Group Dynamics, Chapters 1-2

Interdependence

"A dynamic whole based on interdependence rather than similarity" (Lewin, 1948, p. 184).

Psychological significance

"A psychological group is any number of people who interact with each other, are psychologically aware of each other, and perceive themselves to be in a group" (Pen- nington, 2002, p. 3).

Structure

"A social unit which consists of a number of individuals who stand in (more or less) definite status and role relationships to one another and which possesses a set of values or norms of its own regulating the behavior of individual members, at least in matters of consequence to the group" (Sherif & Sherif, 1956, p. 144).

Interrelations

"An aggregation of two or more people who are to some degree in dynamic interrelation with one another" (McGrath, 1984, p. 8).

Systems

"An intact social system, complete with boundaries, interdependence for some shared purpose, and differentiated member roles" (Hackman & Katz, 2010, p. 1210).

Relations

"Individuals who stand in certain rela- tions to each other, for example, as sharing a common purpose or having a common intentionality, or acting together, or at least having a common interest" (Gould, 2004, p. 119).

Social unit

"Persons who recognize that they constitute a meaningful social unit, interact on that basis, and are committed to that social unity" (Fine, 2012, p. 21; Kerr & Tindale, 2014).

Communication

"Three or more people ... who (a) think of themselves as a group, (b) are interdepen- dent (e.g., with regard to shared goals or behaviors that affect one another), and (c) communicate (interact) with one another (via face-to-face or tech- nological means)" (Frey & Konieczka, 2010, p. 317).

Shared tasks and goals

"Three or more people who work together interdependently on an agreed-upon activity or goal" (Keyton, 2002, p. 5).

Categorization

"Two or more individuals ... [who] perceive themselves to be members of the same social categoryy" (Turner, 1982, p. 15)

Shared identity

"Two or more people possessing a common social identification and whose existence as a group is recognized by a third party" (Brown, 2000, p. 19).

Size

"Two or more people" (Williams, 2010, p. 269).

Influence

"Two or more persons who are inter- acting with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person" (Shaw, 1981, p. 454).

The Thomas Theorem Statement

"if men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences" (Thomas & Thomas, 1928, p. 572); this maintains that people's conception of a social situation, even if incorrect, will determine their reactions in the situation

Social Exchange Theories groups are strengthened when

(a) the rewards are valued ones and any costs created by the group are minimized, (b) the members trust each other to fulfill their obligations over the long term, (c) the exchange is judged to be a fair one with fairness defined primarily by mutual adherence to the norm of reciprocity, and (d) mem- bers develop a commitment to the group as indi- cated by increased affective attachment, a sense of loyalty, and an authentic concern for the other members' and the group's well-being.

Online Group

(or e-group) Two or more individuals who interact with each other solely or primarily through computer-based information technologies (e.g., email, instant messaging, and social networking sites) rather than through face-to-face interactions.

Relationship Interaction

(socioemotional interaction) The conjointly adjusted actions of group members that relate to or influence the nature and strength of the emo- tional and interpersonal bonds within the group, includ- ing both sustaining (social support, consideration) and undermining actions (criticism, conflict).

Hawthorne Effect

A change in behavior that occurs when individuals know they are being observed or studied.

Norm

A consensual and often implicit standard that describes what behaviors should and should not be per- formed in a given context.

Systems Theory

A general theoretical approach that assumes that complex phenomena are the result of the constant and dynamic adjustments that occur between and among the interdependent parts of the whole. Applied to groups, systems theory assumes that groups are open systems that maintain dynamic equilibrium among members through a complex series of interrelated adjustments and processes.

Sociogram

A graphic representation of the patterns of intermember relations created through sociometry. In most cases, each member of the group is depicted by a symbol, such as a lettered circle or square, and relations among mem- bers (e.g., communication links and friendship pairings) are indicated by lines from one member to another.

Reference Group

A group or collective that individuals use as a standard or frame of reference when selecting and appraising their abilities, attitudes, or beliefs; includes groups that individuals identify with and admire and cat- egories of noninteracting individuals.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A group, usually located at a university or other research institution, that reviews research procedures to make certain that they are consistent with ethical guidelines for protecting human participants.

Group Mind (Collective Consciousness)

A hypothetical unifying mental force linking group members together; the fusion of individual consciousness or mind into a transcendent consciousness.

Observation

A measurement method that involves watching and recording the activities of individuals and groups.

Sociometry

A method for measuring the relationships among members of a group and summarizing those relationships graphically (developed by Jacob Moreno).

Categories (Social Category)

A perceptual grouping of people who are assumed to be similar to one another in some ways but dif- ferent in one or more ways, such as all women, the elderly, college students, or all the citizens of a specific country.

Collectives

A relatively large aggregation or group of indi- viduals who display similarities in actions and outlook. A street crowd, a line of people (a queue), and a panicked group escaping a fire are examples of collectives, as are more widely dispersed groups (e.g., listeners who respond similarly to a public service announcement).

Social Groups

A relatively small number of individuals who interact with one another over an extended period of time, such as work groups, clubs, and congregations.

Experiment

A research design in which the investigator (1) manipulates at least one variable by randomly assigning participants to two or more different conditions, (2) measures at least one other variable, and (3) controls the influence of other variables on the outcome.

Correlational Study

A research design in which the investigator measures (but does not manipulate) at least two variables and then uses statistical procedures to examine the strength and direction of the relationship between these variables.

Qualitative Study

A research procedure that collects and analyzes nonnumeric, unquantified types of data, such as verbal descriptions, text, images, or objects.

Quantitative Study

A research procedure that collects and analyzes numeric data, such as frequencies, propor- tions, or amounts

Case Study

A research technique that draws on multiple sources of information to examine, in depth, the activities and dynamics of a group or groups.

Social Networks

A set of interpersonally interconnected individuals or groups.

Groupthink

A set of negative group-level processes, including illusions of vulnerability, self-censorship, and pressures to conform, that occur when highly cohesive groups seek concurrence rather than objective analysis when making a decision (identified by Irving Janis).

Social Network Analysis (SNA)

A set of procedures for studying the relational structure of groups and networks mathematically and graphically. Using information about the relationships (ties, edges) linking members (nodes, vertexes), the method yields member-level indexes (e.g., cen- trality and betweenness), group-level indexes (e.g., density and cohesiveness), and a graphic representation of the unit.

Primary Groups

A small, long-term group characterized by frequent interaction, solidarity, and high levels of inter- dependence among members that substantially influences the attitudes, values, and social outcomes of its members.

Role

A socially shared set of behaviors, characteristics, and responsibilities expected of people who occupy a particular position or type of position within a group; by enacting roles, individuals establish regular patterns of exchange with one another that increase predictability and social coordination.

Stereotypes

A socially shared set of qualities, characteristics, and behavioral expectations ascribed to a particular group or category of people

Correlational Coefficient

A standardized statistic that measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. Often symbolized by r, correlations can range from -1 to +1.

Interaction Process Analysis (IPA)

A structured cod- ing system used to measure group activity by classifying each observed behavior into one of 12 categories, such as "shows solidarity" or "asks for orientation" (developed by Robert F. Bales).

Emotion

A subjective state of positive or negative affect often accompanied by a degree of arousal or activation.

Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG)

A theoretical and structured coding system for recording the activities of a group and the overall behavioral orientation of members (developed by Robert F. Bales).

Behaviorism

A theoretical explanation of the way organisms acquire new responses to environmental stimuli through conditioning (learning).

Social Exchange Theory

An economic model of interpersonal relationships that assumes individuals seek out relationships that offer them many rewards while exacting few costs.

Social Identity

An individual's sense of self derived from relationships and memberships in groups; also, those aspects of the self that are assumed to be common to most or all of the members of the same group or social category.

Hierarchy of Needs

An ordering of needs from the most basic and biologically necessary to the more social and psychological needs, such as aesthetic and actualization needs (developed by Abraham Maslow).

Input-Process-Output (I-P-O) Model

Any one of a number of general conceptual analyses of groups that assumes raw materials (inputs) are transformed by internal system processes to generate results (output). For example, an I-P-O model of group performance assumes that group-level processes mediate the relationship between individual, group, and situational input variables and resulting performance outcomes.

Self-Report Measures

Assessment methods, such as questionnaires, tests, or interviews, that ask respondents to describe their feelings, attitudes, or beliefs

Structure (Norming)

Cohesiveness, agreement on procedures, standards, and roles, improved communication

Dissolution (Adjourning)

Departures, withdrawal, decreased dependence, regret

Conflict (Storming)

Dissatisfaction, disagreement, challenges to leader and procedures, cliques form

Orientation (Forming)

Exchange of background personal information, uncertainty, tentative communication

Group Fallacy

Explaining social phenomena in terms of the group as a whole instead of basing the explanation on the individual-level processes within the group; ascribing psychological qualities, such as will, intentionality, and mind, to a group rather than to the individuals within the group.

Performance (Performing)

Focus on the work of the group, task completion, decision making, cooperation

Generating

Groups concoct the strategies they will use to accomplish their goals (Type 1: planning tasks) or create altogether new ideas and approaches to their problems (Type 2: creativity tasks)

Executing

Groups do things, including taking part in competitions (Type 7: contests/battles/ competitive tasks) or creating some product or carrying out collective actions (Type 8: performances/psychomotor tasks)

Why Study Groups?

Groups hold the secret to the universe—the human universe, at any rate. The rare individual—the prisoner in solitary confinement, the recluse, the castaway—is isolated from all groups

Choosing

Groups make decisions about issues that have correct solutions (Type 3: intellective tasks) or questions that can be answered in many ways (Type 4: decision-making task

Negotiating

Groups resolve differences of opinion among members regarding their goals or decisions (Type 5: cognitive conflict tasks) or settle competitive disputes among members (Type 6: mixed-motive tasks)

Group Dynamics

Interpersonal processes that occur within and between groups; also, the scientific study of those processes.

Cognitive Processes

Mental processes that acquire, organize, and integrate information including memory systems that store data and the psychological mechanisms that process this information.

Interdependance

Mutual dependence, as when one's outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings, and experiences are influenced, to some degree, by other people.

Bona Fide Groups

Naturally occurring groups, such as audiences, boards of directors, clubs, or teams, compared to ad hoc groups created for research purposes.

Overt Observation

Openly watching and recording information with no attempt to conceal one's research purposes

Structured Observational Methods

Research procedures that create a systematic record of group interaction and activities by classifying (coding) each overt expres- sion or action into a defined category.

Paradigm

Scientists' shared assumptions about the phenomena they study; also, a set of research procedures.

Independent Variable

Something that the researcher changes in an experimental study while holding other variables constant and measuring the dependent variable; the causal mechanism in a cause-effect relationship.

Essentialism

The belief that all things, including individuals and groups, have a basic nature that makes them what they are and distinguishes them from other things; a thing's essence is usually inferred rather than directly observed and is generally assumed to be relatively unchanging.

Task Interaction

The conjointly adjusted actions of group members that pertain to the group's projects, tasks, and goals

Validity

The degree to which a measurement method assesses what it was designed to measure.

Reliability

The degree to which a measurement tech- nique consistently yields the same conclusion at different times. For measurement techniques with two or more components, reliability is also the degree to which these components yield similar conclusions.

Putnam & Social Capital

The degree to which individuals, groups, or larger aggregates of people are linked in social relation- ships that yield positive, productive benefits; analogous to economic capital (fiscal prosperity), but determined by extensiveness of social connectedness

Interrater Reliability

The degree to which two or more raters agree.

Level of Analysis

The focus of study when examining a multilevel process or phenomenon, such as the individ- ual-level or the group-level of analysis.

Composition

The individuals who constitute a group.

B = f(P,E)

The law of interactionism that states each person's behavioral, cognitive, and emotional reactions ("behavior"), B, are a function of his or her personal qualities, P, the social environment, E, and the interac- tion of these personal qualities with factors present in the social environment (proposed in Lewin, 1951).

Group Structure

The organization of a group, including the members, their interrelations, and their interactions.

Dependent Variable

The resultant outcomes measured by the researcher; the effect variable in a cause-effect relationship.

Group Cohesion

The solidarity or unity of a group resulting from the development of strong and mutual interpersonal bonds among members and group-level forces that unify the group, such as shared commitment to group goals and esprit de corps.

Group-Reference Effect

The tendency for group members to have better memories for actions and events that are related, in some way, to their group.

Self-Reference Effect

The tendency for people to have better memories for actions and events that they are personally connected to in some way.

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

The tendency to over- estimate the causal influence of dispositional factors while underemphasizing the causal influence of situational factors.

Multilevel Perspective

The view that recognizes that a complete explanation of group processes and phenomena requires multiple levels of analysis, including individual (micro), group (meso), and organizational or societal (macro) level.

Motivation

Wants, needs, and other psychological pro- cesses that energize behavior and thereby determine its form, intensity, and duration.

Participant Observation

Watching and recording group activities as a member of the group or participant in the social process.

Covert Observation

Watching and recording informa- tion on the activities of individuals and groups without their knowledge.

Circumstantial Groups

are emergent, unplanned groups that arise when external, situational forces set the stage for people to join together, often temporarily, in a unified group. A group of travelers stranded together when their bus breaks, a mob breaking shop windows and setting parked cars on fire, and patrons at a movie theater would be circumstantial groups.

Concocted Groups

are planned by individuals or authorities outside of the group. A team of laborers digging a trench, a flight crew of an airplane, and a military squad would all be concocted groups, since those who created them are not actually members of the group.

Founded Groups

are planned by one or more individuals who remain within the group. A small Internet start-up company, a study group, a expeditionary team, or grassroots community action group would all be founded groups.

Dynamic

comes from the Greek dynami- kós, which means to be strong, powerful, and energetic.

Putnam concluded that

concluded that Americans' withdrawal from groups and associations signals an overall decline in social capital

Task Interaction

giving and asking for infor- mation, opinions, and suggestions related to the problem the group faces.

Self-organizing groups emerge when

interacting individuals gradually align their activities in a cooperative system of interdependence. Parties, gatherings of surfers waiting for waves just off- shore, drivers leaving a crowded parking lot through a single exit, and a half dozen adolescents who hang out together are all organized groups, but their organization is generated by implicit adjustments of each member to each other member.

Researchers who study groups must be careful to

not study only individuals (trees) or only groups (forests), but both the individuals and the groups (the forests and the trees).

Chapter 1 Review

pages 27-28

Chapter 2 Review

pages 58-60

Allport and groups

questioned the scientific value of the term group but concluded individuals are often bound together in "one inclusive collective structure" without resolving to use the word group.

Group Linkage

see page 10

Study Diagram

see page 14

A closer look at groups and societies

see page 24

Looking at different disciplines and careers

see page 26

Multilevel Perspective Diagram

see page 36

Examples of Ethnographic Research

see page 39

Robert Bales Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) coding system for structuring observations of groups

see page 42

Examples of Group Roles from Sociometry

see page 45

Entitativity

the extent to which a group seems to be a single, unified/coherent entity—a real group; the apparent cohesiveness or unity of an assemblage of individuals; the quality of being a single entity rather than a set of independent, unrelated indivi- duals (coined in Campbell, 195).

Group

two or more individuals who are connected by and within social relationships.