparative adjective
an adjective used to compare two items; example: Today is HOTTER than yesterday.
Simple
Sentence Types: Simple sentences are straightforward.
Parts of Speech
(Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection)
Verb Phrase
A main verb and at least one helping verb.
Plural subjects take plural verbs and singular subjects take singular verbs
Another way to state this rule using grammatical terms is "Subjects and verbs must agree in number."
Correlative conjunction
Consists of two elements that are used in pairs; for example, both ... and, not only. . . but (also), either.. . or, neither... nor.
Phrases
Groups of words without a subject or predicate that function as a unit (adjective, adverbial, gerund, or infinitive phases).
Possessive adjective
HER jacket, THEIR house...
Adverb
How things are done, the ADVERBS tell, As quickly, slowly, badly, well
What questions do adverbs ask?
How, when, where, to what extent
Linking Verb
Linking verbs link nouns to adjectives Ex. He smells like fish
Preposition
Links a noun, pronoun, or gerund to other words (direction, time, place, etc.)
Auxiliary Verb
One helping verb.
Syllable
One or more letters that represent one sound.
adjective
clause modifies a noun or pronoun
adverb
clause modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb
of
do not use in the place of "have"
style
variation in language use based on the formality or informality of the social setting
conjunction
words that connect clauses, phrases, or words (FANBOYS)
"Good" and "Well"
"I did good on that test" is incorrect because "good" is an adjective, but it is describing a verb. "Well" should be put instead because it is an adverb and therefore is valid to describe a verb.
strong clause
A ___ ___ can stand on its own. Examples: She is hungry. I am feeling well today.
Preposition
A connective (such as from, to, in, on, of, at, by, for, with) that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and some other word in the sentence. The noun or pronoun following a preposition is in the objective case. Martin's work was reviewed by Hedley and me.
Gerund phrase
A gerund plus its object and modifiers; used as a noun. Delaying payments to your suppliers will prove costly. (Gerund phrase as subject.)
Noun
A noun is a person, place, thing or idea. Ex. house, bone, grass
Prepositional-gerund phrase
A phrase that begins with a preposition and has a gerund as the object. By rechecking these figures before you release them, you deal with any questions raised higher management. (By is the preposition; rechecking, a gerund, is the object of by]
Adjective phrase
A phrase that functions as an adjective (such as an infinitive phrase, a participial phrase, or a prepositional phrase). The time to act is now! Onfinitive phrase indicating what kind of time.)
coordinating conjunctions
All english transition words and phrases (sometimes also called 'conjunctive adverbs') do the same work as
Coordinate clauses
Clauses of the same rank—independent or dependent. Cart will oversee the day-to-day operations, and Sheila will be responsible for the finances. (Coordinate independent clauses.) When you have read the user's manual and you have mastered all the basic operations, try to deal with these special applications. (Coordinate dependent clauses.)
Superlative degree of Comparison
Denotes the highest or lowest degree of quality or manner. The superlative is used when more than two things are compared and is regularly formed by adding est to the positive degree (newest, soonest). In longer words the superlative is formed by adding most or least to the positive (most efficient, least efficient; most quietly, least quietly.
Nominative pronouns
I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who.
Not Capitalize
If a common noun or adjective forming an essential part of a name becomes removed from the rest of the name by an intervening common noun or adjective, the entire expression is no longer a proper noun and is ___ ___. Union Station; union passenger station Eastern States; eastern farming states
isolate the clauses so that you can decide which pronoun is correct
If a sentence contains more than one clause.
plural verb.
If two nouns are joined by and, they typically take a
a conjunction
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "when"? When you graduate, you will get a job.
pronouns
Replace nouns
Passive Voice
Shows the subject as receiver of the action. <A song was sung by her.>
Tense
Shows the time of the action, condition or state of being expressed. The three tenses—past, present, future—can be expressed in the simple, perfect, or progressive.
demonstrative
THAT book is the best book I have ever read!
Their vs. There
THEIR meaning "belonging to them". THERE meaning "in that place"
Parts of speech
The eight classes into which words are grouped according to their uses in a sentence: verb, noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. Time flies like an arrow. On this case, time is a noun, flies is a verb, and like is a preposition.] Fruit flies like a banana. On this case, flies is part of a compound noun, fruit flies; like is a verb.]
Diction
The style of speaking or writing as dependent upon choice of words., the articulation of speech regarded from the point of view of its intelligibility to the audience, clearness of speech
Linking verb
Verb followed by an adjective: Bill FELT dizzy.
comparative adverb
adverbs such as lower, nearer, more slowly; faster, more seriously
Do Not Capitalize
after a colon if the material cannot stand alone as a sentence. I must countersign all cash advances, with one exception: when the amount is less than $50. Three subjects were discussed: fund raising, membership, and bylaws.
scientific and statistical material
all numbers are expressed in figures
Subordinating conjunctions
although, as, as if, after, because, before, even though, if, since, so that, though, unless, when, whenever, while
types of indefinite pronouns
anything, no one, all, some, several
compound sentence
combines two or more simple sentences; can be joined by a comma and connecting words such as AND, OR, or BUT...or by a semi-colon; example: A crater can be formed by a bomb, or it can be formed by meteorite.
types of nouns
common, proper, compound, collective
subordinating conjunction
connects an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses; examples: since, before, unless, however
two-word stage
follows the holophrastic stage
personification
giving human characteristics to inanimate objects
No comma is needed
if the sentence has one subject with a compound predicate connected with a coordinating conjunction because the second half of the sentence is not an independent clause.
TO SHOW TIME
immediately presently nearly a ... later meantime meanwhile afterward next as of today this year, however a little later then last year next week tomorrow as of now finally
gerund phrase
includes the gerund, its object, and its object's modifiers; WRITING A BEST SELLER is the goal of every novelist.
Indefinite Pronouns
includes words like someone, no one, each, anyone, and anybody.
Active voice
means the subject is performing the verb.
Both adverbs and adverbial phrases or clauses can...
modify a verb
Common Nouns
name any person, place, object, or idea., names any one of a group of persons, places, things, or ideas
proper noun
names a particular person, place, thing, or idea; example: Amelia Earhart, Chicago, Katmai National Park
common noun
names any person place, thing or idea; example: pilot, city, park
Nonun clause as Indirect Object
noun clause "whatever" "whatever I want" = noun + verb Ex: I'd like to order whatever I want tonight.
Indefinite Pronoun
refers to an unknown person, place, or thing. Another, anyone, anything, each, neither , no body, someone, something, both, few, many, serval, all, most, none, some
Imperative
relating to verbs in the imperative mood
Subject-Adjective-Verb
s-ly-v; Subject-Adjective-Verb;she also needs, S strongly recommend, linking verbs link the subject with a word that compliments th subject, if the word is a noun it is called a predicate noun (if adjective, a predicate adjective)
internal conflict
this takes place within a character's mind. It is a struggle between opposing needs, desires, or emotions
Use a comma
to separate three or more parallel words, phrases, or clauses in a series.
different from
to tell about differences
inform
to use writing to provide factual information about a topic
express
to use writing to state an author's ideas or feelings
organization
trait concerned with the order in which you present your ideas
voice
trait concerned with the personality of the writer
word choice
trait concerned with using specific nouns and vivid verbs
ideas
trait of good writing that is concerned with the topic and the information you will include
compound subject
two or more subjects doing the same predicate
run-on sentence
two sentences improperly combined into one sentence
The acquistion-learning hypothesis
two systems of language acquistion that are independent but related: the acquired system and the learned system
acquired system
unconscious aspect of language acquistion; speakers are less concerned with the structure of their utterances than with the act of communication meaning
Participle
used as an adjective and acts as a modifier in present (-ing), past (-ed, lost), and perfect (having lost) forms
participle
used as an adjective; it is a form of a verb used as an adjective to modify a noun or pronoun; example: The RUNNING water was moving dangerously fast.
reflexive pronoun
usually refers to the subject of a sentence; examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves
Qualifier
final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun (e.g., rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger car, book cover)
adult stage
final stage of language acquistion
article
most commonly used adjectives
singular noun
names one person, place, or thing; example: principal, cafeteria, stereos
sentence fragment
occurs when you have only a phrase or weak clause but are missing a strong clause., a sentence missing a subject or verb or complete thought, when one or more of the three parts of a complete sentence is missing.
end rhyme
rhymes at the end of a line
internal rhyme
rhymes within lines
Grammar Rules
rules about correct spoken or written language
action verb
shows physical or mental action
nominative, objective, and possessive.
3 Types of Cases of the noun
Clause
A group of related words containing a subject and a verb
Linking Verb
Connects the subject to a word or word group.
Verb
A word that expresses action, state, or a relation between two things. Function as the main elements of sentences.
Prepositional Phrase
All together, the proposition, the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object. , preposition + noun or pronoun, A group of words made up of a preposition, its object, and any of the object's modifiers. PP-O-M
Restrictive appositive
An appositive that cannot be omitted from a sentence without affecting the meaning.
Personal Pronoun
Refers to the one speaking (first person), the one spoken to (second person), or the one spoken about (third person).
Verbs
words that show an action or state of being.
Are singular and require singular verbs
The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody are ___ and require ___ __-. Do not be misled by what follows of.
Use a comma
To prevent confusion or misreading.
Use an em Dash (—)
To set off a nonessential element when the nonessential element contains internal commas. Certain subjects—American government, calculus and chemistry—are required courses.
Absolute phrase
a noun+participle combination grammatically isolated from the sentence
preposition
a word used to show the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to another word or words in the sentence
common prepositions
about, behind, above, across, as, after, between, beyond, beside, despite, during, for, inside, in, near, off, outside, onto, opposite, around, against, along, at, before, below, beneath, but, by, down, except, from, into, like, out, over, of, opposite, past, toward, under, upon within, since, through, until, underneath, with
superlative adverb
adverbs such as lowest, nearest, most slowly; fastest, most seriously
Gerund
ends in -ing and functions as a noun. <talking, singing>
gerund
ends in -ing and is used as a noun
transfer errors
errors made when acquiring a second language in which a speaker substitutes features of the native language in the new language (ex. an Italian speaker saying "he has cold" for the English "he is cold"
interjection
expresses strong emotion or surprise
whomever
him + him =
answer
...
climactic
...
Squinting modifier
A modifier placed in such a way that it can be interpreted as modifying either what precedes or what follows.
Noun
A word that can function as the subject of a sentence. Refers to people, places, things, states, or qualities.
Pronoun
A word that can replace a noun. Ex. I, you, who, one, any, myself...
Adverb
A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
subject pronouns (list)
I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
Gerund
The "-ing" form of a verb when functioning as a noun., a form regularly derived from a verb and functioning as a noun
Adjective
The ADJECTIVE describes a thing, As magic wand and bridal ring
Modal Auxiliary
Verbs that are used with a principal verb that are characteristically used with a verb of predication and that in English differs formally from other verbs in lacking -s or -ing forms.
Appositive Phrase
a noun in apposition along with its modifiers.
Noun
a word which names a person, place, object, idea, or quality., a word that can serve as the subject or object of a verb
split infinitive
use an adverb to avoid these; example: (incorrect: I wanted to SLOWLY SEE the city. / correct: I wanted TO SEE the city SLOWLY.)
A pronoun as a predicated noun
use verb to-be ("is") can be reversed "The person who prank called us is she." uses subjunctive case ("she") Ex: She is the person who pranked called us.
Semicolons
used to link independent clauses that do not contain conjunctions Use to avoid a comma splice Ex: I am going home, I intend to stay there. (There is no conjunction here) In this example, a semicolon needs to be placed in between the words HOME and I.
To determine the subject of a sentence
first isolate the verb and then make a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.
Essential Adj. Clause
Modifies the noun, "cookies": that clause is essential to sentence Ex: The cookies that I made were put in the refrigerator by Dr. Jones.
Verbs
Expresses action or state of being of the sentence. There are six: Transitive Verbs, Intransitive Verbs, Linking Verbs, Auxiliary or Helping Verbs, Principal Verbs, Irregular Verbs.
Present Perfect Tense
Expresses action which began in the past but continues in the present or is completed at the present.
Future Perfect Tense
Expresses action which will begin in the future and be completed by a specific time in the future.
Future Tense
Expresses action which will take place in the future.
Transitional expressions
Expressions that link independent clauses or sentences; for example, as a result, therefore, on the other hand, nevertheless.
Extreme Interjections
Extreme interjections show relatively large amounts of emotion and are punctuated with an exclamation mark Ex. Hey! Do your homework
run-on sentence
strings together two or more sentences without clearly separating them; example: This picture is his it is not yours.
Pronoun
takes the place of one or more noun; example: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, it
Demonstrative adjective
THIS automobile
Use an em Dash (—)
To indicate a sudden break or abrupt change in thought. He is going—no, he's turning back. Our new building should be—will be—completed by June 2004.
Use an En Dash (-)
To indicate inclusive numbers (dates, page numbers, time) when not introduced by the word from or between. Some instructions are on pages 15-30 of this article and from pages 3 to 10 in the attached brochure. My appointment is 0800-0900. I will be there between 0745 and 0800. She worked in the Pentagon from 1979 to 1996 and she said the 1990-1996 period went by quickly.
FOCUS Principles
Focused - Address the issue, the whole issue, and nothing but the issue. Organized - Systematically present your information and ideas. Clear - Communicate with clarity and make each word count. Understanding - Understand your audience and its expectations. Supported - Use logic and support to make your point.
Object
Follows a transitive verb. (See Verb.) is used to denote the complement of a transitive verb I have already drafted the contract.
Indefinite Pronouns
General pronouns that do not have a definite antecedent Ex: anyone, someone, all, anybody, somebody, each Note: those ending in -one and -body are singular
Helping Verb
Helps the main verb express action or a state of being.
adverbs
How things are done the adverbs tell, As slowly, quickly, ill or well.
like
In formal writing, use as, as if, or as though rather than ____ as the conjunction.
Use an em Dash (—)
In place of commas to set off a nonessential element requiring special emphasis. There's an error in one paragraph—the second one. We will ensure all students—as well as faculty members—are informed of the Chief of Staff's visit.
Subordinating conjunction
Join subordinate clauses with main clauses: although, after, because, if... BECAUSE he was better, Billy went home from the hospital. ("Billy...hospital" is the main clause; "Because...better" is the subordinate clause.
Modifiers
May describe or limit the meaning of a word or group of words.
need
Not originally a modal auxiliary, need is now used to mean have to. <He need only fill out the top form. He need not get upset about the delay.> In the meaning "lack," need is always a regular verb. <He needs a little help with this project.>
8 Parts of speech
Noun Pronoun Verb Adjective Adverb Conjunction Preposition Interjection
Object
Noun or pronoun that is affected by the verb. <The man read the book.>
Exclamatory Sentences
Sentences that end with an exclamation point.
noncount noun
aka - mass noun, a noun that ordinarily can not be preceded by a number or the determiner a/an
Adverbs
answer: how (sloppily), where (here, there) , to what degree (very, hardly), when (now, later, yesterday) e.g.: The cat runs here and there. I painted the house neatly. I am very happy. I want it finished now.
Of
should never be used in place of have.
action verb
tells what the subject of a sentence does or did; example: She SLEEPS every day. She SLEPT every day.
Adjectives
Adjectives describe the 'kind of noun' As great, small, pretty, white or brown.
Article
A word that is linked to a noun and identifies it as such.
Nouns and pronouns
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Functions as a subject, direct objects, indirect objects, subject complements, object complements, adjectiveds or an adverbs. Ex: Late last year our NEIGHBORS bought a GOAT. A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. Use pronouns like "he", "which", "none", and "you" to make sentneces less cumbersome and less reptitive. Ex: YOU are surely the strangest child I have ever met.
Compound-complex sentence
A sentence consisting of two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. I tried to handle the monthly report alone, but when I began to analyze the data, I realized that I needed your help.
Compound sentence
A sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses. Our Boston office will be closed, and our Dallas office will be relocated.
Transitive verb
A verb that requires an object to be grammatical.
Pronouns
A word that takes the place of a noun Refer to nouns Are used instead of repeating an antecedent (noun) Makes language fast Has gender (masculine- he, him, his)(feminine- she, her, hers)(neuter- it, its) May have person and number
Pronoun
A word used in place of a noun.
Transitive Verb
Expresses action directed toward a person place thing or idea.
Active verb
Expresses action done by its subject: Jane FELT the prickly bush.
Informative briefing
Purpose is to keep listener abreast of the current situation and supply specific information. • Designed to inform the listener and gain his understanding • Deals with High priority facts and information requiring immediate action Complex information on complicated plans, systems, statistics, or visuals Controversial information requiring explanation • May have conclusions or recommendations
how?
The only adverbs that cause grammatical problems are those that answer the question ____, so focus on these.
Predicate
The verb that expresses the action being performed by the subject; what the noun in the sentence modifies.
Good vs. Well
The word good is an adjective, while well is an adverb., good is an adjective use good before nouns and after linking verbs to modify the subject use well as an adverb when modifying a verb use the advery well well is used tas an adjective only when describing someone's health
be able to
Used instead of can or could to indicate the ability as a fact rather than a mere potentiality. It is used also to avoid the ambiguity that may result from using can to express permission. <He is able to support his mother.>
Tone
A particular style or manner, as of writing or speech; mood., the quality of something (an act or a piece of writing) that reveals the attitudes and presuppositions of the author, the general atmosphere of a place or situation and the effect that it has on people
Adjective
A word used to modify a noun or a pronoun.
Intransitive Verb
Expresses action (or tells something about the subject) without the action passing to a receiver.
Main Verb
Expresses the action or state of being.
Demonstrative Adjective
Modifies adjectives (this, that, these, & those).
Compound predicate
Tells two or more things about the same subject without repeating the subject., two or more predicates with the same subject; usually joined by AND or OR; example: We WILL FIND the card catelog or WILL ASK the librarian for help.
Antecedent
The word that a pronoun stands for.
Use of a semicolon
Used to indicate a major division in a sentence where a more distinct separation is felt between clauses or items on a list than is indicated by a comma.
Nouns of Multitude
another name for Collective Nouns
Feminine Gender Nouns
denotes nouns of the female sex., includes most words that refer to females. Examples: actress, she, miss
Masculine Gender Nouns
denotes nouns of the male sex., All nouns naming individual male persons., Refers to persons or animals that are male. (He, him, his)
Compound Nouns
made up of two or more words. Some are written as seperate words, some are hyphenated, and some are written as one word., consists of two or more words used together as a single noun that can be separate words, one word, or a hyphenated word.
Singular Noun
refers to one person, place, object, or idea., shows ownership by one person or thing
Simple Subjects
tells who or what is doing the verb., The simple subject of a sentence is the noun or pronoun that names the person, place, or thing the sentence is about: -The small dog with the red collar is mine., tells who or what is doing the verb.
Nouns and Pronouns
words that name., A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Functions as a subject, direct objects, indirect objects, subject complements, object complements, adjectiveds or an adverbs. Ex: Late last year our NEIGHBORS bought a GOAT. A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. Use pronouns like "he", "which", "none", and "you" to make sentneces less cumbersome and less reptitive. Ex: YOU are surely the strangest child I have ever met.
Sentence
A group of words representing a complete thought and containing a subject and a predicate (a verb along with any complements and modifiers).
Dependent clause
A group of words with a subject and a verb, but one that cannot stand alone as a sentence., a clause in a complex sentence that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and that functions within the sentence as a noun or adjective or adverb, A fragment
Antecedent
A noun or a noun phrase to which a pronoun refers. She is the person who wrote the letter. (Person is the antecedent of who.) Owning a home has its advantages. (Owning a home is the antecedent of its.)
Dangling gerund
A prepositional-gerund phrase that is attached either to no word in a sentence or to the wrong word.
Interrogative
A sentence that ends with a question mark.
Accept v. Except
Accept= verb meaning to receive or to agree. Ex: He accepted their praise. Except= Preposition meaning all but, other than Ex: Everyone went to the game except Alyson.
Use an apostrophe to create possessive forms of nouns and abbreviations used as nouns.
Add 's to singular or plural nouns that do not end with an s. Add 's to singular nouns that end with an s.
Three types of dependent clauses
Adjective clause Noun clause Adverbial clause
Use a Question Mark
After an independent question within a larger sentence. The question "Who will absorb the costs?" went unanswered. When will the reorganization take place? will surely be asked.
introductory clause
After the team won the championship, they celebrated at Pizza Hut.
Collective Nouns
(nouns of multitude) name a group of persons, places, or objects gathered together into a unit.
Subject+Verb+Pronoun (Prepositional Phrase) / s+v+pn (pp)
Follow Action Verbs and Receive the action of the verb She sent me a postcard, Follow action verbs and precede DO, s+v+pn (pp) / s+v+do "goats have cages that surround them."
Predicate noun or pronoun
Follows a Unking verb (such as is, are, was, were, will be, has been, could be). It explains the subject and is identical with it. (Also called & predicate complement, subject complement, and predicate nominative.) Miss Kwong is our new accountant. (Accountant refers to Miss Kwong.) The person responsible for the decision was /. (The pronoun / refers to person.)
Predicate noun
Follows a linking verb and defines or renames the subject
nearest it
If two nouns are joined by or, nor, or but, the verb should agree in number with the subject
USE ITALICS
In printed material to distinguish the titles of whole published works: books, pamphlets, bulletins, periodicals, newspapers, plays, movies, symphonies, poems, operas, essays, lectures, sermons, legal cases, and reports.
Possessive Pronouns
Pronouns that attribute ownership. i.e. mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
Present Perfect
They have walked. Consists of a past participle with "has" or "have." It designates action which began in the past but which continues into the present.
Use a comma
To indicate omission of words in repeating a construction. We had a tactical reserve; now, nothing. [The comma replaces we have.]
Nominative case
Used for the subject or the complement of a verb. She publishes a newsletter (Subject] The person who ca led you was / (Complement)
Adjective phrase
a prepositional phrase used as an adjective
Age
adjectives denoting age (e.g., young, old, new, ancient)
An
is used when: a singular noun begins with a vowel Ex: an elephant
Objective pronouns
me you him, her, it us them whom
object pronouns (list)
me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
Possessive pronouns
my, mine your, yours his, hers, its our, ours their, theirs whose
concrete
noun that can be perceived by any one of the senses
object of the preposition
the noun or pronoun at the end of a prepositional phrase
Never drop the -ly from an adverb
when using the comparison form.
Use on
with expressions that indicate the time of an occurrence
words that COMPARE
"...to examine the character or qualities of esp. in order to discover resemblances or differences..." A comparable aspect, Affinity, A strong resemblance, Akin, Also, Analogous to, Another similarity, As, As compared with, As well as, At the same time, Balance, By the same token, Coincide, Comparable, Comparatively, Compare, Conform, Consistent with, Correlate, Correspondingly, Exactly, Equal, Equally, Equally important, Equate, Equivalent, Harmonize, Homogeneous, Identical, Identically, In comparison, In like manner, In much the same way, In relation to, In similar fashion, In the same manner, In the same way, Just the same, Like, Liken, Likeness, Likewise, Look like, Match, Matching, Of little difference, Of no difference, Parallel, Paralleling, Parallel to, Relate to, Relatively, Relative to, Resemblance, Resemble, Resembling, Same as, Similarity, Similarly, Similar to, Synonymous with, The next likeness, Too, To the same extent, Uniform.
Its vs. It's
"Its" shows possession, but no apostrophe is needed because its is already a possessive pronoun. It's is a contraction for it is. Ex. Its own phone, it's a phone
physical analysis
...
Elliptical expressions
Condensed expressions from which keywords have been omitted; for example, if necessary (for if it is necessary).
Indefinite pronouns:
Everyone is here. Everybody is here. No one is here. Nobody is here.
Everyone is one word when it means everybody.
Everyone or Every one?
Determiners: Examples
Examples with determiner phrases in italics: a little dog, the little dogs (indefinite or definite article) this little dog, those little dogs (demonstrative) my little dogs, their little dog (possessive adjective) Sheila's little dog, the Queen of England's little dog (noun phrase + 's) every little dog, each little dog, some little dog, either dog (quantifying)
Analyze Purpose and Audience
Focus and understand your audience knowledge Your purpose: to direct, inform, persuade or inspire Your purpose statement: one sentence that captures your bottom line
Noun Groups (3)
Form (number, gender and case); Function (subject,object, complement, appositive, and modifier); Class (proper, common, concrete, abstract, and collective)
appositives
George, my cousin, jumped through a hoop.
Imperative sentence
Gives a command or makes a request.
Interjections
Interjections are words that express emotion and are separated from sentences by punctuation Ex. Hey, No, Yes
Noun Number
Singular or Plural
refer to groups or things
That and which
Preposition
The PREPOSITION shows relation, As in the street, or at the station
Abstract noun
The name of a quality or a general idea; for example, courage, freedom
Simple subject
To find the simple subject, divide the sentence between the complete subject and the complete predicate. Next, cross out all of the prepositional phrases Ex: On Saturday at the Horseshoe, the Ohio Sate Buckeyes played the Michigan Wolverines for a shot at the final game. (The "I" denotes the speraption b/w subject and predicate, and the underline indicates the prespositional phrase. Thuse, "the Ohio State Buckyeyes" is the simple subject.
interjection
Wow, that was amazing.
End a sentence with a preposition
You may ___ a sentence with a preposition.
regional dialects
a form of speech associated with a geographic area or region
in
already inside
summery
belonging to or characteristic of or occurring in summer
Indefinite pronouns
one, any, each, anyone, somebody, all...
definite article
the adjective "the"
Interjections
words that show emotion.
Direct address
A construction in which a speaker or a writer addresses another person directly; for example, "What do you think, Sylvia?"
Dangling participle
A participial phrase attached either to no word in a sentence or to the wrong word.
Noun
A person, place, thing, or idea Answers the questions "what" and "who"
Adverbial phrase
A phrase that functions as an adverb (such as an infinitive phrase or a prepositional phrase). Let's plan to meet after lunch. (Prepositional phrase indicating when to meet.)
Essential (restrictive) phrase
A phrase that limits, defines, or identifies; cannot be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence. The study analyzing our competitors' promotion activities will be finished within the next two weeks.
Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition, can have adjectives in the middle, and ends with a noun or pronoun Ex. (Polly-O lives) near Kevin's desk
Statement
A sentence that asserts a fact.
Transitive verb
A verb that requires an object to complete its meaning. Fusilli has rejected all offers to purchase his business.
Nonrestrictive elements
A word or group of words that are not vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are set off by commas: My sister, THE GIRL WHO WROTE THE STORY, has always loved to write.
Pronoun
A word used in place of one or more nouns or pronouns.
Conjunctions
Conjunctions join the words together, As men and women, wind or weather.
titles
George, Sr., was 16 when he finished college.
Contrasting elements
Her intelligence, NOT HER BEAUTY, got her the job. Your plan will take you a little further from, RATHER THAN CLOSER TO, your destination. It was a reasonable, THOUGH NOT APPEALING, idea.
Personal pronouns
I, you, she, she, it, we, you, they, them, us, my, mine, me, your, yours, her, hers, its, our, ours, us, their, theirs
To or For
If the words to or for actually appear before the noun, that noun cannot be an indirect object. In this case the noun is the object of the preposition. "I mailed to you a copy of the letter.", acknowledge, What 2 prepositions (in English) go before the noun in an indirect object?
Use an En Dash (-)
In a compound adjective when one element has two words or a hyphenated word. New York-London flight Air Force-wide changes quasi-public-quasi-judicial body
Voice
Indeicates wether the subject is acting or being acted upon.
Comparative degree of Comparison
Indicates a higher or lower degree of quality or manner than is expressed by the positive degree. The comparative is used when two things are compared and is regularly formed by adding er to the positive degree (newer, sooner). In longer words the comparative is formed by adding more or less to the positive (more efficient, less efficient; more quietly, less quietly.
do not use extra prepositions
Just do not do what to prepositions when their meaning is clear?
Common Noun
Names any one of a group of persons, places, things, or ideas; They are not the names of a single person, place or thing. This type of noun begins with a lowercase letter unless it is at the beginning of a sentence. For example: People like; man, girl, boy, Animals like; fish, ant, snake, Places like; school, city, building, or Ideas like; love, hate, pride.
Proper Nouns
Names specific persons, places, and things Are capitalized Ex: Chicago
The Adjective Degrees
Positive- not modified Ex: hot, good, fun Comparative- used to compare two or more nouns and/or pronouns Uses either "-er" or "more", BUT NEVER BOTH!! Ex: hot, better, more fun Superlative- expresses the highest or a very high degree of the quality of what is being described Uses either "-est" or "most", BUT NEVER BOTH!! Ex: hot, best, most fun
Simple sentence
Sentence that has a subject and a verb
Proper Noun
The name of a particular person, place, thing or idea. Proper nouns are always capitalized.
Antecedent
The noun or pronoun being replaced by the pronoun in question Ex. Jack did his homework. "Jack" is the antecedent because it is replaced by "his".
preposition
The preposition stands before A noun, as in or through a door.
apostrophes
The superscript sign ( ' ) used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the possessive case, or the plurals of numbers, letters, and abbreviations.
parallel construction
Use similar grammatical form when offering several ideas. This is called ____? successive sentences or phrases follow the same pattern of wording in order to emphasize and idea, repetition of a grammatical pattern.
Object Pronouns
Used as objects Can be direct objects Can be indirect objects Can be the objects of prepositions Are said to be in the object case Ex: me, us, you (singular), you (plural), him, her, it, them
Parenthetical elements
Words, phrases, or clauses that are not necessary to complete the structure or the meaning of a sentence. Gina Sala, my wife's older sister, is my accountant.
logical consistency
a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the internal logic in the theoretical statements, a measure of how well data features represent real-world features, in particular with respect to topology, Theories should make sense, be clear, and not contradict.
Determiners: Demonstrative:
a determiner used to indicate spatial, temporal, or discourse location. It functions as a modifier of a noun, or a pronoun. Examples: These Those, This, That
social dialects
a form of speech used by a group within a society characterized especially by the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and/or gender of the speakers
common noun
a noun that names non-unique persons, places, or things
opinion
a statement that requires a value judgement; it is what someone thinks or believes
Standard American English (SAE)
a variety of American English that is widely shared by middle class, urban, educated speakers and most closely resembles the written form of language taught in schools
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is expression after the colon is a complete sentence that is the dominant or more general element. A key principle: Nonessential elements are set off by commas; essential elements are not set off.
Simple Subject
answers the question: Who or what is doing something in the sentence without any descriptors?
Use an
before vowel sounds
adjective
describes nouns
Present Participles
end in-ing used with BE to indicate continuing action or state Ex: I am going. They were laughing.
adjectives
nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun phrase that they modify. Sometimes they appear in a string of adjectives, and when they do, they appear in a set order according to category.
abstract
noun that names a feeling, quality, or idea
sentence constructions
parallelism
nonfiction
prose writing that deals with real people, events, and places without changing any facts
noun clause
subordinate clause used as a noun; examples: WHAT YOU SAY is true.
conflict
the problem or complications in a story
tone
the way the author feels or the author's attitude toward the subject
dialogue
the written conversation between two or more characters
Present Perfect Tense
verb tense that describes an action that began in the past but continues til the present. Ex. Have heard, Has played, Has run
Past Perfect
verb tense that describes an event completed in the past prior to another event. Ex. Had heard, Had played, Had run
direct object questions
what, whom
Use singular verbs
with most indefinite pronouns
Use a singular verb
with sums of money or periods of time.
prefix
word part added to the beginning of a word
suffix
word part added to the end of a word
pronoun
word that takes the place of a noun
negatives
words that mean no; common negatives: no, not, never, nowhere, nothing, nobody, no one, neither, scarcely, barely; use only one in a sentence
except
verb or preposition, omitting or leaving out
dependent, subordinate
clause has a subject and predicate, but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence
main clause
past/imperfect subjunctive, perfect subjunctive
Appositive
set off by commas classifies the noun, "Tonie" Ex: Tonie, a Greek girl, is looking for a Greek man to marry.
Conjunction
Conjunctions join together clauses, words, sentences, phrases Ex. after, although, as, because, before, even though, rather than, if
Conjunction
Connects individual words or groups of words.
Interjection
A word that shows emotion; usually without grammatical connection to other parts of a sentence. Wow! What a weekend! Oh, so that's what he meant.
Abstract Noun
Names an idea, a feeling, a quality, or a characteristic. you cannot sense, it is the name we give to an emotion, ideal or idea. They have no physical existence, you can't see, hear, touch, smell or taste them. The opposite of this type of noun is a concrete noun. E.g. adoration, dexterity, sadness, wit.
Principal parts of verbs
Principal parts
Subject
The noun, pronoun, or main phrase that precedes/governs the main verb.
dangling participle
To correct a ____, place the participial closer to the word it modifies; example: (incorrect: PLAYING SOLITAIRE, at the table sat a bored young man. / correct: At the table sat a bored young man PLAYING SOLITAIRE.)
Appositive
Word, phrase or clause preceding or renaming a noun.
Interjections
Words inserted to show emotion: Wow!, Ouch! Hey!
Subject pronouns
are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.
Adverb clause
dependent clause used as an adverb *begins with a subordinating conjunction
Adverb
is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
The Subjunctive
is used after the following expressions: It is best (that) It is crucial (that) It is desirable (that) It is essential (that) It is imperative (that) It is important (that) It is recommended (that) It is urgent (that) It is vital (that) It is a good idea (that) It is a bad idea (that)
linking verb
joins the subject and the predicate
Are
singular in America Ex: The flock is heading South for the winter.
Number of Collective Nouns
singular in the number if the group is considered a single unit.
verb phrase
something that contains one main vern and one or more helping verbs
PAST EMPHATIC:
they did think
Infinitive phrase
to+verb used as an adjective, adverb, or noun
Grammar
A way of thinking about language and the architecture of the human mind.
subject pronouns (definition)
pronouns used for subjects
into
tell about the movement from the outside to the inside
Transition
needed for coherence
The Noun Family
Noun, Pronoun, Adjective
Noun
The name of a person, place, object, idea, quality, or activity.
explanation
a statement that makes something comprehensible by describing the relevant structure or operation or circumstances etc., an expression that purports to shed light on some event or phenomenon, A statement that makes clear how something is done or why it exists in its present or past form. Act of telling and showing why., Discussion that helps clarify a topic or demonstrates how a process works
Conjunctive adverbs
accordingly, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, in fact, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, now, on the other hand, otherwise, perhaps, still, therefore...
Possessive Case of the Noun
adjective.
articles
adjectives 'a,' 'an,' and 'the'
Simple Predicate
answers the question: what is the subject doing? And it must be a verb.
Elliptical sentence
A word or phrase treated as a complete sentence, even though the subject and verb are understood but not expressed. Enough on that subject. Why not?
Direct Object
a noun which receives the action of the verb. It must complete the meaning of the verb by receiving the action of the verb or by naming the result of the action. **MUST follow an action verb unless the sentence is inverted., the object that receives the direct action of the verb, a word or group of words that name the receiver of the action. Ex. New Yorkers take the subway. (Subway is the direct object), receives the action of a verb. It answers the question whom? or what? after an action verb
noun
a person place thing or idea
Prepositional phrase
A phrase consisting of a preposition, its object (usually a noun or a pronoun), and any modifiers of the object. All together, the proposition, the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object. , preposition + noun or pronoun, A group of words made up of a preposition, its object, and any of the object's modifiers. PP-O-M
Expletive
A swear word OR a word considered as regularly filling the syntactic position of another., a word or phrase conveying no independent meaning but added to fill out a sentence or metrical line
Antecedent
A word, phrase, or clause that is replaced by a pronoun or other substitute later in the same (or a subsequent) sentence., the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers, someone or something that went before; something that provides a model for something that came after it
Coordinating Conjunction
Joins words or groups of words that are used in the same way.
Infinitive
The most basic form of a verb; does not specify the subject., the uninflected form of the verb, to + verb, a verb that functions as a noun or adjective; the word TO precedes the verb in an infinitive; example: Someday, I would like TO WRITE beautiful poetry.
Subordination
Words, phrases, or clauses that make one element of a sentence dependent on another., the dependence of one syntactical element on another in a sentence
Prepositions and conjuctions
words that connect.
Adjectives and adverbs
words that describe or modify., Adjectives describe things (nouns and pronouns) and adverbs describe action (verbs).
Dependent clause
Contains a subject and a verb and does NOT express a complete thought.
Clause
Contains a subject and a verb. It may be independent or subordinate (dependent).
Complex-compound sentence
Contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Ex. I am going to town, and Bill is going when he gets his car repaired.
For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.
Coordinated Conjunction Mnemonic Device: FANBOOYS
Use a hyphen
To join unit modifiers. When you abbreviate the unit of measure, omit the hyphen. 4-hour sortie, 4 hr sortie long-term loan rust-resistant cover 24-gallon tank, 24 gal. tank
Prefix
A letter, syllable, or word added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning; for example, afloat, reupholster, undernourished.
complete sentence
group of words that expresses a complete thought and contains a subject and a verb, contains a subject and a predicate
the natural order hypothesis
1. second language learners produce single words 2. they strong words together based on meaning and not syntax 3. they begin to identify elements that begin and end sentences 4. they begin to identify different elements within sentences and can rearrange them to produce questions
linking verb
1. shows state-of-being 2. does NOT show action 3. links the subject to a noun or ADJECTIVE
Dependent or subordinate clause
A group of words that has a subject and a predicate, but they cannot stand alone It depends on some more information that is not expressed
Phrase
A group of words without a subject and predicate. It can function as a noun, ,an adjective, an adverb, or a verb. They may be prepositional, participial, gerunds, infinitives, and verbs.
When to use the articles: A and An
A is used with: a singular noun beginning with a consonant Ex: a car
Prepositions
(use them sparingly): over, under, in, during, within, etc.
Reflexive pronouns
- myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, yourself, yourselves- should be used only when they refer back to another word in the sentence.
USE AN APOSTROPHE
- to create possessive forms of certain words - to form contractions or to stand in for missing letters - to form plurals for certain letters and abbreviations - to mark a quote within a quote - in technical writing to indicate units of measurement
Reflexive Pronouns
-self or -selves pronouns that reflect back to a word used previously in the sentence Ex: I am almost mad myself.
process analysis
...
reason
...
transitional
...
the wrong form for comparison
A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using. To compare two things, we should say poorer, as in, "She is the poorer of the two women."
verb transitive
ALWAYS an action verb; is typically followed by a direct object
Introductory Prepositional Phrase
ALWAYS modifies the verb!!, Throughout the house, an eerie light shone., one or more prepositional phrases at the beginning of a sentence. *things you can do to a box in terms of location
coordinating conjunction
AND, BUT, and OR join ideas that are similar; remember to place a comma before you write sentences; example: Craig gets in trouble, BUT he usually gets out of it.
indicate Time, Order, and Sequence.
Abruptly, After, After a few days, After a long time, After a short time, After a while, After that, Afterward, All at once, All of the time, All the while, Always, As long as, As soon as, At first, At last, At length, At present, At that time, At the beginning, At the end, At that onset, At the same time, At this moment, At times, Before, Begin, By now, Just then, Last, Last of all, Lastly, Later, Later on, Later that day, Little by little,
Action Verb
Action verbs show action Ex. He smells
Adverbs
An adverb describes an adjective, a verb, or another adverb and answers three questions about them: how, when, and where Ex. Yesterday, extremely, toward
Sentence fragment
An incomplete thought is not grammatically correct. Ex. Making his way in the world today.
Infinitive phrase
An infinitive plus its object and modifiers; may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. An infinitive phrase that is attached either to no word in a sentence or to the wrong word is called a dangling infinitive. To get TFs okay on this purchase order took some doing. (As a noun; serves as subject of the verb took.) The decision to close the Morrisville plant was not made easily. (As an adjective; tells what kind of decision.) Janice resigned to open her own business. (As an adverb; tells why Janice resigned.) An infinitive phrase, unlike other phrases, may sometimes have a subject. This subject precedes the infinitive and is in the objective case. I want her to review this draft for accuracy. (Her is the subject of to review.)
Degrees of Adjectives
Base (1) Ex. High, Thick, Beautiful, Bad; Comparative (2) Ex. Higher, Thicker, More Beautiful, Worse; Superlative (3 or more) Ex. Highest, Thickest, Most Beautiful, Worst
Subordinate/Dependent Clause
Cannot stand alone as a sentence (fragment) not a complete thought Ex: Ireland is my favorite country, a place where I would love to live one day.
may be either singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence
Collective nouns such as team and staff
Internal punctuation
Commas, semicolons, colons, dashes, parentheses, quotation marks, apostrophes, ellipsis marks, asterisks, diagonals, and brackets are the most common marks of internal punctuation.
Conjunction
Connects words, phrases, clauses, and sentences (FANBOYS).
Conjunctions
Connects words, phrases, clauses, or sentences (and, or, but, nor).
Article
Considered an adjective. The definite article is the; the indefinite articles are a and an.
Use a hyphen
When expressing the numbers 21 through 99 in words and in adjective compounds with a numerical first element. Twenty-one people attended. Twenty-one people attended with at least 2 that failed to show up. Eighty-nine or ninety miles from here there's an outlet mall. I kept their 3-year-old child while they were away. There will be a 10-minute delay.
adjective complement
Describes direct object, describing what it has become or been called.
Plual Noun
Describes multiple objects Ex: boats
Singular Noun
Describes one object Ex: boat
Adjective
Describes or limits a noun or pronoun.
Adjective
Describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. i.e. a, an, the
8 types of adjectives
Descriptive Limiting Possessive Demonstrative Interrogative Articles Numerical Comparative and Superlative
Present participle
Ends in ing; for example, making, advertising
Case
Forms that nouns and pronouns take when they fit into different functions of the sentence. There are three: Nominative—for subjects, predicate nominatives and appositives. <I> Objective—for objects and their appositives. <me> Possessive—to show ownership, hence adjectival, functions. <my>
A-an
In choosing a or an, consider the sound (not the spelling) of the word that follows. Use the article a before all consonant sounds, including sounded h (as in hat), long u (as in use), and o wi th the sound of w (as in one).
Use an Exclamation mark
In parentheses within a sentence to emphasize a particular word. He lost 67(!) pounds in 6 months. She said what(!)?
Use an em Dash (—)
In place of a colon for a strong, but less formal, break in introducing explanatory words, phrases or clauses. Our arrangement with the Headquarters USAF is simple—we provide the camera-ready copy and they handle the printing and distribution.
Four-Level Analysis
Level 1: Parts of Speech Level 2: Parts of the Sentence Level 3: Phrases Level 4: Clauses
verbs
Link subjects to complements
look inside the clause to determine whether to use whoever or whomever.
When the entire whoever/whomever clause is the subject of the verb that follows the clause,
Compound sentence
Made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating (and, but, for, or, so, yet) or correlative (either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also) conjunction or a semicolon.
Punctuation
Marks used to indicate relationships between words, phrases, and clauses.
Transitive verbs
May take a direct object: Bob BEAT the rug. Some can be used as active or linking verbs
indicate Time, Order, and Sequence.
Meanwhile, Momentarily, Never, Next, Not at all, Not long after, Not long ago, Now, Occasionally, Of late, Often, Often time, On the next occasion, Once, Once upon a time, Past, Periodically, Preceding, Present, Presently, Previously, Prior to, Promptly, Quick, Rarely, Recently, Repeatedly, Right after, Right away, Second, Seldom, Sequentially, Shorty, Simultaneously, Slow, So far, Some of the time, Some time, Soon, Soon after, Soon afterward, Sporadically, Starting with, Subsequently, Suddenly, Temporary, The latter, The next, The final, Then, Thereafter, This instant, Third, To begin with, To conclude, To finish, Today, Tomorrow, Twice, Uncommon, Ultimately, Until, Until now , Usually, When, While, Yesterday
Mild Interjections
Mild interjections show relatively low amounts of emotion and are punctuated with commas Ex. Hey, do your homework
Adjective
Modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words Usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies Ex:The small boat foundered on the win dark sea. A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
Adjective
Modifies or limits a noun or pronoun. Answers the questions which one, what kind, and how many.
Adverbs
Modifies or limits a verb, adjective or another adverb and answers "When? Where? Why? How much? How far? To what degree?" <quickly run, very dull, very loudly>
scientific approach
another name for the classical theory of formal curiosity, skeptical, objective, and critical thinking of organizations , A testable hypothesis, a reproducible experiment that can be replicated by other scientists, an operationalized definition (observable and measureable) of the concept under study, Observations, Hypothesis, Experiment, Model (Theory), Further Experimentation
Determiners
articles and other limiters. See Determiners a
Passive Voice
One can change the normal order of a sentence so that the subject is being acted upon. This voice may make the reader work harder to understand the intended meaning. i.e. fish are eaten by the cat.
There are two emphatic tenses:
PRESENT EMPHATIC: they do think PAST EMPHATIC: they did think
There are six progressive tenses, corresponding to each of the primary and perfect tenses:
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: they are thinking PAST PROGRESSIVE: they were thinking FUTURE PROGRESSIVE: they will be thinking PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: they have been thinking PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: they had been thinking FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: they will have been thinking
Verbals
Past and present participle forms of the verbs that act as nouns or adjectives. There are three: Gerund, Infinitive, Participle.
8 Types of Pronouns
Personal Relative Interrogative Demonstrative Indefinite Reciprocal Intensive Reflexive
Demonstrative Pronoun
Points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea (this, that, these, & those).
compound predicate adjective
Predicate adjectives sometimes contain more than one adjective. These are called ____. example: The job applicant seems HONEST and RELIABLE.
Effect / Consequence / Result
Some of these transition words (thus, then, accordingly, consequently, therefore, henceforth) are time words that are used to show that after a particular time there was a consequence or an effect. Note that for and because are placed before the cause/reason. The other devices are placed before the consequences or effects. as a result under those circumstances in that case for this reason for thus because the then hence consequently therefore thereupon forthwith accordingly henceforth
introduces essential clauses
That Examples: I do not trust products that claim "all natural ingredients" because this phrase can mean almost anything. We would not know which products were being discussed without the that clause.
Demonstrative pronouns:
That is a nice suit. This is a nice suit. These are fine shoes. Those are fine shoes.
Predicate
That part of a sentence which tells what the subject does or what is done to the subject or what state of being the subject is in. (See also Verb.)
Singular subject takes a singular verb Rule
The Basic Rule of Subject and Verb Agreement states a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes a plural verb. Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or plural. In order to determine which verb is singular and which one is plural, think of which verb you would use with he or she and which verb you would use with they. Which one is the singular form? Which word would you use with he? We say, "He talks." Therefore, talks is singular. We say, "They talk." Therefore, talk is plural.
Proper noun
The official name of a particular person, place, or thing; for example, Ellen, San Diego, Wednesday. Proper nouns are capitalized.
Parts of Speech
The basic building blocks of language: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, interjections, and conjunctions
Number
The characteristic of a noun, pronoun, or verb that indicates whether one person or thing (singular) or more than one (plural) is meant. NOUW: beeper, beepers PRONOUN: she, they VERB: [she] works, (they] work
Person
The characteristic of a word that indicates whether a person is speaking (first person), is spoken to (second person), or is spoken about (third person). Only personal pronouns and verbs change their forms to show person. All nouns are considered third person. Singular Plural FIRST PERSON: / like this book. We like this book. SECOND PERSON: You like this book. You like this book. THIRD PERSON: She likes this book. They like this book.
Gender
The characteristic of nouns and pronouns that indicates whether the thing named is masculine (man, boy, he), feminine (woman, girl, she), or neuter (book, concept, it). Nouns that refer to either males or females have common gender (person, child).
...
The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. (Actually, only the comparative and superlative show degrees.) We use the comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or more things. Notice that the word than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the precedes the superlative. The inflected suffixes -er and -est suffice to form most comparatives and superlatives, although we need -ier and -iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y (happier and happiest); otherwise we use more and most when an adjective has more than one syllable
singular verb
The expression "the number" is followed by a___? "The number" of people we need to hire "is" thirteen.
Superlative Adjective
The extreme degree of comparison of adjectives. Used when comparing three or more things. Usually using the suffix -est, or the word 'most'. i.e. most beautiful, or highest
Case
The form of a noun or of a pronoun that indicates its relation to other words in the sentence. There are three cases: nominative, possessive, and objective. Nouns have the same form in the nominative and objective cases but a special ending for the possessive.
Comparison
The form of an adjective or adverb that indicates degrees in quality, quantity, or manner. The degrees are positive, comparative, and superlative.
Mood (mode)
The form of the verb that shows the manner of the action. There are three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.
nonrestrictive clauses
The gym, which was made in 2002, is now the center of the athletic complex.
Verb phrase
The individual words that make up the verb in a sentence. Sometimes a verb phrase includes an adverb. A verb phrase can function only as a verb. You should work together with Nora on the report. (The verb phrase consists of the verb form should work plus the adverb together)
Common noun
The name of a class of persons, places, or things; for example, child, house.
Controlling topic
The point the writer makes about the topic., what the author wants you to know or understand about the topic, clarifies the author's focus
nonrestrictive phrase
The students, trying to pass the test, studied long into the night.
the subject follows the verb
The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs even though they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there, The __ ___ ___ __.
Tenses
There are three verb tenses: past, present, and future. Ex. He walked in the park. He walks in the park He will walk in the park
Conclusion / Summary / Restatement
These transition words and phrases conclude, summarize and/orrestate ideas, or a indicate a final general statement. Also some words (like therefore) from the Effect / Consequence category can be used to summarize. as can be seen generally speaking in the final analysis all things considered as shown above in the long run given these points as has been noted in a word for the most part after all in fact in summary in conclusion in short in brief in essence to summarize on balance altogether overall ordinarily usually by and large to sum up on the whole in any event in either case all in all
Space / Location / Place
These transition words are often used as part of adverbial expressions and have the function to restrict, limit or qualify space. Quite a few of these are also found in the Time category and can be used to describe spatial order or spatial reference. in the middle to the left/right in front of on this side in the distance here and there in the foreground in the background in the center of adjacent to opposite to here there next where from over near above below down up under further beyond nearby wherever around between before alongside amid among beneath beside behind across
Cause / Condition / Purpose
These transitional phrases present specific conditions or intentions. in the event that, granted (that), as / so long as, on (the) condition (that), for the purpose of, with this intention, with this in mind, in the hope that, to the end that, for fear that, in order to, seeing / being that, in view of, If, ... then, unless, when, whenever, since, while, because of, as, since, while, lest, in case, provided that, given that, only / even if, so that, so as to, owing to, inasmuch as, due to,
Time / Chronology / Sequence
These transitional words (like finally) have the function of limiting, restricting, and defining time. They can be used either alone or as part of adverbial expressions. at the present time from time to time sooner or later at the same time up to the present time to begin with in due time until now as soon as in the meantime in a moment without delay in the first place all of a sudden at this instant immediately quickly finally after later last until since then before hence since when once about next now formerly suddenly shortly henceforth whenever eventually meanwhile further during first, second in time prior to forthwith straightaway instantly presently occasionally Many transition words in the time category (consequently; first, second, third; further; hence; henceforth; since; then, when; and whenever) have other uses. Except for the numbers (first, second, third) and further they add a meaning of time in expressing conditions, qualifications, or reasons. The numbers are also used to add information or list examples. Further is also used to indicate added space as well as added time.
Use parenthesis
To enclose explanatory material (a single word, a phrase or an entire sentence) that is independent of the main thought of the sentence. The ACSC students (542 of them) will begin classes the second week of June. The results (see figure 3) were surprising.
Simple Past
They walked. Used to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past.
Articles
Three little words you often see Are articles - a, an, and the.
NINE PARTS OF SPEECH
Three little words you often see Are articles - a, an, and the. A noun's the name of anything As school or garden, hoop or swing. Adjectives describe the 'kind of noun' As great, small, pretty, white or brown. Instead of nouns, the pronouns stand - Her head, his face, your arm, my hand. Verbs tell of something to be done - To read, count, sing, to laugh or run. How things are done the adverbs tell, As slowly, quickly, ill or well. Conjunctions join the words together, As men and women, wind or weather. The preposition stands before A noun, as in or through a door. The interjection shows surprise, As Oh! How pretty! Oh! How wise! The whole are called nine parts of speech, Which reading, writing, speaking teach.
mentally complete the sentence
To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.
USE A COLON
To separate an introductory statement from explanatory or summarizing material that follows when there is no coordinating conjunction or transitional expression. (Capitalize the first word of the expression that follows the colon if it is the dominant element and is a complete sentence. For additional details, see the "Capitalization" section.) Living in base housing has many advantages: People can walk to work, shopping is convenient, and there are organized activities for the children. The board consists of three officials: a director, an executive director, and a recording secretary.
Use a Semicolon
To separate independent clauses not connected by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor, and so), and in statements too closely related in meaning to be written as separate sentences. The students were ready; it was time to go. It's true in peace; it's true in war. War is destructive; peace, constructive.
Use a Comma
To set off explanatory dates, addresses and place names; use a what? The change of command, 1 October 1996, was the turning point. The British prime minister lives at 10 Downing Street, London, England.
Use a comma
To set off names and titles used in direct address.
Use a comma
To set off statements such as he said, she replied, they answered, and she announced. She said, "Welcome to the Chamber of Commerce. May I help you?" She replied, "I have an appointment with Lt Col Rick Jenkins at 10 a.m." NOTE: If a quotation functions as an integral part of a sentence, commas are unnecessary. They even considered "No guts, no glory!" as their slogan.
Compound predicate
Two or more predicates joined by conjunctions. Barbara has handled the job well and deserves a good deal of praise.
Use a hyphen
Use a hyphen when spelling the word solid creates a homonym. re-cover [cover again]; recover [to regain] re-creation [create again]; recreation [play] re-count [count again]; recount [to detail] pre-position [position again]; preposition re-create [create again]; recreate [refresh] [word that forms a phrase] un-ionized [substance]; unionized [to organize] re-mark [mark again]; remark [say] re-sign [sign again]; resign [quit] multi-ply [as in fabric]; multiply [arithmetic function] re-start [start again]; restart [to start anew] co-op [cooperative]; coop [to confine] re-treat [treat again]; retreat [withdraw]
Interrogative adjective
WHICH cat belongs to you?
Gerund phrase (noun and subject of the sentence)
WRITING THE BOOK was a pleasure. (_____ used as _____)
What question does the predicate answer and what part of speech can it be?
What happened to the subject? verb
clarity
What he does, does make a difference.
Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement
When a pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender (boy/girl) and amount (singular/plural). Ex. Jack did his homework. "Jack" is singular and masculine, and so is "his". If there is not pronoun/ antecedent agreement, the sentence is incorrect
Use a Question Mark
When a question within a sentence is set off by dashes, place the question mark before the closing dash. The new class—isn't it called Super Seminar?—begins tomorrow.
USE A COLON
When a sentence contains an expression such as following or as follows or is followed by a list or enumerated items. [Notice the capitalization and punctuation.] The new directive achieved the following results: better morale and improved relations. Results were as follows: better morale, less work, and more pay. Consider these advantages when making your decision: 1. You won't have to be somewhere at 0800 every day. 2. You can get more involved in community activities. 3. You can pursue hobbies you haven't had time for in the last year.
put the plural subject last and use a plural verb
When a singular and plural subject are connected by either/or or neither/nor,
put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.
When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject, As in : Neither Jenny nor the others are available.
FORMING:
When a team is forming, members cautiously explore the boundaries of acceptable group behavior. This is a stage of transition from individual to member status, and of testing the leader's guidance both formally and informally. Because there is so much going on to distract the members' attention in the beginning, the team accomplishes little, if anything, that concerns its project goals. Don't despair and flush your project down the toilet! This is perfectly normal!
Use a hyphen
When dividing a word at the end of a line. When in doubt about the proper place to divide a word, consult a dictionary and apply the guidelines Use a hyphen to indicate the continua- tion of a word divided at the end of a line.
spatial
When using this pattern, you'll start at some point in space and proceed in sequence to other points. The pattern is based on a directional strategy—north to south, east to west, clockwise or counterclockwise, bottom to top, above and below, etc. Make sure to use appropriate transitions to indicate spatial relationships— to the left, farther to the left, still farthermost to the left; adjacent to, a short distance away, etc. These signal the flow of the communication; if missing, your audience can easily become confused or disoriented.
Interrogative pronouns:
Who are those people? Whose dog is that? Whom is she speaking to? What are they doing? Which one should I buy?
What does a subject answer and what part of speech can it be?
Who or what? noun, pronoun, proper noun
who
Who/Whom wrote the letter? He wrote the letter. Therefore, ___ is correct.
Use an em Dash (—)
With a question mark or an exclamation mark: When a sentence abruptly breaks off before the end of a question or exclamation, put the end punctuation mark immediately following the dash. Shall I do it or —? Look out for the —!
Use a period
With certain abbreviations. Most abbreviations today are written without punctuation Ms. Miss [not an Sr. no. [number; could be confused abbreviation] with the word no] Mr. Dr. e.g. in. [inch; could be confused with the word in] Mrs. Jr. i.e. etc.
mass noun
a common noun that cannot be easily separated into countable units; examples: water, sand, gold, cement, air
clause
a group of words that have a subject and a predicate; some stand alone; others cannot; example: Everyone should know about medical emergencies.
Appositive phrase
a noun that renames or clarifies another noun
Noun of Direct Address
a noun used to speak directly to some person or object. ALWAYS separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas. Often found in imperative sentences where the subject (you) is understood., the name of the person (normally) who is being directly spoken to ex. Mary, do you..., person being spoken to in a sentence Charlie, don't bite my finger. (Charlie = NDA)
conjunction
a word that joins two words or two groups of words
parts of speech
adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, nouns, pronouns, prepositions, verbs
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is material following the colon consists of two or more sentences. There are several drawbacks to this: First, it ties up our capital for three years. Second, the likelihood of a great return on our investment is questionable.
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is material preceding the colon is an introductory word (NOTE, CAUTION, WANTED, HINT, or REMEMBER). WANTED: Three editorial assistants who know computers as well as editing and typesetting.
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is word is the first word of a quoted sentence. When asked by his teacher to explain the difference between a sofa and a love seat, the nursery school boy had this to say: "Don't reckon I know, ma'am, but you don't put your feet on either one."
A linking verb
agrees with its subject, not with its complement.
qualifier
aka - intensifier, a structure-class word
omniscient
all knowing point of view. A narrator who can tell the reader everything about all the characters, even their most private thoughts.
Determiners: Article:
class of determiners that identify a noun's status. (The, A, An)
independent, main
clause can stand alone as a complete sentence
noun
form class word (person, place, or thing)
TO ADD IDEAS
first, second, next, last, etc. in addition additionally moreover furthermore another besides clear, too, is the answer does not only lie to all that more than anything else here are some ... facts now, of course, there are now however
whoever
him + he =
Part of speech is determined by
how a word is used in a sentence. A word can be more than one part of speech.
mood
how the writing makes ME the reader feel (happy, sad, upset)
Adjective Phrase
if the prepositional phrase answers which one, what kind, or how many, and it modifies a noun or pronoun., a prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or a pronoun (begins with a preposition) ex. No one in our class has seen the movie yet. A - in our class
monitor hypothesis
illustrates how the acquired system is affected by the learned system: when second language learners monitor their speech, they are applying their understanding of learned grammaer to edit, plan, and initiate their communication
Definite Pronouns
includes I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and all of their forms.
Adjective
is a word that modifies, or describes, a noun or a pronoun.
Verb
is a word that shows action (runs, hits, slides) or state of being (is, are, was, were, am, and so on). Definition. A Subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the verb.
nonrestrictive clause
is descriptive or explanatory and can be omitted without changing the essential meaning; example: My father, WHO WAS COACHING THE BASEBALL TEAM, met us at the ballpark.
helping verb
is not the main verb in a phrase; are added to another verb to make the meaning clearer; includes any forms of TO BE
simple subject
is the main word or words in a subject; example: My two older BROTHERS stared at me silently.
Indefinite Article
is the most commonly used adjective and is used before a noun that names a nonspecific person,place, thing, or idea.
Definite Article
is the most commonly used adjective and points to a specific person, place,thing, or idea.
object of the preposition
is the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition; example: The sands of the BEACH were white.
analytic language
language that uses very few bound morphemes--prefixes and suffixes and inflections or grammatical endings of nouns
relative pronoun
linked group of words preceding noun or pronoun; examples: who, which, that
preposition
links nouns and pronouns to the rest of the sentence
introduction
must capture your audience's attention, establish rapport and announce your purpose. sets the stage and tone for your message. Although the content and length of your introduction may vary with the assignment, the introduction should, at a minimum, clearly state your purpose ("bottom line") and the direction you plan to take the audience. • Stage-setting remarks set the tone of the communication, capture the audience's attention and encourage them to read further. Stage setting remarks are optional, so you can omit them in very short messages or in messages where you don't want to waste words. • The purpose statement is the one sentence you'd keep if you had only one. It specifically states your purpose, thesis or main point. • The overview is like a good roadmap—it clearly presents your main points, previews your paragraph sequence and ties your main points to your purpose.
Intensive pronouns
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Proper Noun
names a particular person, place, thing, or idea. They are words which name specific people, organisations or places. They always start with a capital letter. E.g. the Civil War, Monday, or Potter.
plural noun
names more than one person, place, or thing; example: principals, switches, communities, toys, leaves, roofs, radios, potatoes, feet, sheep
concrete noun
names things you can see and touch; examples: pizza, kitten, diamond
direct object
noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb; tells who or what receives the action; example: Bobby loved his PARENTS.
participle phrase
phrase that includes the participle, its modifier, and its objects; example: The child, FLASHING A MISCHIEVOUS SMILE, turned and walked away.
prepositional phrase
preposition + noun or pronoun
interrogative pronoun
pronoun that asks a question; examples: who, whom, whose, what, which
intensive
pronoun that emphasizes a noun or another pronoun and is not needed for the meaning of the sentence. ends in -self or -selves.
Nonstandard (American English)
pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar that differs from what is in dictionaries and prescriptive handbooks
preposition
relates a noun or pronoun to another word
Indicative
relating to the mood of verbs that is used simple declarative statements
parallelism
similarity by virtue of correspondence, the use of a series of words, phrases, or sentences that have similar grammatical form
conjunction
something that joins or connects, A word that connects other words, phrases, or sentences (and, but, or, because ).
Textual Competence
the ability to use language for a variety of purposes, such as stories, conversations, and letters
pragmatic competence
the ability to use language in interpersonal relationships, taking into account such complexities as social distance between speakers and an indirectness required in a given situation
development
the act of improving a prototype outlined paragraph by expanding, enlarging, and refining the state in which facts and thoughts are defined, organized, and communicated to the audience.
function
the actions and activities assigned to or required or expected of a person or group, the special purpose something is used for, The kind of action or activity proper to a person, thing, or institution; the purpose for which something is designed or exists; role.
Do Not Capitalize
the first word of a sentence enclosed in parentheses within another sentence unless the first word is a proper noun, the pronoun I, the first word of a quoted sentence, or begins a complete parenthetical sentence standing alone. The company finally moved (they were to have vacated 2 months ago) to another location. One of our secretaries (Carolyn Brown) will record the minutes of today's meeting. This is the only tree in our yard that survived the ice storm. (It's a pecan tree.)
climax
the high point or turning point in a story
theme
the idea about life revealed in a work of literature
noun
the name of a person, place or thing
3rd person limited
the narrator zooms in on the thoughts and feelings of just one character in the story
character
the person or animal around which the action in a story occurs
characterization
the process of revealing the personality of a character in a story
Transitive Verb
transfers action from the subject to the object.
Intransitive Verb
transfers no action and is followed by an adverb or nothing.
Predicate adjectives
when adjective follows a state of being verb e.g.: He looks sick. He seems tired. She is joyful. She is nice.
flashback
when the author remember or recalls something, returning to an earlier time in a story
style shifting
when the speaker adapts language use to the formality or informality of the situation ("goodbye" as opposed to "see ya!"
Proper Adjective
Formed from a proper noun.
Articles
The most frequently used adjectives (a, an, & the).
Object of the Preposition
The noun or pronoun that completes a prepositional phrase.
gradable adjective
an adjective that can occur with qualifiers
Verb
a word used to express an action, a condition, or a state of being.
interjection
a word used to express emotion
conjunction
a word used to join words or groups of words
the 3 articles
a, an, the
Participial phrase
A participle and its object and modifiers; used as an adjective. The committee considering your proposal should come to a decision this week. I prefer the cover sample printed in blue and yellow.
Noun
A person, place, thing, or idea.
Question
an instance of questioning or challenging the accuracy, probity, or propriety of,
Predicate Nominative
another name for predicate noun.
signal
any incitement to action, anything that serves to direct, guide, or warn, a sound or action that sends a message.
These and those
are plural, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. These points to something nearby while those points to something "over there."
This and that
are singular, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. This points to something nearby while that points to something "over there."
Compound adjective
A phrase or clause that qualifies, limits, or restricts the meaning of a word. Also referred to as a compound modifier.
Apostrophe
A punctuation mark used to show possession and contractions Ex. life's pleasures, life's good
Direct question
A question in its original form, as spoken or written. He then asked me, "What is your opinion?"
Past Participles
end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or-n Ex: asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen Used with have to form past tenses Ex: We have climbed. She had ridden.Used with BE to form the passive voice Ex: The floor is being scrubbed. The ball was kicked.
developmental errors
errors made when learning a language based on the speaker's incorrect inference of grammatical rules, for example in acquiring English a learner may say "he goed" instead of "he went"
open punctuation
excludes the comma before the final and, or, or nor. Will you go by car, train or plane? You will not talk, nor do homework nor sleep in my class.
independent clauses
expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence (main clause), clause with a subject and a predicate that expresses a complete thought that make sense by itself, but which are joined by coordinating conjunctions because they are related.
sentence
expresses a complete thought; example: My father travels around the country.
irregular verb
does not end with -ed to form the past participle; examples; (is, are, am / was / were) ; (has, have / had / had) ; (do, does / did / done) ; ate, grown, bought, sold, spent, taken, etc.
semantic feature
elements of meaning (like human/non-human, animate/non-animate) that affect how words can be combined
intensive pronoun
emphasizes its antecedent; adds emphasis to pronoun or named noun; examples: I MYSELF will go.
independent clause
expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a simple sentence
for and, nor, but, or, yet, and so
fanboys - two independent clauses can be combined with the conjunctions?
direct object
follows a transitive verb (active verb); can be nouns, pronouns; a simple formula is subject + verb+ who? what = direct object
Use a singular verb
for a compound subject that is preceded by each or every.
learned system
formal instruction in which students engage in forma study to acquire knowledge about the target language
Linking verbs
forms of verbs associated with five senses: look, sound, smell, feel, taste
clarity
free from obscurity and easy to understand, clearness in thought or expression, clearness or lucidity as to perception or understanding; freedom from indistinctness or ambiguity. written with precision.
prepositional phrase
gives a sentence detail; begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
Plural
grammatical number category referring to two or more items or units. Ex. people, dogs, bones
clause
group of words with a subject and a predicate
verb phrase
helping verb + main verb
supporting details
ideas that support, or back up, the main idea of a selection
Adverbial phrase
if the prepositional phrase answers when, where, why, to what extent, or under what conditions., A phrase that functions as an adverb, a linguistic term for a group of two or more words operating adverbially, when viewed in terms of their syntactic function; a phrase that collectively modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, or a prepositional phrase; a group of words that act like an adverb; is a group of words telling us where, when, how or with whom an action is done
Internal transitions
improve the flow of sentences, within a paragraph are one or more related words that show the relationship between ideas within a paragraph. Woven skillfully into your writing, internal transitions help your reader follow your line of thought. "First go home and then clean your room." repetition of key words at the beginning of individual sentences
Capitalize The First Word
in the salutation and complimentary closing of a letter. Dear Mr. McBride Sincerely Respectfully yours
Determiners: Definite determiners
include the definite article the, demonstratives (this, those, etc.), possessives (his, John's), question words (which), and quantifiers (all, etc.)
intransitive verb
includes all linking verbs and any action verbs that do not take an object; example: My friends CRIED.
closed punctuation
includes the comma before the final and, or or nor. Will you go by car, train, or plane? You will not talk, nor do homework, nor sleep in my class.
Relative Pronouns
includes words like who, whom, which, that.
TO RELATE THOUGHTS
indeed anyway, anyhow elsewhere nearby above all even these beyond in other words for instance of course in short in sum yet in reality that is by consequence notwithstanding nonetheless as a general rule understandably traditionally the reason, of course the lesson here is from all information at best naturally in the broader sense to this end in fact
adverb clause
is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb
object pronoun
is used as a direct/indirect object in a sentence; example: Rebecca gave ME a gift.
conjunction
joins a words or groups of words; can be AND, OR, or BUT; can be used to combine sentences; example: Janet lives in Austen, AND Elizabeth lives in New York.
synthetic language
language that uses large numbers of bound morphemes and often compbines strings of them to form a single word.
cognitive language
language which is received, processed into memory, integrated with knowledge already integrated, and made a part of the knowledge of the individual from which new ideas and concepts can be generated. It is part of the creative process that shapes the thought of each person
preposition
links a noun or pronoun to the rest of a sentence
conjunction
links words, phrases and clauses FANBOYS = for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
coherence
logical and orderly and consistent relation of parts, quality of a piece of writing in which all the parts contribute to the development of the central idea, theme, or organizing principle, a principle demanding that the parts of any composition be so arranged that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible, easy to understand
adjective clause
modifies a noun or a pronoun; majority of these clauses are introduced by relative pronouns such as WHO, WHOSE, WHOM, WHICH, and THAT; example: She lost the ring THAT YOU GAVE HER.
Non-essential Adj. Clause
modifies noun, "Bobert" set apart from sentence by commas who not essential to meaning of sentence Ex: Bobert, who is nice but a short guy, would like to take Tonie out sometime.
Both adjectives and adjective phrases or clauses can...
modify a noun
body
must be an effective sequence of ideas that flow logically in a series of paragraphs, the heart of your message. It includes your main ideas about your subject and supporting details under each main idea. typically consists of several paragraphs. The total number of paragraphs (and overall length of the body) will depend on your purpose and subject. As a general rule, write a separate paragraph for each main idea—you might confuse your reader if you have two or more main ideas in a single paragraph. In a longer communication, you may find it necessary to use more than one paragraph to cover one main point or idea.
clause
must have a subject and a verb; 2 types of clauses - independent and dependent
conclusion
must summarize the main points stated in the body and close smoothly. The conclusion is the last and often neglected part of a well-arranged communication. Sometimes inexperienced writers stop writing as soon as they finish discussing their last main idea. That's not an effective conclusion. The conclusion is your last chance to summarize your communication and give your audience a sense of closure. An effective conclusion often summarizes the overall theme and main points discussed in the body. If you have a simple, straightforward purpose, you might want to emphasize it by restating it in slightly different words in the conclusion. If you have a complicated purpose or a long, involved communication, you'll probably need to emphasize your main ideas and state your proposals or recommendations.
Concrete Nouns
name a person, place, or object that can be sensed through toughing, smelling, tasting, seeing, or hearing., Words for things which are visible and tangible e.g. 'potato', 'house', 'fox', Cookie, pen, pineapples, eyelashes.
Abstract Nouns
name a quality, a condition, or an idea. refer to intangible, nonphysical entities. They cannot be sensed through hearing, seeing, tasting, smelling, or touching. Represents a feeling and is intangible., Names we have for ideas, emotions, qualities, processes, occasions and times. Invisible and tangible. e.g. 'joy', 'gentleness', 'wedding',
Nominative or Objective Case of the Noun
noun in apposition.
predicate nominative
noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject; example: Lassie has been a CELEBRITY for decades.
predicate nominative
noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject; example: Susan B. Anthony was an early FEMINIST. (noun) / It was SHE who led the woman's suffrage movement to victory. (pronoun)
proper
noun that names a specific person place or thing that begins with a capital letter
possessive noun
noun that shows ownership or possession
advice
noun, counsel given, an opinion
conclusion
occurring at or forming an end or termination, to bring to an end, The final analysis; What more do I want my reader to know?; Sum it up; Reflect; Do not repeat key words; Let with a concluding transition, usually the last sentence in a paragraph; sums up topic idea, to influence policy and recommendations, requires theorist to be specific identify important/salient beliefs formulate predictions guidance to be persuasive, Restates argument , the last paragraph of a persuasive essay. It includes a call for action and an important strong thought the writer wants the reader to leave with. It includes no new information., the "then" part of a conditional statement
Capitalize The First Word
of direct questions and quotations placed within a sentence even if quotation marks are not used. The commander asked this question: How many of you are volunteers? The order read "Attack at dawn."
Capitalize The First Word
of every sentence fragment treated as a complete sentence. Really? No! So much for that. More discussion. No agreement. Another hour wasted.
Capitalize The First Word
of items shown in a list (using numbers, letters, or display dots) when a complete sentence introduces them. The commander listed the following responsibilities of liaison officers: a. Become familiar with the situation. b. Know the mission. c. Arrange for communications.
predicate
one of the two main constituents of a sentence, involve as a necessary condition of consequence, to declare; to assert; to say something about the subject.
Adverb
A word that limits or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Ex. Herman walks QUICKLY. Jane colors VERY WELL. Billy out the cat OUTSIDE EARLIER. (OUTSIDE modifies "put" with regard to location; EARLIER modifies "put" with regard to when it happened)
Participle
A word that may stand alone as an adjective or may be combined with helping (auxiliary) verbs to form different tenses. There are three forms: present, past, and perfect.
The Subjunctive
is used after the following verbs: to advise (that) to ask (that) to command (that) to demand (that) to desire (that) to insist (that) to propose (that) to recommend (that) to request (that) to suggest (that) to urge (that)
Adjective
A word that modifies a noun or a pronoun Can be used as a subject complement Answers the questions "which one," "what kind," and "how many" The presence of an adjective implies the presence of a noun or pronoun Ex: The red car
Holophrastic stage
one word communication
Do Not Capitalize
part of a quotation slogan or motto if it is not capitalized in the original quotation. General MacArthur said that old soldiers "just fade away."
fragment
part of a sentence
adverb
part of speech never is a complement
four levels of traditional grammar
parts of speech, parts of a sentence, phrases, clauses
chronological
pattern used for a narrative essay
spatial
pattern used for an essay about the structure of a cell
infinitive phrase
phrase that includes the infinitive, it's objects, and the objects modifiers
Demonstrative pronoun
points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea Ex. THAT car is the one I want. This, that, these, those,
three degrees of adjectives
positive, comparative, superlative
Observation
postdeterminers and limiter adjectives (e.g., a real hero, a perfect idiot) and adjectives subject to subjective measure (e.g., beautiful, interesting)
Sometimes the complete ____ and simple ___ are the same; example: Everyone SMILES.
predicate
infinitive
present tense of a verb preceded by the word TO; it may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb; example: TO EXERCISE is a healthful habit.
reflexive pronoun
pronoun that ends in -self or -selves
interrogative
pronoun that introduces a question
Between
refers to two.
compound sentence / s-v-c-s-v
s-v-con-s-v; a sentence with two or more coordinate independent clauses, often joined by one or more conjunctions
exclamatory
sentence expresses strong feeling; uses an ! point; example: Who could ever create a more imaginative scene!
imperative
sentence gives a command; uses a period; example: Think about all the uses for artwork.
interrogative
sentence that asks a questions; uses a ? mark; example: Who could ever create a more imaginative scene?
command
sentence that does not need a subject because the subject is understood to be you - the person being commanded
declarative
sentence that makes a statement; uses a period; example: Janelle is painting a picture of an imaginary place.
should
should does also, but it adds a slight coloring of doubt that the action will take place. Notice the difference in meaning in these sentences. <I shall be happy to call the VA Medical Center for you. I should be happy to call the VA Medical Center for you.> In indirect discourse should replaces the shall of direct discourse. <I shall call at once. I said that I should call at once.> Many speakers who use shall in the first person use would in preference to should. <I said I would call at once.> Should is used to express likelihood. <Sue Sizemore should be able to finish on time.> Should expresses obligation. <We should file these orders more carefully.>
Possessive pronouns
show ownership and never need apostrophes. E.g. mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
interjection
shows emotion but has no grammatical function
plural possessive noun
shows ownership by more than one person or thing; example: my friends' parents
Possesive Case Noun
shows ownership of another noun. MUST have an apostrophe. It is diagramed as an adjective.
possessive pronoun
shows ownership or possession of something; example: Jerome is learning about HIS ancestors.
preposition
shows the relationship between its object and another word in the sentence
preposition
shows the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to another word in the sentence; example: I walked ALONG the beach.
hypothetical situation
supposed for the sake of argument, an example., tells what would happen if something else were to happen first, uses past subjunctive: if clause (si + past subjunctive) result clause (conditional) What if....
personal pronoun
takes the place of a noun or nouns; they show number and gender; example: singular: I, me, my, mine, you, your, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its / plural: we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, they, them, their, theirs
future tense
tells that something will happen in the future; uses WILL with the verb; example: Dena WILL LAUGH at the jokes.
indirect object
tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done; example: Jack showed the DOG kindness.
demonstrative adjective
tells which one; examples: this, that, these, and those
Determiners, Determiner
term for an element preceding a noun in a noun phrase. EXAMPLE: the, that, two, a, many, all, etc.
Sentence patterns
the arrangement of independent and dependent clauses into known sentence constructions-such as simple,compound.complex,or compound-complex, s-v, s-v-o, s-lv- adjective complement, s-lv - subject complement
gender
the classification of English nouns and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter based on the sex of the person or thing referred to or on the conventional alignment of sex to inanimate objects
symbolism
something that represents something else- an object representing an idea
proper noun
specific person, place, thing
Include a ____ and a predicate in every sentence.
subject
Sometimes the complete ____ and simple ____ are the same; example: XAVIER stared at me silently.
subject
pronoun
takes the place of a noun
Noun phrase
A phrase that functions as a noun (such as a gerund phrase, an infinitive phrase, or a prepositional phrase). I like running my own business. (Gerund phrase as object] To provide the best possible service is our goal. Onfinitive phrase as subject.] Before 9 a.m. is the best time to call me. (Prepositional phrase as subject.]
Prepositional phrase
A preposition and its object and modifiers; may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. From Boston to Tulsa is about 1550 miles. (As a noun; serves as subject of is.) Profits in the automobile industry are up sharply this quarter. [As an adjective; indicates which type of profits.] You handled Dr. Waterman's objections with great skill. (As an adverb; indicates the manner in which the objections were handled.)
Proper Adjective
A proper adjective is an adjective formed by a noun, but act like adjectives and is always capitalized Ex. American, English, Red Sox
Declarative
A sentence that ends with a period.
Subject
A word, phrase, or clause that names the person, place, or thing about which something is said. (See Case, nominative.) The law firm with the best reputation in town is Barringer and Doyle. Whoever applies for the job from within the department will get special consideration.
Intransitive verb
A verb that does not require an object to complete its meaning. As market growth occurs and customer interest builds, our sales expectations are rising and top management's excitement has increased.
Action Verb
A verb that expresses either physical or mental activity.
Gerund
A verb that has been made into a noun by adding-ing Ex: I love working out as long as I have my music with me.
Helping (auxiliary) verb
A verb that helps in the formation of another verb. The chief helping verbs are be, can, could, do, have, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, would.
Articles
A, AN, THE
verb intransitive
ALWAYS a linking verb; is typically followed by a predicate adjective or predicate noun; acts like an equals sign
Words to replace SAID in your writing
Accepted, Accused, Acknowledged, Acquiesced, Additionally, Added, Addressed, Ad-libbed, Admitted, Admonished, Advised, Advocated, Affirmed, Agreed, Alleged, Allowed, Alluded, Announced, Answered, Anticipated, Appealed, Approved, Argued, Articulated, Asked, Assented, Asserted, Assumed, Assured, Assured, Attested, Avowed.
Adverbial conjunctive (or connective)
An adverb that connects the main clauses of a compound sentence; for example, however, therefore, nevertheless, hence, moreover, otherwise, consequently. Also referred to as a conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression
Modifier
A word, phrase, or clause that qualifies, limits, or restricts the meaning of a word. (See Adjective; Adverb; Compound adjective; Dangling modifier, Squinting modifier
Predicate adjective
Completes the sense of a linking verb. (Also called ^predicate complement.) These charges are excessive. (The adjective excessive refers to charge
Conjunctive adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs that behave like conjunctions but are punctuated differently Ex. however, therefore
Complete predicate
Consists of a verb and its complement along with any modifiers. Barbara has handled the job well.
Perfect participle
Consists of having plus the past participle; for example, having asked, having lost. When a participle functions as an adjective, it modifies a noun or a pronoun. The coming year poses some new challenges. (Modifies year) Having retired last year, I now do volunteer work. (Modifies /.) Because a participle has many of the characteristics of a verb, it may take an object and be modified by an adverb. The participle and its object and modifiers make up a. participial phrase. Seizing the opportunity, Orzo offered to buy the business. [Opportunity is the object of seizing.) Moving aggressively, we can control the market. [Aggressively modifies moving.)
Compound subject
Consists of two or more subjects joined by a conjunction and having the same verb., two or more subjects joined together usually by "and" or "or" that share a common verb, consists of two or more subjects that are joined by a coordinating or correlative conjunction and that have the same predicate/verb
Complex sentence
Contains a dependent clause and an independent clause. Ex: Because I do not feel well, I will not be attending the concert.
Conjunctions:
Coordinating Correlating Subordinating and, but, nor, for, or either/or both/and neither/nor when since because
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs - and are used to link equivalent (similar) sentence elements. When joining singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural. as . . . as, just as . . . so, both . . . and, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also, not . . . but, whether . . . or,
3 types of sentences
Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative
NORMING
During this stage, members reconcile competing loyalties and responsibilities. They accept the team, team ground rules (or "norms"), their roles in the team, and the individuality of fellow members. Emotional conflict is reduced as previously competitive relationships become more cooperative. As team members begin to work out their differences, they now have more time and energy to spend on the project. Thus, they are able to at last start making significant strides.
correlative conjunction
EITHER/OR, NEITHER/NOR, BOTH/AND join pairs of ideas
Intensive Pronoun
Emphasizes a noun or another pronoun.
Noun
Every name is called a NOUN, As field and fountain, street and town
THE PARTS OF SPEECH POEM
Every name is called a NOUN, As field and fountain, street and town In place of noun the PRONOUN stands As he and she can clap their hands The ADJECTIVE describes a thing, As magic wand and bridal ring The VERB means action, something done - To read, to write, to jump, to run How things are done, the ADVERBS tell, As quickly, slowly, badly, well The PREPOSITION shows relation, As in the street, or at the station CONJUNCTIONS join, in many ways, Sentences, words, or phrase and phrase The INTERJECTION cries out, 'Hark! I need an exclamation mark!' Through Poetry, we learn how each of these make up THE PARTS OF SPEECH .
Every one is two words when the meaning is each one.
Everyone / Every one?
Past Perfect Tense
Expresses action which began in the past and was completed in the past.
Past Tense
Expresses action which is completed at a particular time in the past.
Present Tense
Expresses action which is happening at the present time, or which happens continually, regularly.
Ask who or what before the verb
Finding Subjects
use which to introduce the next clause
If this, that, these, or those has already introduced an essential clause, you may do what to the next clause, whether it is essential or nonessential? That is a decision which you must live with for the rest of your life. Those ideas, which we've discussed thoroughly enough, do not need to be addressed again.
a preposition
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "at"? Class starts at 8:00.
be to
Indicates future events but hints at uncertainty. <He is to have that report to us tomorrow.>
Active Voice
Indicates that the subject of the verb is acting - doing something.
Passive Voice
Indicates that the subject of the verb is being acted upon.
Interjection
Is included in a sentence in order to commincate strong emotion or suprise.
Conjunctions
It is also called a coordinate conjunction or connecting word The conjunctions are: and, for, or, nor, so, yet, but If used at the beginning of the second indpendent clause a comma is needed. It is always before the coordinating conjunction
Subordinate Conjunction
Joins dependent clauses together Ex. after, although, as
Coordinate Conjunction
Joins independent clauses and equals together Ex. for, and, yet, so, but, or
Compound Noun
Made up of two or more words used together as a single noun. like a derivitave. It is two words put together to make one word. E.g. toothpaste, seafood, onlooker.
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs behave very differently from normal verbs. A good way to remember them: You use "not" to make modal verbs negative. EXAMPLE: He should not be late.
Adverb
Modifies a verb or an adjective.
compound
Mother-in-law, skyscraper, Eiffel Tower: two or more nouns put together
nouns
Name people, places, things, ideas.
Collective Nouns
Names a group Ex: flock
Nouns
Names a person, place, thing, action or abstract idea. <woman, office, pencil, game, Ohio, Maxwell AFB, democracy, freedom>
Common Nouns
Names generic persons, places, things, or ideas Are not capitalized Ex: pen
Concrete Noun
Names of an object that can be perceived by one or more of the senses. names things that we experience through our senses, sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste. Most nouns are are these types of nouns. E.g. Cats, dogs, tables, chairs, buses, and teachers are all concrete nouns. The opposite of this type of noun is an abstract noun.
Concrete Nouns
Names tangible objects Ex: table
before or after
No space ___ __ ___ an em dash (—) or en dash (-) within a sentence.
Universal Grammar (UG)
Noam Chomsky/Aspects of the Theory of Syntax: belieft that language acquistion was innate--not acquired.
dare
Originally a modal only, it is now used primarily in negatives or questions. <He dare not submit the report in that form. Dare we submit the report like this?>
modifier
Place a ___ as close to the word it describes; example: (incorrect: The man looks like a spy WITH THE HAT. / correct: The man WITH THE HAT looks like a spy.)
compound predicate nominative
Predicate nominatives sometimes contain more than one noun. These are called ____. example: Mahatma Ghandi was a Hindu religious LEADER and a social REFORMER in India.
assumptions
Premises for which no proof or evidence is offered., opinions and beliefs, often unstated, that direct our choice of ideas, support, writing strategies and language, the taken-for-granted notions of how something should be
can
Primarily expresses ability; cannot is used to deny permission.
Person
Pronouns that denote the speaker (first person; I, we), the person spoken to (second person, you), or the person spoken of (third person; she, they).
Decision briefing
Purpose is to produce an answer to a question or obtain a decision on a specific problem. • Briefer must be prepared to present Assumptions Facts Alternative solutions Reasons/rationale for recommended solutions(s) Coordination involved Visual information • Briefer states he/she is looking for a decision; asks for decision if one is not forthcoming at conclusion. • Advises appropriate staff elements of commander's decision after the briefing.
Conduct Research
Remember: information must be objective -Non-biased -Factual, The analysis of data collected from a homogeneous group of subjects who meet study inclusion and exclusion criteria for the purpose of answering specific research questions or testing specified hypotheses
Superlative degree
See Comparison, superlative.
Compound-Complex
Sentence Types: If the sentence has two independent clauses and a dependent clause, it is compound and it is complex.
Compound
Sentence Types: One sentence contains a subject and verb, and the second sentence contains another subject and verb.
Noun Clause
Functions as a noun and can be used in 4 ways: 1) Subject of a sentence Ex: What the Chairman proposed was not practical. 2) DIrect obeject of a verb Ex: I hope that you will be promoted. 3) Prediate noun Ex: The rumor was that he had lef the city. 4) Object of a preposition Ex: Give the message to whoever is in the office.
adverb; If it can have an -ly added to it, place "how" there.
Generally, if a word answers the question how, it is an adverb. If it can have an -ly added to it, place it there.
common pronouns
I, me, mine, my, we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, he, she, him, her, his, it, them, them, their, theirs, its
Tense
Indicates time.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Pronouns that point to specific things. i.e. this, that, there, and those. (this, these refer to things near the speaker. that, those refer to nouns further away)
Indefinite Pronoun
Refers to a person, a place, a thing, or an idea that may or may not be specifically named.
Reflexive Pronoun
Refers to the subject and functions as a complement or an object of a preposition.
verbs
Show action
simple sentence
Sentence having only a subject and a verb construction , having few parts, without descriptive embellishment, a sentence having no coordinate clauses or subordinate clauses
Interrogative Sentences
Sentences that ask a direct question. Always ends with a question mark.
Imperative Sentences
Sentences that give direct commands to someone. Can end with a period or an exclamation point.
Run-on sentence
Several thought incorrectly joined are not grammatically correct. Ex. I like to ice skate my brother does not.
shall
Shall expresses futurity in the first person;
prepositions
Show manner, place, time, condition. Usually in phrases followed by noun or pronoun.
verbs
Show state of being or condition
Preposition
Shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence. <by, at, up, down, between, among, through>
Colon
Signals the reader that a list, explanation, or restatement of the preceding will follow. It is like an arrow, indicating that something more is to come. Information preceding this mark should be a complete sentence.
4 sentence structures
Simple Compound Complex Complex-compound
Article
Small set of words used with nouns to limit or give definiteness to the application. <a, an, the>
could
Sometimes the past tense of can. <We could see the Big Dipper last night.> Otherwise, could expresses possibility, doubt or something dependent on unreal conditions. <We could see the Big Dipper if it weren't overcast.>
STORMING
Storming is probably the most difficult stage for the team. You may ask yourself, "What was I thinking?" The team members begin to realize the task is different and more difficult than they imagined, becoming testy, blameful, or overzealous. Impatient about the lack of progress, but still too inexperienced to know much about decision making or the scientific approach, members argue about just what actions the team should take. They try to rely solely on their personal and professional experience, resisting any need for collaborating with other team members. Their behavior means team members have little energy to spend on progressing towards the team's goal. Still, they are beginning to understand one another.
Infinitive (noun and subject of the sentence
TO WALK was his goal. (_____ used as _____)
Predicate
Tells what the subject does or what is done to the subject, or the state of being the subject is in.
Interjection
The INTERJECTION cries out, 'Hark! I need an exclamation mark!'
Help Clarify Meaning
The additional comma specified in closed punctuation may?
parenthetical elements
The boy, as slow as ever, marched into class.
Infinitive
The form of the verb usually introduced by to. An infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. (See Phrase. NOUN: To find affordable housing these days is not easy. (Subject.) She is trying to do a hatchet job on my proposal. (Object.} ADJECTIVE: I still have two more contracts to draft (Modifies contracts.) ADVERB: He resigned to take another position. (Modifies resigned.)
Participial phrase (adjective)
The horse WINNING THE RACE belongs to me. (_____ used as _____)
addresses
The house was located on 342 Ameswood St., Kaneohe, Hawaii 96796.
Terminal (end) punctuation
The period, the question mark, and the exclamation point—the three marks that may indicate the end of a sentence. NOTE: When a sentence breaks off abruptly, a dash may be used to mark the end of the sentence. When a sentence trails off without really ending, ellipsis marks (three spaced periods) are used to mark the end of the sentence.
Indirect object
The person or thing indirectly affected by the action of the verb. The indirect object can be made the object of the preposition to or for. Molly gave (to] me a hard time about my sales performance this quarter.
Direct object
The person or thing that is directly affected by the action of the verb. (The object in each of the three sentences above is a direct object.)
Object
The person or thing that receives the action of a transitive verb. An object may be a word, a phrase, or a clause. (See Case, objective.) I need a new laptop computer. (Word.] She prefers to work with hard copy. (Infinitive phrase.] We did not realize that your deadline was so tight. (Clause.]
Prepositional phrase
The preposition and its object form a _____________. Ex. Bill drew a circle AROUND THE SUBJECT. (AROUND is the preposition, SUBJECT is the object of the preposition)
Positive degree of Comparison
The simple form; for example, new, efficient (adjectives); soon, quietly (adverbs).
Active Voice
The subject performs the action denoted by the verb. i.e. the cat eats the fish.
Prepositional phrase (adverb)
The team ran ACROSS THE FIELD. (_____used as _____)
Simple predicate
The verb alone, without regard for any complement or modifiers that may accompany it. Barbara has handled the job well.
Adverbial Clause
These clauses tell how, when, where, and to what extent an action is performed These clauses also modify: 1) verbs 2) adjectives 3) other adverbs
decision making
the cognitive process of reaching a decision, evaluating alternatives and making choices among them, The process by which managers respond to opportunities and threats by analyzing options and making determinations about specific organizational goals and courses of action.
parts of speech
the eight kinds of words in English
interlanguage
the language form produced by speakers acquiring a second language that combines linguistic features from both their native and their new languages
theme
the moral of the story. a statement about how life is
main idea
the most important or main part of a story or passage
sequence
the order in which the events in a selection occur
resolution
the part of the story where the problem is solved
Antecedents:
the person or thing that defines the pronoun in a sentence e.g.: Joe worked in the post office and he enjoyed it. (Joe is the antecedent.)
author's purpose
the reason the author wrote the story
rhyme
the repetition of accented vowel sounds and all sounds following them in words close together in a poem
function
the role a word or phrase plays in a sentence
Chronological
the science that deals with determining details and events, arranges speech topic according to the sequential order in which events or steps occurred When you use this pattern, you discuss events, problems or processes in the sequence of time in which they take place or should take place (past to present or present to future). This commonly used pattern is used in writing histories, tracing the evolution of processes, recording problem conditions, and documenting situations that evolve over time. This approach is also used in official biographies, which are written in chronological order because they serve as a history of the member's professional career.
plot
the series of related events that make up a story
form class
the set of words capable of changing form through the addition of inflectional and derivational morphemes
number
the singular or plural state of nouns and pronouns
Active Voice
the subject performs action in the sentence or is the thing described by a predicate adjective. Ex. John carried the papers to the desk or John is a thoughtful boy.
setting
the time and place in which the action of a story occurs
foreshadowing
the use of clues to hint at events that will happen later in the story
onomatopoeia
the use of words with sound that echo their sense
Predicate Noun
the who or What... follows a linking verb. Identifies or renames the subject. It is in the predicate part of the sentence and completes the meaning of the verb. It renames, or defines, the subject., a noun that follows a linking verb. It defines the subject by telling what it is.
Avoid overusing
there is, there are, it is, it was, and so on.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE:
they are thinking
PRESENT EMPHATIC:
they do think
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:
they had been thinking
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:
they have been thinking
PAST PROGRESSIVE:
they were thinking
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:
they will have been thinking
the natural order hypothesis
this hypothesis argures that there is a natural order to the way second language learners acquire their taget language, and that order transcends, age, the native language, the target language, and the conditions under which the second language is being learned
types of demonstrative pronouns
this, that, these, those
Use the he/him method
to decide which word is correct. he = who him = whom
Parse
to describe a word by stating its part of speech, form, and syntactical relationship in a sentence. To examine closely or subject to detailed analysis, especially by breaking up into components., analyze syntactically by assigning a constituent structure to (a sentence), to separate (a sentence) into parts and describe the funciton of each
Use a hyphen
to join duplicate prefixes. re-redirect sub-subcommittee super-superlative
Topical classification
to present groups of ideas, objects or events by categories. This is a commonly used pattern to present general statements followed by numbered listings of subtopics to support, explain, or expand the statements. A topical pattern usually follows some logical order that reflects the nature of the material and the purpose of the communication. For example, if you are giving a briefing on helicopters, you might separate them into light, medium, and heavy lift capabilities and briefly describe the weight limits for each category. You could begin with the lightest capability and move to the heaviest or begin with the heaviest and move to the lightest. Tip: To help your readers absorb complex or unfamiliar material, consider organizing your material to move from the most familiar to the unfamiliar or from the simplest category to the most complex. When using this pattern, experiment to find the arrangement that will be most comfortable for your audience.
compound-complex,
two independent clauses and at least one subordinate, A sentence that contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
compound predicate
two or more predicates for the subject
compound predicate
two or more predicates with the same subject; usually joined by AND or OR; example: We WILL FIND the card catelog or WILL ASK the librarian for help.
run-on
two or more sentences joined together without any punctuation
compound subject
two or more simple subjects with the same predicate; example: JON congratulated the actress. STACY congratulated the actress. --> JON and STACY congratulated the actress.
identify the subject of a sentence, determine whether it's singular or plural, and then choose a verb in the same number and keep it near its subject.
The key to avoiding most problems in subject-verb agreement is to
Antecedent
The noun the pronoun replaces Named so because it goes (cede) before (ante) its pronoun Ex: Hamlet was he... Note: are not always present
Antecedent
The noun which the pronoun refers to or replaces. Each pronoun must agree with the antecedent in number, person, and gender.
Voice
The property of a verb that indicates whether the subject acts or is acted upon.
who
use as a subject pronoun; example: _____ is not going?
subject pronoun
used as a subject or part of a the subject in a sentence; WE are ready to go.
Relative Pronoun
used to relate to another noun in the sentence Ex. The chef WHO won the proze studied in Paris Who, whom, whoever, whomever, that, which
direct characterization
used when a writer simply states the character's traits, or characteristics
Coordinating Conjunctions
usually comes in the middle of a sentence, and a comma is used before the it (unless both clauses are very short). They join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses.
point of view
vantage point from which a story is told
gerund
verb + ing used as a noun; example: SWIMMING is a good exercise.
gerund
verb acting like a noun; ends in -ing
participle
verb acting like an adjective ends in -ing or -ed
Simple Present Tense
verb tense that describes present action or condition. Ex. Hear, Play Run
Present Progressive Tense
verb tense that shows action in progress. Ex. Am hearing, Is playing, Are running
Future Tense
verb tense that shows an action that will or will not happen in the futrure. Ex. Will hear, Won't play, Will runn
Past Prgressive Tense
verb tense that shows past action that took place over a period of time. Ex. Was hearing, Were playing, Was running
Present Perfect Progressive Tense
verb tense to describe an action that began in the pas, continues to the present and may continue into the future. Ex. Has been hearing, Have been playing, Has been running
Future Perfect Tense
verb tense to express an action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the future. Ex. Will have heard, Will have played, Will have run.
intransitive
verb that does not transfer the action of the subject to a word in the predicate
participle
verb that functions as an adjective; example: A RUNNING horse galloped down the road.
helping
verb that helps the main verb express action or a state of being
past tense
verb that tells something that happened in the past; example: Dena LAUGHED at the jokes.
present tense
verb that tells something that is happening now; example: Dena LAUGHS at the jokes.
verb tense
verb that tells the time of the action or being
transitive
verb that transfers the action of the subject to a word in the predicate
Auxiliary or Helping Verb
verb used with another verb to form voice or perfect and progressive tenses. <We have eaten there before.>
Gerund:
verb with -ing attached to it - functions as a noun e.g.: I like running. Thinking is my favorite thing to do.
Simple Past Tense
verbe tense that shows completed action Ex. Heard, played, ran
Irregular Verb
verbs that form past tense and past participle differently: E.g. become became become break broke broken bring brought brought buy bought bought catch caught caught choose chose chosen
to describe one thing
we would say poor, as in, "She is poor."
independent and dependent clauses
what are the two types of clauses???
predicate
what the subject is doing; always a verb
Close Apposition
when a noun in apposition is closely related to the word it follows. It is not set off by commas.
antecedent
when using pronoun, the noun to which it refers; example: HE heard. NICHOLAS heard. // pronouns should agree with number and gender; example: NICHOLAS heard a LIBRARIAN tell STORIES.
fewer
when we're talking about countable things, we use the word
less
when we're talking about measurable quantities that we cannot count, we use the word
adverb questions
when, where, how, to what degree
introduces nonessential clauses.
which The product claiming "all natural ingredients," which appeared in the Sunday newspaper, is on sale. The product is already identified. Therefore, which begins a _____ _____?
subject
who or what is doing the action in a sentence; always a noun
Interrogative pronouns
who, what, when, where, how
Relative pronouns
who, whom, whose, what, which, that
Relative Pronouns
who, whom, whose, which, that
subject
whom or what the sentence is about; example: One PERSON described her experience.
verb
word that shows action or state of being
adverb
words that describes verbs, adjectives, or other -----; answers when, where, how, to what extent; modifies a verb, adjective, or -----; tells how, when, where, or to what extent; example: Our skates move EFFORTLESSLY. (how) or The ice is glistening NOW. (when) *most ----- are formed by adding -ly to an adjective*
Plagiarism
Using someone else's writing as if it were your own. This serious offense can lead to severe professional and legal consequences. If using another person's material, identify the borrowed passage and credit the author.
Fragments Caused by Verbals
Verbals are verb forms that act as other parts of speech. They can easily trick a writer into mistaking a phrase for a sentence b/c they like verbs, but do not act as verbs. Rember: An-ing word by itself can never act as the verb of a sentence. To qualify as a verb, it must have an auxiliary word such as have, is, or were. An infinitive, such as to run, to go, and so on can never act as the verb of a sentence. Fragment: To send the ringleaders to the principal's office. That was one possible response. Correct: To send the ringleaders to the principal's office was one possible response.
Verbs
Verbs tell of something to be done - To read, count, sing, to laugh or run.
What questions do adjectives ask?
What kind? Which one? How many?
singular verbs
When either and neither are subjects, they always take ? Neither of them is available to speak right now. Either of us is capable of doing the job.
Use an em Dash (—)
With a question mark or an exclamation mark: When a sentence contains a question or exclamation that is set off by dashes, put the appropriate punctuation mark before the closing dash. I'll attend Friday's meeting—is it being held at the same place?—but I'll have to leave early for another appointment. He's busy now, sir—wait, don't go in there!—I'll call you when he's free.
Use a comma
With afterthoughts (words, phrases or clauses added to the end of a sentence). It isn't too late to get tickets, is it? Send them as soon as possible, please. NOTE: The word too does not require a comma if located at the end of a sentence
Use a Question Mark
With elliptical (shortened) questions and to express more than one question within a sentence. You rang? For what purpose? Was the speaker interesting? Convincing? Well versed? Who approved the sale? When? To whom? For what amount?
Use a comma
With titles following personal names. (Jr. and Sr. are set off by commas; 2d, 3d, II, and III are not.) Lee B. Walker, Sr. Henry Ford II William Price, Esq James Stokes 3d In text: Lee B. Walker, Sr., is ... NOTE: When you must show possession drop the comma following Jr. and Sr. Lee Walker, Sr.'s car is ...
Nonessential elements
Words, phrases, or clauses that are not needed to complete the structure or meaning of a sentence.
would
Would still indicates past time in expressing determination. <You thought you would finish by 4 p.m.> Would expresses customary action in past time. <Our last supervisor would bring us doughnuts every Friday morning.> Would points to future time, but adding doubt or uncertainty. Notice the difference in meaning. <I will if I can. I would if I could.> Would replaces will in indirect discourse. <He said that he would call.>
problem and solution
You can use this pattern to identify and describe a problem and one or more possible solutions, or an issue and possible techniques for resolving the issue. Discuss all facets of the problem—its origin, its characteristics, and its impact. When describing the proposed solution, include enough support to convince your readers the solution is practical and cost effective. After presenting your solution, you may want to identify immediate actions required to implement the solution. The problem/solution pattern may be used in several variations: • One Solution: Discuss the problem and follow with the single, most logical solution. • Multiple Solutions: Discuss the problem, several possible solutions, the effects of each and your recommendation. • Multiple Solutions, Pro-Con: This popular format includes a discussion of the advantages ("Pros") and disadvantages ("Cons") of each solution. Remember that a problem-solution pattern is not a format for a personal attack on an adversary; it's simply a systematic approach to use in persuading people either to accept your ideas or to modify their own ideas.
cause and effect
You can use this pattern to show how one or more ideas, actions or conditions lead to other ideas, actions or conditions. Two variations of this pattern are possible: (1) begin with the effect, then identify the causes; or (2) begin with the causes, then identify the effects. The technique you use depends on the context of your discussion. Sometimes an effect-to-cause approach is used when your purpose is to identify WHY something happened. When might you use this approach? Let's say you are the president of the Safety Investigation Board following a fatal aircraft mishap (the effect). Your report might begin by describing the mishap itself, and then explain the factors that led up to the mishap and conclude with your determination of one or more causes for the effect. Sometimes a cause-to-effect pattern is used when your purpose is to explain how current actions or conditions (causes) may produce future consequences (effects). Be careful to avoid faulty logic traps when writing about cause and effect. You're guilty of a false cause fallacy when you assume one event causes a second event merely because it precedes the second event. You're guilty of a single cause fallacy when you assume only one factor caused an outcome, when in fact there are multiple causes.
clause
a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb, a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate, clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.
sentence
a group of words that express a complete thought; must have a subject and predicate
direct object
a noun or pronoun that follows an action verb; they tell or what receives the action; example: I inherited a pet DEER from the former residents of my house. (tells what) or The surgical team asked DR. HABIB to explain the procedure. (tells who)
appositive
a noun that identifies or explains the noun or pronoun it follows; usually set off by commas; example: Robert Miller, the JUDGE, sentenced the criminal to prison.
Noun; singular verb, plural verb
With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so forth —look at the ___ in your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a ___. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a ___.
Conjunctions
Words that connect or link two parts of a sentence are called conjunctions (see "to conjoin"). The most common ones are 'and', 'or' and 'but'. There are three basic types of conjunctions: 1. coordinating conjunctions used to connect two independent clauses, 2. subordinating conjunctions used to establish the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence, and 3. correlative conjunctions, joining various sentence elements which are grammatically equal.
Intensive Pronouns
-self or -selves pronouns that are used to intensify the emphasis on a noun or another pronoun Ex: I myself agree with that idea.
analogy
...
anticlimactic
...
contrast
...
descriptive
...
dialogue
...
narrative
...
opinion
...
particular
...
Interjection
Words used to express emotion or surprise (ah, alas, great, hooray, help, etc.) Strong interjections are punctuated with an exclamation point. (Wow! That's profound.) Milder interjections are often set off by commas, usually at the beginning of a sentence. <Oh, I guess it wasn't. Ouch, that hurts.>
Nonessential (nonrestrictive) phrase.
A phrase that can be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence. The Stanforth-Palmer Company, one of the country's largest financial services organizations, expanding into satellite communications.
Essential elements
Words, phrases, or clauses needed to complete the structure or meaning of a sentence. (See also Clause; Phrase)
Words that describe cause and effect
"...reason for an action...come into being" Accordingly, After, As a result, Because, Because of this, Begin, Bring about, Bring on, By reason of, By the way, By-product, Cause, Caused by, Consequence, Consequently, Created, Due to, Effect, Effected, Eventually, Feedback, Following, For this reason, Further, Furthermore, Generate, Gradual, Hence, Impact, In conclusion, In fact, In view of, Incentive, Incidentally, Launched, Of course, On account of, Otherwise, Owing to, Produced, Reason, Result, Resulted in, Since, Started, Subsequently, The aftermath, The end product, The end result, The outcome, The ramifications, Then, There upon, Thus, To this end,
infinitive
"to" followed by the base form of a verb
biography
(form of nonfiction) a ___________ is a story that the author writes about someone else's life
phoneme
(linguistics) one of a small set of speech sounds that are distinguished by the speakers of a particular language
When to use a comma
1. In a series 2. With a long introductory phrase (not a short phrase, unless it includes a verb form being used as another form of speech: "When eating, Mary..." or "Having decided to leave, James...") 3. To separate sentences with two main ideas 4. To separate an introductory subordinate clause: "Whenever I can, I try to..." 5. To slow the flow of the sentence: appositives, interjections, direct address, tag questions, geographical names and addresses, transitional words and phrases, parenthetical words and phrases, unusual word order) 6. With nonrestrictive elements 7. To set off direct quotations or contrasting elements. 8. In dates
Steps to find out what the prepositional phrase modifies
1. Locate the preposition 2. Look at the word to the immediate left. 3. What does the prepositional phrase tell about (modify) that word? 4. What question does it answer? ADJ-Noun/ADV-Verb 5. Is it modifying a noun or a verb? 6. If the prepositional phrase does not tell about the word to its left, then look at the verb. **It is always possible to insert the preposition "to" or "for" before the IO without changing the sense of the sentence.
STATING THE RESEARCH QUESTION
1. Name your topic: I am studying ... 2. Imply your question: Because I want to find out/show you who/how/why ... 3. State the rationale for the question and the project: In order to understand/explain how/why/what ... Once you have your focus narrowed, and you know just what you want to study, it is time to begin the hunt for what others have written on the same, or similar, subjects.
evaluating theories
1. Parsimony: As simple as possible. 2. Breadth: How many different kinds of observations can your theory explain, how broad a theory is. 3. Generativity: How many people want to test your theory, it has to be usable, a theory that doesn't generate research is a bad theory., generate research questions about the relationship between variables that can be addressed by the correlational research design, *nature vs nurture
pragmatics
1. using language appropriately for different social situations 2. changing one's language according to the listener's needs (volume, change in vocabulary) 3. following rules for conversing with others, such a taking turns, staying on topic, not standing too close, and rephrasing when necessary
paragraph structure
1: topic sentence, 2-4: supporting details, 5: clincher, a framework that brings order and purpose to a group of sentences, intro-clincher, thesis statement body 1,2,3,4... topic sentence, supporting facts, transition, conclusion, All paragraphs that you write in this class must have an introduction-also known as a topic sentence. Your topic sentence is your promise to your reader, and you must keep your promise. A well-organized paragraph supports and develops a single controlling idea, and you topic sentence lets the reader know what you will write about. The topic sentence also previews the structure of the your paper. Keep your promise!
How many basic parts of speech are there?
8
weak clause
A ____ ____ begins with words such as although, since, if, when, and because. _____ clauses cannot stand on their own. Examples: Although she is hungry... If she is hungry... Since I am feeling well...
Nonessential (nonrestrictive) clause
A dependent clause that adds descriptive information but could be omitted without changing the meaning of the main (independent) clause. Such clauses are separated or set off from the main clause by commas. She has had a lot of success with her latest book, which deals with corporate finance. Her latest book, which deals with corporate financial analysis, has sold quite well
Essential (restrictive) clause
A dependent clause that cannot be omitted without changing the meaning of the main (independent) clause. Essential clauses are not set off by commas. The magazine that came yesterday contains an evaluation of new software.
Noun clause
A dependent clause that functions as a noun in the main clause. Whether the proposal will be accepted remains to be seen. (Noun clause as subject) They thought that the plan was a failure. (Noun clause as object) Then he said, "Who gave you that information?" (Noun clause as object)
Gerund phrase
an -ing verb form used as a noun
Verb
A word which expresses action or state of being.
Noun
A word which is the name of something: a person, place, thing, or idea.
Adverbial clause
A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in its relation to the main clause. Adverbial clauses indicate time, place, manner, cause, purpose, condition, result, reason, or contrast. These orders can be filled as soon as stock is received. (Time.) I was advised to live where the climate is dry. (Place.) She worked as though her life depended on it (Manner.) Please write me at once if you have any suggestions. (Condition.) Because our plant is closed in August, we cannot fill your order now. (Reason.]
Adjective clause
A dependent clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun in the main clause. Adjective clauses are joined to the main clause by relative pronouns (which, that, who, whose, whom). Their bill, which includes servicing, seems reasonable. (Modifies bill.)
Clause
A group of related words containing a subject and a predicate. An independent clause (also known as a main clause or principal clause) expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause) does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. I will go (independent clause) if I am invited [dependent clause].
Phrase
A group of two or more words without a subject and a predicate; used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. (See Predicate.)
Collective noun
A noun that represents a group of persons, animals, or things; for example, audience, company, flock.
Use a Question Mark
A question mark is placed inside the closing quotation mark only when it applies to the quoted material or when the same punctuation is required for both the quotation and the sentence as a whole. She asked, "Did you enjoy the trip?" [Question mark belongs with quoted material.] Why did he ask, "When does it start?" [Question mark is same as ending punctuation.] Did you say, "I'll help out"? [Quoted material is not a question; therefore, question mark applies to the sentence as a whole.]
Independent question
A question that represents a complete sentence but is incorporated in a larger sentence. The main question is, Who will translate this idea into a clear plan of action?
Direct quotation
A quotation of words exactly as spoken or written. I myself heard Ed say, "I will arrive in Santa Fe on Tuesday."
Indirect question
A restatement of a question without the use of the exact words of the speaker. He then asked me what my opinion was.
Indirect quotation
A restatement of a quotation without the use of the exact words of the speaker. I myself heard Ed say that he would arrive in Santa Fe on Tuesday.
Complex sentence
A sentence consisting of one independent clause (also called the main clause) and one or more dependent clauses. We will make an exception to the policy if circumstances warrant.
Simple sentence
A sentence consisting of one independent clause. I have no recollection of the meeting.
Declarative Sentence
A sentence stating a fact or argument without requiring response. It makes a statement and ends in a period.
Imperative sentence
A sentence that expresses a command or a request. (The subject you is understood if it is not expressed.) Send a check at once. Please let us hear from you.
Declarative sentence
A sentence that makes a statement. Our company is continually testing cutting-edge technologies.
Contraction
A shortened form of a word or phrase in which an apostrophe indicates the omitted letters or words; for example, don't for do not.
-ly word
A special -ly rule applies when four of the senses - taste, smell, look, feel - are the verbs. Do not ask if these senses answer the question how to determine if -ly should be attached. Instead, ask if the sense verb is being used actively. If so, use the -ly.
Adjective clause
A subordinate clause that functions as an adjective These clauses are dependent and limit nouns or pronouns
Collective
A type of noun that describes a group of nouns as a singular unit. Ex. gaggle of geese, murder of crows
Common
A type of noun that is not specific; not a name. Ex. dog, dogs, people
Proper
A type of noun that is specific; a name. Must be capitalized. Ex. Charlie, Chicago, California
Passive voice
A verb is in the passive voice when its subject is acted upon. The report was reviewed in draft form by about a dozen people.
Linking verb
A verb that connects a subject with a predicate adjective, noun, or pronoun. The various forms of to be are the most commonly used linking verbs. Become, look, seem, appear, and grow are also used as linking verbs. Laura seemed willing to compromise, but Frank became obstinate in his demands. Was he afraid that any concession might make him appear a fool?
Restrictive elements
A word or group of words that are vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are NOT set off by commas: The girl WHO WROTE THE STORY is my sister.
Verb
A word or phrase (was writing, has been sewing) that shows action (writing, sewing) or a state of being (is, are, am, was, were).
Antecedent
A word or phrase that a subsequent word refers back to Ex: I'll give this to Mary if I see her. (HER is the antecedent of Mary)
Complement
A word or phrase that completes the sense of the verb. It may be an object, a predicate noun, a predicate pronoun, or a predicate adjective. the term complement is used to refer only to a predicate noun, pronoun, or adjective following a linking verb.
Verb
A word or phrase used to express action or state of being. Enniston has boosted its sales goals for the year. (Action.] My son-in-law was originally a lawyer, but he has now become a computer-game designer. (State of being.)
Adjective
A word that answers the question what kind (excellent results), how many (Jour laptops), or which one (the latest) data. An adjective may be a single word (a wealthy man), a phrase (a man of great wealth), or a clause (a man who possesses great wealth). An adjective modifies the meaning of a noun (loose cannon) or a pronoun (unlucky me, I was wrong
Adverb
A word that answers the question when, where, why, in what manner, or to what extent. An adverb may be a single word (speak clearly), a phrase (speak in a clear voice), or a clause (speak as clearly as you can). An adverb modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. (See also Clause, adverbial.) We closed the deal quickly. (Modifies the verb closed.) Caroline seemed genuinely pleased. (Modifies the adjective pleased.) My presentation went surprisingly well. (Modifies the adverb well.)
Compounding
A word that consists of two or more elements that are independent words Ex: Loud speaker, baby sit
Connective
A word that joins words, phrases, or clauses. The chief types of connectives are conjunctions, adverbial conjunctives, prepositions, and relative pronouns.
ACTION VERB
Accomplished Compared Compelled Competed Compiled Completed Composed Comprehend Computed Conceived Concentrated Conducted Conformed Confronted Considered Consolidated Consulted Contacted Continued Contract Contributed Controlled Cooperate Coordinated Created Cultivated Delegated Demonstrated Deterred Developed Devised Displayed Dominated Drove Elicited Embodied Emerged Emulated Encouraged Endeavored Energized Enforced Enhanced Enriched Ensured Escalated Established Exceeded Excelled Expanded Expedited Exploited Explored Fabricated Facilitated Focused Forced Formulated Generated Grasped Helped Honed Identified Ignited Impassioned Implemented Improved Initiated Inspired Insured Invigorated Kindled Launched Maintained Manipulated Motivated Organized Originated Overcame Oversaw Performed Perpetuated Persevered Persuaded Planned Practiced Prepared Produced Projected Promoted Prompted Propagated Propelled Quantified Rallied Recognized Rectified Refined Reformed Regenerated Rehabilitated Rejuvenated Renewed Renovated Reorganized Required Resolved Revived Sacrificed Scrutinized Sought Solved Sparked Spearheaded Stimulated Strengthened Strove Supervised Supported Surpassed Sustained Transformed Utilize Achieved Acquired Acted Activated Actuated Adapts Adhered Adjusted Administered Advised Agitated Analyzed Anticipated Applied Appraised Approved Aroused Arranged Articulated Assembled Asserted Assessed Assigned Assisted Assured Attained Attend Authorized Averted Bolstered Brought Build Calculated Capitalized Catalyzed Chaired Challenged Clarified Collaborate Collected Commanded Communicated
Adverbs
Actively Aggressively Anxiously Ardently Articulately Assertively Avidly Boldly Competitively Compulsively Creatively Decisively Eagerly Energetically Enterprisingly Enthusiastically Expeditiously Exuberantly Feverishly Fiercely Forcefully Frantically Impulsively Incisively Interactively Intensely Powerfully Promptly Prosperously Provocatively Quickly Relentlessly Restlessly Spiritedly Spontaneously Swiftly Tenaciously Vigorously Vigilant
Appositive Clause
An appositive clause is a group of words that gives more information about the noun. When these clauses are separated and made to look like sentences you get sentence fragments. Fragment: Hilda nearly fainted when she opend the letter from Publisher's Clearing House Sweepstakes. The contest she had been entering faithfully for twenty years. Correct: Hilda nearly fainted when she opened the letter from Publisher's Clearing House Sweepstakes, the contest she'd been entering faithfully for twenty years.
Use an Exclamation mark
At the end of a sentence or elliptical expression (condensed sentence, key words left out) to express strong emotion (surprise, disbelief, irony, dissent, urgency, amusement, enthusiasm). Congratulations on your new son! I suppose you consider that another "first"! Fantastic show!
Sentence completeness
Avoid fragments and run-on sentences. Recognize sentence elements necessary to make a complete though and proper use of punctuation.
Use a comma
Before for used as a conjunction. She didn't go to the party, for she cannot stand smoke-filled rooms.
Use an em Dash (—)
Before summarizing words such as these, they, and all when those words summarize a series of ideas or list of details. A tennis racket, swimsuit and shorts—these are all you'll need for the weekend. Faculty, staff and students—all are invited.
introductory phrase
Before the bell rings, students drink from the water fountain.
Use a Semicolon
Before transitional words and phrases (accordingly, as a result, besides, consequently, for example, furthermore, hence, however, moreover, namely, nevertheless, on the contrary, otherwise, that is, then, therefore, thus, and yet) when connecting two complete but related thoughts and a coordinating conjunction is not used. Follow these words and phrases with a comma. Do not use a comma after hence, then, thus, so and yet unless a pause is needed. Our expenses have increased; however, we haven't raised our prices. Our expenses have increased, however, and we haven't raised our prices. The decision has been made; therefore, there's no point in discussing it further. The decision has been made so there's no point in discussing it. The general had heard the briefing before; thus, he chose not to attend. Let's wait until next month; then we can get better result figures.
initials
Bush, George W., was the President of the United States.
PERFORMING
By this stage, the team has settled its relationships and expectations. They can begin performing—diagnosing and solving problems, and choosing and implementing changes. At last team members have discovered and accepted each other's strengths and weaknesses, and learned what their roles are. The team is now an effective, cohesive unit. You can tell when your team has reached this stage because you start getting a lot of work done—finally!
Common Modal Verbs:
Can, Could, May, Might, Must, Ought to, Shall, Should, Will, Would
indicate Time, Order, and Sequence.
Commence, Commencing, Concurrently, Consequently, Continually, Currently, Cyclically, Directly, During, Earlier, Embark, Eventually, Every time, Final, Finally, First, Following, Following that, Former, Formerly, Frequently, From this point, Generally, Gradual, Henceforth, Hereafter, Heretofore, Immediately, In an instant, In awhile, In conclusion, In the end, In the first place, In the future, In the last place, In the meantime, In the past, In the second place, In turn, In frequently, Initial, Instantly, Instantaneously, Intermittent,
have to
Commonly substitutes for must. It is a stronger expression of necessity. <You have to have that done.>
Examples / Support / Emphasis
These transitional devices (like especially) are used to introduce examples as support, to indicate importance or as an illustration so that an idea is cued to the reader. in other words to put it differently for one thing as an illustration in this case for this reason to put it another way that is to say with attention to by all means important to realize another key point first thing to remember most compelling evidence must be remembered point often overlooked to point out on the positive / negative side with this in mind notably including like to be sure namely chiefly truly indeed certainly surely markedly especially specifically expressively surprisingly frequently significantly in fact in general in particular in detail for example for instance to demonstrate to emphasize to repeat to clarify to explain to enumerate such as
Past Perfect
They had walked. Designates action in the past just as simple past does, but the action of the past perfect is action completed in the past before another action.
Simple Present
They walk. Occasionally used to talk about scheduled events in the near future, i.e. the train leaves tonight at 6.
Future
They will walk. "will" or "be going to".
Articles
Three adjectives are articles: "a", "an", and "the". The two indefinite articles are "a" and "an", because when you use them, you are describing a noun or pronoun that is "indefinite", or one of many. When you use "the", you are describing a specific noun or a "definite" one.
him + he = whoever him + him = whomever
To determine whether to use whoever or whomever, here is the rule: him + he = whoever him + him = whomever
Use an em Dash (—)
To emphasize single words. Girls—that's all he ever thinks about! They're interested in one thing only—profit—nothing else matters.
Use parenthesis
To enclose a nickname or a descriptive expression when it falls between a person's first and last names. However, when it precedes or replaces a person's first name, simply capitalize it. George Herman (Babe) Ruth Stonewall Jackson Major William F. (Clark) Kent the Iron Duke
Use parenthesis
To enclose enumerating letters or numerals within a sentence. Our goals are to (1) reduce the number of curriculum hours, (2) eliminate the 90-minute lunch period, and (3) reduce the number of personnel needed to accomplish the mission. Also, include the following when you file your medical costs: (a) hotel charges, (b) meal costs (including gratuities), and (c) transportation costs.
Use a period
To end an indirect question or a question intended as a suggestion or otherwise not requiring an answer. She wanted to know how to do it. He asked what the job would entail. Tell me how they did it.
Use a period
To end declarative and imperative sentences. His work is minimally satisfactory. Don't be late.
Use a Question Mark
To express doubt. They plan to purchase three(?) new Pentium computers with individual scanners for us. Jackie Baltzell and Gayle Magill have been associated with her since 1990(?).
Use a hyphen
To form compound words and phrases. Some compound words are written as two words (post office, air brake, Mother Nature, fellow traveler), some as one (manpower, masterpiece, aircraft), some as a combination of words and joined by hyphens (father-in-law, great-uncle, secretary-treasurer, governor-general, men-of-war, grant-in-aid, mother-of-pearl), and some multiple-word compounds that include a preposition and a description (jack-of-all-trades, but flash in a pan and master of none). There's a growing trend to spell compound words as one word once widely accepted and used. However, sometimes the way you use a compound word or phrase will dictate how you write it—as one word, with a hyphen, or as two separate words. When in doubt, consult an up-to-date dictionary or treat as two words if the guidelines on the next pages don't fit.
Use an em Dash (—)
To give special emphasis to the second independent clause in a compound sentence. Our new, but used, pickup truck is great—it's economical too! You'll double your money with this plan—and I'll prove it!
Use a Question Mark
To indicate the end of a direct question. Did he go with you? Will you be able to attend?
Use a hyphen
To indicate two or more related compound words having a common base (suspended hyphen). It will be a 12- to 15-page document. The cruise line offers 2-, 3-, and 7-day cruises at special group rates. Long- and short-term money rates are available.
Use a hyphen
To join capital letter(s) and numbers in system designators and numerical identifiers. F-117 B-1B F-16 KC-10 Su-24TK T-38
Use a hyphen
To join single capital letters to nouns or participles. U-boat H-bomb X-height U-turn T-shirt T-bone D-mark E-mail
Use a Semicolon
To precede words or abbreviations that introduce a summary or explanation of what has gone before in the sentence. We visited several countries on that trip; i.e., England, Ireland, France, Germany, and Finland. There are many things you must arrange before leaving on vacation; for example, mail pickup, pet care, yard care.
Use a Semicolon
To separate items in a series that contain commas (when confusion would otherwise result). If you want your writing to be worthwhile, organize it; if you want it to be easy to read, use simple words and phrases; and, if you want it to be interesting, vary your sentence and paragraph lengths. Those who attended the meeting were Colonels Jim Forsyth, Dean of Education; Michael Harris, Dean of Distance Learning; Mark Zimmerman, Chairman of Leadership and Communications Studies; and Phil Tripper, Chairman of Joint Warfare Studies.
Noun in Apposition
a noun that renames, identifies, or explains the noun it follows. It is set off by commas when it renames a proper noun. Assumes or takes the case of the noun it renames., A noun in apposition is a mini definition - added information in the sentence sometimes set off by commas - 2 kinds of appositions: restricitve (needed; no commas) and nonrestrictive (not really needed; has commas)
Use parenthesis
To set off nonessential elements when commas would be inappropriate or confusing and dashes would be too emphatic. Mr. Henry Anderson, Jr., is the general manager of the Montgomery (Alabama) branch. [Parentheses are clearer than commas when a city-state expression is used as an adjective.] All the classes will meet three days a week (Mondays, Tuesdays and Thursdays). [Parentheses are used in place of commas because the nonessential element contains commas.] I suggest you contact Edward Clinton (a true professional) for his recommendation. [Parentheses used in place of dashes to de-emphasize the nonessential element.] Contact Ms. Louise Robinson—the manager of the house in Tuscaloosa—and ask her if a room is still available. [Dashes are used in place of parentheses for emphasis.]
Opposition / Limitation / Contradiction
Transition phrases like but, rather and or, express that there is evidence to the contrary or point out alternatives, and thus introduce a change the line of reasoning (contrast). although this may be true, in contrast, different from, of course ..., but, on the other hand, on the contrary, at the same time, in spite of, even so / though, be that as it may, then again, above all, in reality, after all, but, (and) still, unlike, or, (and) yet, while, albeit, besides, although, instead, whereas, despite, conversely, otherwise, however, rather, nevertheless, regardless, notwithstanding,
Then
Use ____ to answer the question when.
Use a hyphen
Use a hyphen when two or more proper names are combined to form a one-thought modifier and when two adjectives are joined by the word and or or. Montgomery-Atlanta-Washington flight life-and-death situation black-and-white terms cause-and-effect hypothesis yes-or-no answer go-no-go decision
Use a hyphen
Use a hyphen with words and phrases that are combined to form a unit modifier immediately preceding the word modified (except with an adverb ending in ly). Do not hyphenate these phrases when they follow the noun. an up-to-date report; this report is up to date; a $500-a-week salary; a salary of $500 a week decision-making process; the process of decision making; red-faced man; the man with the red face X-rated movies; movies that are X rated; the X-ray equipment; the X-ray showed a well-known author; the author is well known a first-come, first-served basis; on the basis of first come, first served a highly organized group; a completely balanced meal
Use a Question Mark
Use a question mark before a closing parenthesis only when it applies solely to the parenthetical item and the sentence ends in a different punctuation mark. At our next meeting (it's on the 16th, isn't it?), we'll elect a new president. As the gun opened fire (was it a .50-caliber gun?), all movement ceased. [Question marks were used within parentheses because sentences require a period at the end.] Are tickets still available (and can I get two), or is it too late? [Question mark is omitted within parentheses because sentence ends with a question mark.]
Research Methodology Guidelines
Use this approach if: Quantitative Qualitative 1. You believe that: There is an objective reality that can be measured or There are multiple possible realities constructed by different individuals 2. Your audience is: Familiar with/supportive of quantitative studies Familiar with/supportive of qualitative studies 3. Your research question is: Confirmatory, predictive Exploratory, interpretive 4. The available literature is: Relatively large Limited 5. Your research focus: Covers a lot of breadth Involves in-depth study 6. Your time available is: Relatively short Relatively long 7. Your ability/desire to work with people is: Medium to low High 8. Your desire for structure is: High Low 9. You have skills in the area(s) of: Deductive reasoning and statistics Inductive reasoning and attention to detail 10. Your writing skills are strong in the area of: Technical, scientific writing Literary, narrative writing
Semicolons
Use this punctuation to 1. Separate independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction 2. Separate independent clauses separated by a conjunctive adverb 3. Separate items in a series with internal commas
comparison
Use this style when you need to discuss similarities and/or differences between topics, concepts, or ideas. When you are describing similarities and differences, it often helps the reader to see a point-bypoint comparison of the two items. if you were writing a document that compares and contrasts certain characteristics of the something red and the color blue, you might go item by item, discussing similarities and differences between the two as you go. TO COMPARE IDEAS like just as similar this
Participles
Used as adjectives Ex: an interesting experience, the surprised researchers Based on verbs; expresses action or a state of being Ex: The crying baby had a wet diaper. Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked war. Modify nouns or propouns Ex: Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river.
Objective case
Used for (1) the object of a verb, (2) the object of a preposition, (3) the subject of an infinitive, (4) the object of an infinitive, and (5) the complement of the infinitive to be. Can you help us this weekend? (Object of the verb help.) Brenda has not written to me. (Object of the preposition to.) I encouraged her to enter the biathlon. (Subject of the infinitive to enter) William promised to call me but he didn't (Object of the infinitive to call.) They believed me to be her. (Complement of the infinitive to be.)
Subjunctive Mood
Used in dependent clauses following main (independent) clauses expressing necessity, demand, or wishing; also used in if, as if, and as though clauses that state conditions which are improbable, doubtful, or contrary to fact. I demand that we be heard. It is imperative that he be notified. We urge that she be elected. If he were appointed, I would quit I wish I were going. If she had known, she would have written.
Interrogative Pronouns
Used to interrogate (ask) Ex: who, whose, whom, which, what
Subordinating conjunction
Used to join a dependent clause to a main (independent) clause; for example, when, where, after, before, if.
Subject Pronouns
Used to make subjects Can be subjects of clauses Can be subject complements Are said to be in the subject case Ex: I, we, you (singular), you (plural), he, she, it, they
Possessive case
Used to show ownership and other relationships. My statistical analysis is in this report The suggestions in the appendix are also mine.
Participial phrase
an -ing or -ed verb form used as an adjective
Indirect Object
a noun that tells to whom or for whom or to what or for what an action is done. It receives the direct object. It comes between the verb and the direct object. It receives the DO and can ONLY appear in the combination with a DO., a word or group of words that tell "For whom am I doing this wonderful thing." It is located between the action verb and the direct object. Ex. Harriet gave her mother a bracelet for her birthday. (Mother is the indirect object.), Comes before the direct object. Tells to whom, for whom the action of the verb is done. (Claire threw JOSEPH the ball)
noun
a person, place, thing or idea
first-person point of view
a point of view that includes the author, uses the word "I"
antecedent
a preceding occurrence or cause or event, the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers., The word or phrase to which a pronoun refers
foreshadowing
a prediction about what will happen later, a suggestion in a story of what is to come later by giving hints and clues
Topic sentence
a sentence that states the topic of its paragraph, A sentence, most often appearing at the beginning of a paragraph, that announces the paragraph's idea and often unites it with the work's thesis. The controlling sentence in the paragraph.
mythology
a story that explains something about the world and typically involves gods or other super human beings
conflict
a struggle or clash between opposing characters or opposing forces
dialects
a variant of a language spoken by a group of people sharing the same time (historical period) or space (geographical or social environment)
gerund
a verb ending in -ing and functions as a noun; example: ESTIMATING is an important mathematics skill.
gerund
a verb having the {-ing} inflection and functioning as a nominal phrase
infinitive
a verb that functions as a noun or adjective; the word TO precedes the verb in an infinitive; example: Someday, I would like TO WRITE beautiful poetry.
interjection
a word or a group of words that expresses strong feeling; you can separate an interjection from the rest of a sentence with either an exclamation point or a comma, depending on the strength of the feeling; examples: Whew! That was close! Oh, no!
Pronoun
a word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun.
adjective
a word that modifies, or describes, a noun or pronoun; example: We saw LAZY lions beneath a SHADY tree.
transitive verb
action verb followed by a noun or pronoun that receives the action; example: I KNOW the story.
types of verbs
action, linking, helping, phrases
Linking Verb
acts as an equal sign connecting the subject and the complement.
interjection
added to a sentence to convey emotion
expanded
adding details to sentences to make them more clear and more interesting
positive adjective
adjective used when no comparison being made; example: This is a HOT day.
Color
adjectives denoting color (e.g., red, black, pale)
Size and Shape
adjectives subject to objective measure (e.g., wealthy, large, round)
Subordinating Conjunctions
after although as as if as long as because before how (only) if in case that in order that provided that now that once rather than since so that than that though till unless until what when where whereas whether which while who whom whose why
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is each line in a poem. (Always follow the style of the poem, however). I used to write quite poorly. My boss said it made him ill. But now he's feeling better 'Cuz I use The Tongue and Quill! - TSgt Keyes
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is material following the colon starts on a new line. They gave us two reasons: 1. They received the order too late. 2. It was Friday and nothing could be done until Monday.
Capitalize The First Word
after a hyphen when the hyphenated word is followed by a proper noun or adjective. non-Latin speaking people
common adverbs (non -ly)
afterward, already, quick, hard, never, today, even, low, rather, tomorrow, how, now, then, yesterday, late, often, almost, back, long, soon, when, here, next, still, where, far, more, slow, too, fast, near, so
Capitalize
all hyphenated words, except articles and short prepositions; coordinating conjunctions; second elements of prefixes (unless proper noun or proper adjective); and flat, sharp and natural after musical key symbols. English-Speaking Run-of-the-Mill Non-Christians Follow-Through Large-Sized Mat Post-Prezhnev Self-explanatory Ex-Governor Over-the-Hill Sayings Twenty-first Century One-eighth E-flat Concerto
Capitalize
all proper names (the official name of a person, place or thing). Porie and Tourcoing Anglo-Saxon Cliff Brow Judy Phillips-McDonald Rio Grande River Stratford-on-Avon the Capitol in DC the capital of Maine is ... Mönchengladbach US Constitution the Constitution the Alamo
complete subject
all the words in a subject; example: MY TWO OLDER BROTHERS stared at me silently.
Subordinating Conjunctions
also called subordinators, are conjunctions that introduce a dependent clause. These adverbs that act like conjunctions are placed at the front of the clause - and a comma is needed at the end of the adverbial phrase when it precedes the main clause. Examples: If the only tool you have is a hammer, you tend to see every problem as a nail. [Abraham Maslow] Some people make headlines while others make history. [Philip Elmer-DeWitt]
dependent clauses
are used as nouns or modifiers, are incomplete sentences and cannot stand alone grammatically; they are sometimes called subordinate clauses; those that function as adjectives, nouns, or adverbs are known, respectively, as adjective, noun, and adverbial clauses, clause the known as a fragment sentence when alone, contains a subject and a verb, but it does not express a complete thought. (subordinate clause)....starts with words such as: although, before, because, so that, when, while, so, that
Object pronouns
are used everywhere else (direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition). ______ ______ are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them.
Adjectives
are words that describe nouns or pronouns. They may come before the word they describe (That is a cute puppy.) or they may follow the word they describe (That puppy is cute.).
adjectives.
are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the sentence. The Articles — a, an, and the — are
the input hypothesis
argues that learners progress along the natural order only when they encounter second language input that is one step beyond where they are in the natural order
common linking verbs
be, feel, grow, seem, smell, remain, appear, sound, stay, look, taste, turn, become, am, are, is, was, were, am being, can be, have been
Independent clause
can stand alone without the rest of the sentence has subject and predicate Ex: Pudding face jumped for job, as Tonie and Megan wlaked through the doorway.
collective noun
common noun that names a group with more than one member; examples: jury, brigade, staff
types of adjectives
common, proper, compound, articles, indefinite articles
expressive language
communication through speaking, writing, and/or gestures, that is, selecting words, formulating them into ideas, and producing them through speaking, writing, or gesturing (encoding or the process of expressive language). Expressive language involves word retrieval, rules of grammar (syntax), word and sentence structure (morphology), and word meaning (semantics).
simile
comparison of two unlike objects using like or as
clincher
concluding sentence; restates the paragraphs main idea. It may also summarize the paragraph's main points, reveal and insight the writer has gained or suggest a course of action., a point or fact or remark that settles something conclusively, Wrap Up Entire Paragraph
examine
consider in detail and subject to an analysis in order to discover essential features or meaning, question closely, put to the test, as for its quality, or give experimental use to, Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the issue, Consider in detail and subject to an analysis in order to discover essential features or meaning.
gerund phrase
consist of a gerund and related words; example: SWIMMING IN THE LAKE is a good exercise.
complex sentence
consist of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
as
construction is used to create a comparison expressing equality: He is as foolish as he is large. She is as bright as her mother.
participial phrase
contains a participle and acts as an adjective; examples: They arrested the man DRIVING THE CAR.
subordinate clause
contains a subject and a predicate, but does not express a complete thought, and cannot stand alone; often begins with a subordinating conjunction, such as AFTER, ALTHOUGH, BECAUSE, BEFORE, IF, SINCE, WHEN, or WHILE; example: People became more sensitive to pollution problems AFTER THEY LEARNED ABOUT TOXIC WASTE.
dependent clause
contains a subject and a predicate, but doesn't express a complete thought or stand alone; example: AFTER THEY LEARNED ABOUT TOXIC WASTE.
Complex Sentence
contains one main clause and at least one subordinate clause. <When it rains, it pours.>
verb phrase
contains the main verb and helping verbs
Compound Sentence
contains two or more main clauses and no subordinate clauses. <It rains, and it pours.>
Material
denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of (e.g., woolen, metallic, wooden)
Noun clauses
dependent clause used as a noun *begins with relative pronouns or when, where, whether, why, how
Adjective clause
dependent clause used as an adjective *begins with relative pronouns or where or when
subordinating conjunction
dependent clauses start with what type of conjunction? E.g. although, before, because, so that, when, while, so, that, connects an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses; examples: since, before, unless, however
Descriptive Grammar:
describes a language - the way that people use it - w/out judging whether the utterance is correct or incorrect
adverb
describes a verb; typically ends in ly
adjective
describes or modifies a noun or pronoun
forms of do
do, does, did
types of helping verbs
do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must
Parallel structure
Using three or more alike elements, separated with commas, in a sentence., structure in which similar forms of nouns, verbs, phrases, or thoughts. Maintains balance. e.g. "Lilly likes reading, writing, and skiing" instead of "Lilly likes to read, write, and go skiing"
Compund Subjects
consist of two or more words joined by a coordinating conjunction or correlative conjunction., usually plural. may be singular if referring to one unit -"Ham and eggs is.."
Common Gender Nouns
denotes nouns of either maile or female sex.
Neuter Gender Nouns
denotes nouns with no sex., refers to things, places, ideas, or qualities that are neither male nor female
Correlative Conjunction
pairs of conjunctions that connect words or groups of words.
Independent clause
A group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate that can stand alone., has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought
Intensifier
A word (especially an adverb) that indicates and usually increases the degree of emphasis or force to be given to the element it modifies., a class of words, generally adverbs, used to modify gradable adjectives, adverbs, verbs, or -ed participles, e.g. very, completely, quite.
Collective Noun
A word that names a group. Is a noun that is singular in form but refers to a group of people or things. E.g. Tables, chairs, cupboards etc. are grouped under the collective noun furniture. Could be a Groups of people - army, audience, band, or a Groups of things - bunch, bundle, clump., noun that represents a group of persons animals or things family flock furniture ect, names a group of people, places, or things.
Preposition
A word that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word.
Participle
An adjective that refers to participation in the action or state of the verb; a verbal form used as an adjective. The past form ends in "-ed" and the present form ends in "-ing.", Verb that can be used as a adjective. *Present ends in -ing*-----*Past ends in ed.-d,-t,-en,-n (The TERRIFYING movie was rated "R", a verb form that is used with auxiliary verbs to indicate certain tenses, a type of verb that acts as an adjective
Conjunctive adverb
An adverb that indicates the relationship in meaning between two independent clauses., A type of adverb that creates logical connections between independent clauses which is introduced by a semi colon; and followed by a comma ,. List of them include: Therefore, However, Instead, Rather, Meanwhile, Consequently. Ie... xxxxx; meanwhile, he narrated a film.
Nonrestrictive appositive
An appositive that is not essential for the sentence to make sense.
Plural Nouns
refers to more than one person, place, object, or idea.
