GRG 301C - Exam 1 Study Guide

Ratio Scale

(Or representative fraction): represents relationship mathematically; both numbers are in same units.

Graphic Scale

(Or scale bar): represents graphically that ratio.

A computer-based processing tool for gathering, manipulating, and analyzing geographic information is called a __________.

Geographic information system.

The combined effect of the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force in the upper atmosphere produces _______.

Geostrophic winds.

If Earth did not rotate, air would flow _______.

Straight across isobars.

Longwave radiation emitted by Earth is mainly absorbed by which two gases?

Water vapor and carbon dioxide.

Written Scale

Written to depict.

Longitude

-Angular distance measured East and West from the equator. -Lines are referred to as meridians.

What is geography?

(geo, meaning Earth + graphein, meaning to write) is the science that studies the relationships among natural systems, geographic areas, humans, and the interdependence of all these across Earth.

What are the functions of the sun and its major role in the atmosphere?

- Hydrogen atoms forced together and energy released through fusion. -Energy radiates outwards in all directions from Sun. -The portion we receive provides energy for processes involving atmosphere, oceans, and land surfaces. -Earth's magnetosphere deflects solar wind towards Earth so only a small portion enters the atmosphere.

What is dynamic equilibrium?

-A changing trend over time. -The same channel may become wider over time but the overall system will adjust to the change thus maintaining equilibrium.

Function of clouds in Earth's energy balance

-A factor in Earth's energy balance. -Cool and heat troposphere. -Cloud types and amount matter. -High-altitude clouds reflect ~50% insolation. -Low-altitude clouds reflect ~90% insolation.

What are the differences between a big scale and a small scale?

-A large scale would be characterized as having more details and a smaller area, such as a map of Downtown Los Angeles. Refined, streets, towns, landmarks 1:24,000. -A small scale would have fewer details and a larger area, such as a map of the Greater Los Angeles region. Globes, country/state maps, 1:50,000,000.

What is a system?

-A set of ordered, interrelated components and their attributes, flows of energy and matter.

Active Remote Sensing

-A system that directs energy at a surface and analyzes the energy that is returned. -An example of this is LIDAR, which can distinguish between the pulses returned from the first objects it hits (usually vegetation) and later pulses (the ground).

What is a threshold?

-A tipping point where the system can't maintain its character. -A flood may cause the same channel to reach a tipping point, carving a new channel.

What are the advantages and disadvantages to an equal area projection?

-Advantages: areas are correct on the map regardless of their longitude and latitude. -Disadvantages: shapes are distorted.

What are the advantages and disadvantages to a true shape projection?

-Advantages: can correctly represent the shapes of geographic features such as coastlines and islands. -Disadvantages: the sizes of those features can be greatly distorted; area changes across map.

What are the advantages and disadvantages to a Mercator projection?

-Advantages: shapes are correctly represented -Disadvantages: distorts the size of objects so that some land masses appear larger than they truly are. -THIS IS A TYPE OF TRUE-SHAPE PROJECTION; suitable for mapping shape of Earth's continents.

Describe albedo.

-Albedo refers to the percentage of insolation that is reflected (0% is total absorption, 100% is total reflection). -High albedo reflects more, low albedo reflects less.

How does altitude and elevation affect climate?

-Altitude refers to airborne objects or heights above Earth's surface. -Elevation usually refers to the height of a point on Earth's surface above sea level. -As the atmosphere thins, the air loses its ability to absorb and radiate sensible heat.

How is wind measured?

-An anemometer measures wind speed in kilometers per hour, miles per hour, meters per second, or knots. -A knot is a nautical mile per hour. -The Beaufort wind scale is a descriptive scale useful in estimating wind speed based on simple observations. -A wind vane determines wind direction. -Winds are named for the direction from which they originate.

What is an isobar and what does its spacing reveal about wind?

-An isoline that connects equal lines of pressure. -Closely spaced lead to faster wind. -Farther spaced lead to slower wind.

Latitude

-Angular distance in degrees north or south of the equator. -These lines run east-west and increases from 0 degrees at the equator to 90 degrees at the poles.

How does cloud cover affect climate?

-Approximately 50% of the Earth is cloud-covered at any given moment. -Most important variable factor in Earth's radiation budget. -Clouds lower daily maximum temperatures and raise nighttime minimum temperatures and their effect varies with cloud height, type, and density.

Latitudinal geographic zones

-Arctic- 66.5* N to the Pole -Subarctic 55 - 66.5* N -Mid Latitude- 35*N - 55 * N -Subtropical- 23.5*N - 35*N -Equatorial/Tropical- 23.5*N - 23.5*S -Subtropical- 23.5*S - 35*S -Mid Latitude- 35*S - 55*S -Subantarctic- 55 - 66.5 * S -Antarctic- 66.5* S to the Pole

What are feedback loops?

-As a system operates, it generates outputs that influence its own operations. -Outputs function as information that returns to the system at various points.

What is physical geography?

-Asks where and why questions about natural processes and events that occur at specific locations at different scales. -The spatial analysis of all the physical elements, processes, and systems that make up the environment: energy, air, water, weather, climate, landforms, soils, humans, animals, plants, microorganisms, and the Earth. -Includes topics like biology, astronomy, geology, pedology and meteorology.

Absorption

-Assimilation of radiation by molecules of matter and its conversion from one form of energy to another. -Land and water surfaces absorb insolation. -Gases, dust, clouds, and ozone absorb insolation. -Of the insolation that penetrates Earth's atmosphere, ~45% is absorbed by land and water.

Subpolar Low Cause, Location, and Features

-Cause: Cold northern air collides with warmer air from the south. -Location: In January, two low pressure cyclonic cells exist over the oceans around 60° N. North Pacific Aleutian low. North Atlantic Icelandic low. Weaken or disappear in summer -Features: Cold, dry air from the polar regions and warm, moist air brought by the westerlies forms the polar front. Air with different characteristics battles and brings storms and rain.

Polar High Cause, Location, and Features

-Cause: Cold, dry, weak winds move away from the poles in an anticyclonic direction and diverge clockwise. Polar easterlies. -Location: 90 degrees N, 90 degrees S. -Features: weak due to lack of energy from the Sun.

Subtropical High Cause, Location, and Features

-Cause: Hadley cells. Shifting pressure cells migrate with the sun. -Location: Between 20° and 35° N and S. -Features: Hot and dry. Major deserts. Clear, cloudless.

ITCZ or Equatorial Low Cause, Location, and Features

-Causes: Surplus energy from high isolation. Hadley cells converge and air rises. -Location: Equatorial latitudes ~10 degrees N to ~10 degrees S. Features: Moist, unstable air. Heavy rain year-round. Winds are calm and mildly variable.

What is the composition and distance of the heterosphere?

-Composition: Oxygen and nitrogen are dominant in the lower portions, while the upper are made of hydrogen and helium. -Distance: 80-480 km altitude

What is the composition and distance of the homosphere?

-Composition: The ozone layer exists here. Nitrogen, carbon dioxide, argon, trace gases, and oxygen are all considered stable gases here because the proportion of gases does not change very much. -78% relatively inert nitrogen -21% oxygen -Less than 1% argon -0.04% carbon dioxide -Distance: Earth's surface to 80 km altitude

Winter Solstice

-December 21 -Subsolar point is at 23.5° S at Tropic of Capricorn.

What causes wind?

-Differences in air pressure between one location and another produce wind, the horizontal motion of air. -Wind flows from areas of higher air pressure toward those of lower. -Wind's two principle properties are speed and direction.

In winter, isotherms shift toward _ In summer, isotherms shift _ Greatest temperature variability is over _

-Equator -Poleward -Land

Between the solstices are what?

-Equinoxes, when the subsolar point is directly over the equator and day length is 12 hours at all latitudes. -The September (autumnal) equinox marks the beginning of autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. -The March (vernal) equinox marks the beginning of Spring in the Northern Hemisphere.

What are the different types of land-water heating differences?

-Evaporation When water evaporates and turns into water vapor, heat energy is absorbed and stored in the water vapor as latent heat, cooling the surface from which the water evaporated. -Transparency Because of water's transparency, light passes through water to an average depth of 60m in the ocean. -Light striking soil is absorbed, heating the ground surface. -Specific Heat Water requires for more energy to change its temperature than does land, and therefore water has a higher specific heat, the heat capacity of a substance. -Movement Differing temperatures and currents result in a mixing of cooler and warmer waters, and that mixing spreads the available energy over an even greater volume than if the water were still. -Marine and Continental Climates The marine effect describes the moderating influence of the ocean along coastlines or on islands. -Continentality refers to the effect of location in a continental interior less affected by the sea and having a greater daily and yearly temperature range.

Describe the temperature and pressure profile of the stratosphere.

-Extends from 18 to 50 km from Earth. Temperatures increase with altitude from 57 degrees Celsius at 18 km at the lower limit, warming to 0 degrees Celsius at 50 km at the outer boundary, the stratopause as a result of energy created from Ozone converting UV radiation to heat. -The ozone layer is in the lower stratosphere.

Ionosphere

-Extends through the thermosphere and mesosphere. -Absorbs cosmic rays, gamma rays, x-rays, and shorter wavelengths of UV radiation. -Changes atoms to positively charged ions.

What four forces drive the wind?

-Gravitational Force -Pressure-Gradient force -Coriolis Force -Friction Force

What are properties of a closed system?

-Self-contained. -Rare in nature, but Earth is one in terms of material. -Earth is one in terms of matter- air, water and natural resources don't escape from earth, with the exception of lightweight gases escaping the atmosphere.

Methods of Heat Transfer

-Heat energy is thermal energy. -Radiation: transfer of heat in electromagnetic waves. -Conduction: molecule-to-molecule transfer. -Convection: mainly vertical movement caused by differences in temperature and density within a fluid. -Warm rises (less dense) -Cold sinks (more dense) -Advection: the horizontal transfer of energy.

What effect does pressure have on wind?

-High pressure: descending and diverging air (anticyclone). Clear, calm weather. -Low pressure: ascending and converging air (cyclone). Cloudy and stormy weather.

Higher elevations have _ daily ranges and _ average temperatures.

-Higher -Colder

What is are examples of high and low albedo surfaces?

-In the visible wavelengths, darker colors have lower albedos and lighter colors have higher. -Lighter surfaces reflect more (higher albedo). -Darker surfaces absorb more (lower albedo). -Rough surfaces absorb more (lower albedo). -Smooth surfaces reflect more (higher albedo).

LW ↓

-Incoming longwave radiation. -Emitted by gasses and absorbed by ground.

SW ↓

-Incoming shortwave radiation. -Insolation absorbed or reflected.

What are the effects of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on ozone in the stratosphere?

-Increased ultraviolet radiation affecting ozone layer. -Breaks down ozone -Highest loss (hole) over Antarctica because of the combination of thin, icy clouds in the stratosphere and Antarctic wind patterns. -Depletion of the ozone develops in the Antarctic spring and usually peaks in September.

What is positive feedback?

-Information encouraging change within a system. -Ex: Melting in the arctic causes reflective ice and snow to be replaced by dark ocean surfaces which absorb even more heat further creating change in the environment.

What is negative feedback?

-Information that discourages change in a system. -Ex: As a forest grows and roots sink deep into the soil, the amount of erosion decreases.

Summer Solstice

-June 21 -Subsolar point at 23. 5° N at Tropic of Cancer.

Vernal Equinox

-March 21 -All locations on Earth have 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night. -Subsolar point is at equator (0°).

What is spatial analysis?

-Nature and character of physical space, its measurement and the distribution of things within it. -Geographers use this as a tool to explain distributions and movement across Earth and how these processes interact with human activities. -Things like maps, GIS and GPS systems enable spatial analysis.

What are properties of an open system?

-Not self-contained. -Energy and matter flow in and out of the system. -Common in nature. -Earth is one in terms of energy because solar energy enters freely and returns to space in the form of heat energy.

LW ↑

-Outgoing longwave radiation Energy lost to space from surface or absorbed by atmospheric gases.

SW ↑

-Outgoing shortwave radiation. -Energy lost to space by reflection.

Ozonosphere

-Portion of the Stratosphere. -Contains the Ozone layer. -Highly reactive oxygen molecule made up of 3 oxygen atoms (O3). -Absorbs UV radiation and radiates it as heat.

Air Pressure

-Pressure produced by the motion, size, and number of gas molecules in the air and exerted on surfaces in contact with the air. -Air molecules exert more force when they are closer together (more dense) and less force when they are farther apart (less dense). -More dense = More force = Higher air pressure. -Less dense = Less force = Lower air pressure.

Energy from the Sun

-Produces massive amounts of energy through the process of fusion- the fusion of hydrogen atoms through intense heat and pressure. -Also emits clouds of electrically charged particles known as solar wind.

Gravitational Force

-Pulls objects, including air molecules, toward the center of the Earth. -Pressure is greatest at sea level and decreases with altitude.

What are the five reasons for the seasons?

-Revolution: Earth's movement around the Sun -Rotation: turning on Earth's axis -Axial tilt: Earth is tilted to 23.5 degrees and points to Polaris, the North Star -Axial parallelism: axis always keeps the same tilt -Sphericity: shape of the Earth is curved

Friction Force

-Rough surfaces produce it. -Slows wind speeds and reduces the effect of the Coriolis force close to the surface. -Influence extends to a height of ~500 m

In the surface energy balance equation _______.

-SW represents surface albedo.

Energy Pathways through the Atmosphere

-Scattering (diffuse radiation) -Refraction -Reflection and Albedo -Absorption

Net radiation flows from a surface through which three pathways?

-Sensible heat: transfer between air and surface through convection and conduction -Latent heat of evaporation: water absorbs large quantities of latent heat energy as it changes state to water vapor. This is later released when the water vapor condenses back to liquid. -Ground heating and cooling: flows in the surface (land or water) by conduction.

Autumnal Equinox

-September 22 -All locations on Earth have 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night. -Subsolar point is at equator (0°).

What is the shape of Earth and what is caused by the equatorial bulge?

-Shaped into an oblate spheroid, with the polar regions being flatter than the equator. -Caused by the earth's rapid rotation creating centrifugal force that pulls the surface outward.

The _ the wavelength, the _ the frequency.

-Shorter -Higher

What is the scientific method and what does it involve?

-Simple, organized steps leading toward concrete, objective conclusions. 1. Observations -> 2. Questions and Variables -> 3. Hypothesis -> 4. Testing -> 5. Results -> 6. Theory Development.

What is insolation?

-Solar radiation arriving at Earth's atmosphere and surface. -Incoming solar radiation. -Less than half passes through the top of the atmosphere and reaches the surface. -The rest is reflected, scattered, and absorbed by the atmosphere.

Temperature versus Heat

-Temperature is a measure of kinetic energy. -Heat is the flow of kinetic energy from one molecule to another. The higher levels of the atmosphere are able to have high temperature because individual molecules receive huge amounts of energy from solar radiation but there are so few molecules that they hardly ever interact, meaning sensible heat is very low.

Describe the temperature and pressure profile of the troposphere.

-The atmospheric layer that supports life and is the region of principal weather activity. -Approximately 90% of the total mass of the atmosphere and the bulk of all water vapor, clouds, and air pollution. -An average temperature of -57 degrees Celsius defines the tropopause, the upper limit, but its exact altitude varies with the season, latitude, and surface temperatures and pressures. -Tropopause acts like a lid. -Temperature decreases with altitude according to the normal lapse rate- 6.4*C per km.

Sensible Heat Flux

-The back-and-forth transfer between air and surface in turbulent eddies through convection and conduction where T is the land surface temperature and Tair is the air temperature. If T > Tair, H is up If T = Tair, H = 0 If T < Tair, H is down

Explain seasonality and the movement of the subsolar point over the course of a year.

-The changes in the angle of the Sun above the horizon and changes in the hours of daylight are referred to as seasonality. -The angle of the Sun above the horizon is the Sun's altitude. -The Sun's declination is the latitude of the subsolar point. Annually migrates between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, for a total of 47° of movement. -Seasonality also produces changes in day length. Varies with year and latitude. -The equator always receives equal hours of day and night, while the poles experience a 24-hour difference in day length. -People living along 40° north or south experience 6 hours' difference in daylight between winter and summer.

Pressure-Gradient Force

-The difference in air pressure between two points on Earth's surface -Force causes winds by driving air from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure -No difference in air pressure = no wind

Net Radiation

-The energy flow at the surface of the Earth. -The balance of all radiation (incoming and outgoing).

Ground Heat Flux

-The energy that flows in the ground surface by conduction where T is the land surface temperature and Td is the deep soil temperature . If T > Td, G is down If T = Td, G = 0 If T < Td, G is up

Latent Heat Flux

-The energy that is stored in water vapor as water evaporates. -Water absorbs large quantities of this latent heat as it changes state to water vapor, thus removing this heat energy from the surface.

What is the electromagnetic spectrum?

-The entire range of electromagnetic radiation and their wavelengths. -Light/energy measured by wavelength and frequency.

What are solstices?

-The extremes of day length occur on the solstices in December and June. -Occur when the subsolar point is at its position farthest north at the Tropic of Cancer or farthest south at the Tropic of Capricorn. -During the December solstice, the subsolar point is the Tropic of Capricorn and locations above the Arctic Circle experience a 24-hour day, and locations south of the Antarctic Circle a 24-hour night. -These day lengths are reversed during the June solstice, when the subsolar point is the Tropic of Cancer. -December solstice marks the beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere and is also called the winter solstice. June is the opposite, as it is called the summer solstice. This is the opposite in the Southern Hemisphere.

How does latitude affect climate?

-The most important control on annual average temperature and temperature range. -From equator to poles, Earth ranges from continually warm in the low-latitude tropics, to seasonally variable in the temperature midlatitudes, to continually cold in the polar high latitudes.

What does human geography draw from?

-The social and cultural sciences. -Includes anthropology, cultural geography, et cetera).

Distribution of Energy by Latitude

-Tropics Insolation high, day length consistent, little seasonal variation. Positive net radiation (surplus). -Polar regions Insolation low, high albedo, low Sun angle. Negative net radiation (deficit). -At around 36° N and S latitude, a balance exists between incoming and outgoing.

The ozone absorbs _ and CO2 absorbs _.

-UV -Infrared

What is the Urban Heat Island and what are its causes?

-Urbanized regions produce average maximum and minimum temperatures higher than surrounding rural locations. -Causes: lack of vegetation, extensive built areas, emissions.

Map Projection

-Used to control distortion on a map. -As a result of making a sphere flat, maps become distorted. -Cartographers select between three choices: equal area, true shape or a compromise of the two.

How do ocean currents and sea-surface temperatures affect climate?

-Warm currents occur off the east coasts, while cold currents occur off the west coasts. -The Western Pacific Warm Pool has the highest average ocean temperatures in the world. -Places located by warm currents will have higher humidity and rainfall than places located by cold currents. -Warm water evaporates more easily than colder water.

Scattering (Diffuse Radiation)

-When atmospheric gases, dust, cloud droplets, water vapor, and pollutants change the direction of light's movement without altering its wavelengths. -Incoming energy that reaches the surface of the earth after scattering is called diffuse radiation. -Rayleigh scattering causes the sky's color.

What is steady-state equilibrium?

-When conditions remain constant and reoccur. -Ex: River channels adjust to inputs of water and sediments but the channel form is a stable average.

Refraction

-When light enters the atmosphere, it passes from an empty space into gases. -Causes insolation to change speed and direction. -Creates mirages, rainbows, distorted sun. -A portion of arriving energy that bounces back. - ~31% of sun's SW radiation reflects off Earth back into space "Earthshine".

Coriolis Force

-Wind appears to be deflected in relation to Earth's rotating surface -To the right in the Northern Hemisphere -To the left in the Southern Hemisphere -Effect varies with latitude (max at the Poles) -Effect varies with speed -The greater the distance air travels, the greater the deflection

Variable atmospheric components of the homosphere are _______.

Both natural and human-caused gases and particles.

What is normal sea level pressure?

1013.2 mb (millibars)

Normal sea-level pressure has a value of _______.

1013.2 mb or 760 mm of mercury.

Time zones are spaced _________ apart, and amount to 1 hour of the Earth's revolution.

15 degrees.

What corresponds to one hour of time?

15* E or W

How is one inch equals 2000 feet written as an RF?

1:24000

Earth, operating as a system, is characterized as _______.

A closed system in terms of matter (air, water, natural resources).

What are the major components of Earth's energy balance?

Convection, conduction, absorption, long-wave radiation, short-wave radiation.

If you fly from San Francisco, California, to New York City at 9 a.m. Monday and your flight takes five hours, the local time when you arrive will be ________.

5 p.m. Monday

The polar jet stream is ________.

A river of air flowing up to 300 kmph at elevations between 7600 and 10,700 m.

The best type of scale for a map enlarged, or reduced, by photocopying would be _______.

A graphic scale.

Temperature and its Measurement

A measure of kinetic energy (motion) of individual molecules 3 Temperature Scales - Fahrenheit - Celsius - Kelvin

Under certain circumstances when a thriving forest sinks roots deep into the soil, the amount of erosion will decrease as the vegetation absorbs increasing amounts of water, leaving less water to transport soil particles downslope. This is an example of _______.

A negative feedback loop.

What is a scientific theory?

A widely accepted explanation for a phenomenon that is based on evidence and experimentation and has withstood scrutiny from the scientific community.

What is the lithosphere?

Abiotic sphere. Contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust (surface) and upper portion of upper mantle below the crust.

What is the hydrosphere?

Abiotic sphere. Contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the planet in atmosphere, surface, and in crust.

What is the atmosphere?

Abiotic sphere. Thin, gaseous layer around Earth. Contains all the air in Earth's system. It extends from less than 1 m below the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above the planet's surface.

In terms of its average distance from the Sun, Earth is _______.

About 150 million km (93 million mi) away.

The assimilation of radiation by a surface and its conversion from one form to another is termed _______.

Absorption.

A remote-sensing system that directs energy at a surface is classified as a(n) ______.

Active system.

Of what is the atmosphere composed?

Air- simple mixture of gases that is odorless, colorless, tasteless and formless.

The reflective quality of a surface is known as its _______.

Albedo.

Which of the following statements is true regarding the march of the seasons?

All locations on Earth receive 12 hours of daylight on the equinoxes.

Isotherm

An isoline connecting constant temperature values.

Thermal Equator

An isotherm connecting all points of highest mean temperature.

We measure wind speed using a(n) ____________.

Anemometer.

Our individual perception of temperature is termed _______.

Apparent temperature.

Relative to temperatures, clouds generally ________.

Are moderating influences in the atmosphere, acting like insulation.

Between 20° and 35° north and 20° and 35° south latitudes, you find _______.

Arid and semiarid desert regions.

The Prime Meridian

At 0* and passes through Greenwich, England.

What are the four spheres of Earth?

Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere, Biosphere. All are immense open systems that interact.

What is the solar constant?

Average insolation at the thermopause, 1362 Watts per square meter.

Daily Mean Temperature

Average of daily minimum and maximum readings.

What do we use to measure air pressure?

Barometer

What is the line in the middle of a time zone that in theory determines the time of that zone?

Central meridian.

How do temperature ranges in coastal cities compare with interior cities?

Cities by the coast are cooler in summer and warmer in winter than interior cities.

Which of the following accurately describes air flow in a Northern Hemisphere low pressure cell?

Converging counterclockwise and ascending.

The Sun produces _______.

Clouds of charged particles and radiant energy.

Geographers use "latitude" and "longitude" to refer to what pair of numbers on Earth's reference grid?

Coordinates

Describe the temperature and pressure profile of the thermosphere.

Corresponds to the heterosphere; region of very low air pressure, few molecules, and high temperatures. Despite such high temperatures, the thermometer is not "hot".

The main classes of map projection are _______.

Cylindrical, planar, and conic.

Temperatures _ as you climb in altitude/elevation by the normal lapse rate.

Decreases

Land and sea breezes are caused by _______.

Differential heating of land and water.

Wavelength

Distance between corresponding points on any two successive waves.

Why do temperatures increase in the stratosphere?

Due to the heating caused by ozone absorbing UV radiation.

The basis of our system of time is the fact that _______.

Earth revolves on its axis in 24 hours or 15° per hour.

The major decision in selecting a projection is deciding between ___________.

Equal area and true shape.

GIS

Geographic information System, spatial data can be organized in layers and can contain different types of data.

What are the five layers of the atmosphere?

Exosphere, Thermosphere, Mesosphere, Stratosphere, Troposphere -Top of our atmosphere is 480 km above Earth's surface.

Solar energy could be used to reduce human reliance on which of the following?

Fossil fuels.

In terms of the wavelengths, which of the following lists the smallest to largest?

Gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, visible.

The insolation received at Earth's surface is _______.

Greatest over low-latitude deserts with their cloudless skies.

The Clean Air Act (CAA) _______.

Had a cost/benefit ratio from 1970 to 1990 at 42-1 benefits over costs.

What are the elements that compose the major layers of the atmosphere?

Heterosphere and Homosphere

Which of the following statements is true regarding the effects of elevation on temperature?

Higher elevations have higher daily temperature ranges because of the thinner atmosphere.

The region of the atmosphere so evenly mixed that it behaves as if it were a single gas is the _______.

Homosphere

The three abiotic Earth "spheres" are the _______.

Hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere.

The meridian, which marks the line where one day officially changes to another, opposite the prime meridian is called the ___________.

International Date Line.

Which of the following statements accurately describes upwelling or downwelling flows?

Important upwelling currents include the cold currents off of the Pacific coasts of North and South America.

All things being otherwise equal, annual temperature range ________.

Increases with increasing latitude.

Which of the following statements is true regarding the relationship between latitude and surface energy inputs?

Insolation intensity decreases with distance from the subsolar point.

Radiant energy arriving at the Earth's atmosphere or surface is known as _______.

Insolation.

The most important influence on temperature variation is _______.

Insolation.

Which of the following statements best describes the friction force?

It reduces Coriolis force close to the surface.

How do land-water heating differences affect climate?

Land heats and cools faster than water, producing temperature contrasts between continental interiors and areas near bodies of water.

Annual Temperature Ranges

Largest ranges: subpolar locations in interiors of N. America and Asia. Southern hemisphere: low seasonal variation due to lack of large landmasses.

What are the major temperature controls?

Latitude, Altitude and Elevation, Cloud Cover, Land-Water Heating Differences, Ocean Currents and Sea-Surface Temperatures

Describe the temperature and pressure profile of the exosphere.

Less dense atmosphere; weakly bounded by gravity as far as 32,000 km from Earth.

Energy Balance Output

Longwave radiation Earth to space -thermal infrared; heat

The environmental lapse rate _______.

May vary considerably from the normal lapse rate due to local weather conditions.

Net Radiation at Surface Formula

Net R = ↓SW - ↑SW + ↓ LW - ↑LW

Which of these lists correctly organizes the gases in terms of their percentage from greatest to least within the homosphere?

Nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, and trace gases.

Remote Sensing

Obtaining information from objects without physically touching them.

What is the International Date Line?

On the opposite side of the Prime Meridian, marks the location where one day officially turns into another.

Global warming

Overall trend of raising global temperatures due to the greenhouse effect and depletion of stratospheric ozone.

The equator and the Tropic of Capricorn are _______.

Parallels of latitude.

The two primary subfields of geography are _______.

Physical geography and human geography

The _______ passes through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England.

Prime meridian.

Industrial smog is _______.

Principally associated with coal-burning industries.

The processes involving the planet's atmosphere, oceans, and surface are powered by ________.

Radiant energy from the star closest to Earth, normally called "the Sun".

Daily temperatures usually _______.

Reach a high that lags several hours after noon.

Passive Remote Sensing

Record energy radiated from the surface of objects.

Monsoonal winds are _______.

Regional wind systems that change direction seasonally.

Rossby waves are _______.

Ripples along the polar front within the westerly flow of upper-air winds.

Temperature is a measure of _______.

Sensible heat.

Energy Balance Input

Shortwave radiation Sun to Earth -ultraviolet -visible; main input is light -shortwave infrared

Which of the following has the lowest albedo?

The Moon

On June 21st, the Sun's declination is at _______.

The Tropic of Cancer.

What is sustainability?

The ability to continue a defined activity over the long term in a way that prevents or minimizes impacts on the environment.

Describe the temperature and pressure profile of the mesosphere.

The area from 50 to 80 km above Earth and within the homosphere; temperatures range from 0 degrees Celsius to -90 degrees Celsius.

The solar constant is _______.

The average insolation received at the thermopause when Earth is at its average distance from the Sun.

Changes in "day length" and the Sun's "altitude" represent _______.

The concept of seasonality.

What is the Human Denominator?

The concept that increasing human population creates an exponentially larger stressor on earth's finite resources.

Global dimming

The decline in insolation reaching Earth's surface because of pollution.

Annual Temperature Range

The difference between the lowest and highest monthly mean temperatures for a given year.

Which of the following statements is true regarding seasonality?

The equator always has equal hours of day and night.

On the basis of "composition," the atmosphere is divided into _______.

The homosphere and heterosphere.

The auroras in the upper atmosphere are caused by _______.

The interaction of solar wind and the magnetosphere.

The Sun's declination refers to _______.

The latitude of the subsolar point.

What is the biosphere?

The lone biotic sphere, where all organisms on Earth and their physical environments are found.

The word "spatial" refers to _.

The nature and character of physical space

Which of the following statements is true?

The normal range for atmospheric pressure is from 1050 to 980 mb.

In the Northern Hemisphere from which direction do the trade winds come?

The northeast.

Frequency

The number of waves passing a fixed point in 1 second.

Which of the following initiates air flow?

The pressure-gradient force.

Basic Map Elements

Title North Arrow Symbols Legend Map Scale Projection

What type of map gives a sense of the terrain and uses contours to show elevation?

Topographic map.

Monthly Mean Temperatures

Total of daily mean temperatures for the month divided by the number of days in the month.

Shortwave and longwave energy passes through the atmosphere or water by _______.

Transmission.

In July, the thermal equator _______.

Trends toward the equator over oceans and poleward over continents.

What are the Hadley cells?

Two circulation cells on either side of the equator.

Which of the following statements regarding the microclimates of cities is most accurate?

Urbanized regions have both a higher average maximum and minimum temperature than nearby rural areas.

GPS

Uses signals from satellites to determine exact locations on Earth.

What is the order of visible light on the magnetic spectrum and what are the wavelengths?

Violet: 380-450 nm Blue: 450-495 nm Green: 495-570 nm Yellow: 570-590 nm Orange: 590-620 nm Red: 620-750 nm

From which direction do the prevailing winds come in the midlatitudes?

West

The horizontal motion of air relative to Earth's surface is _______.

Wind.