HDFS 310 FINAL EXAM Ch. 9-13 Daunhauer

imaginary friends who is more likely to have one?

"virtual characters" are an example of pretend play. It is believed that between 10-50% of preschoolers will have an imaginary friend at some point in the pre-school years. Are common among first born and only child children! Also, there are many benefits to having imaginary friends.

· Theories explaining social-emotional development in middle childhood: 3) Cognitive Developmental/ Social Cognition:

**Cognitive Developmental/Social Cognition**: -Focuses on understanding the relationship between self and others.. -Better perspective-taking skills - more skilled at negotiating peer relations..

characteristics of good schools, teacher influence on students:

**Effective schools have:** -Energetic leadership -Orderly but not oppressive atmosphere -Empowered teachers and students -High expectations for students -Academic curriculum with frequent assessment -Smaller classes •Sexism in the classroom -Girls are treated unequally by teachers, peers, tests, and curriculum -Sexual harassment of girls by boys is often ignored by teachers

· Theories explaining social-emotional development in middle childhood: 1) Eriksons theory:

**Erikson - industry versus inferiority**: -Mastering tasks of middle childhood produces a sense of industry, or competence.. -Difficulty in school or peer relationships may produce a sense of inferiority..

plus the effects of nature/nurture on intelligence:

**Genetic Influences** -Measured through kinship and adoption studies. -More closely related - more similar IQ scores. -Heritability - about 40 to 60%. **Environmental Influences** -Situational factors that affect IQ testing. -Stereotype vulnerability. -Ability to rebound from early deprivation Effects of positive early environments.

characteristics of popular and unpopular children

**Popular Children** -Friendly, nurturing, cooperative, helpful, socially skilled. -Have higher self-esteem and success. -Tend to be later-born children than firstborns. **Rejected Children** -Show behavioral and learning problems. -May be aggressive and disruptive. Do not conform to norms and remain on fringes.

· School--how it affects social-emotional development: what is it like to enter school:

**Schools** -Set limits on behavior -Make demands for mature behavior -Have a direct influence on IQ, achievement orientation, and career aspirations -Are competitive environments **Upon starting school, children must** -Meet academic challenges -Learn new expectations -Fit into a peer group

· Theories explaining social-emotional development in middle childhood: 2) Social Cognitive Theory:

**Social Cognitive Theory: importance of rewards and modeling** -Depend less on external rewards and punishments.. -Increasingly regulate their own behavior..

· Middle childhood: vocabulary and grammar, IN middle childhood!

**Vocabulary and Grammar** -Vocabulary expands. -Articulation and complex grammar improves. •Correct use and comprehension of passive sentences. •Use connectives! •Direct object - indirect object constructions.

*Identify origins of gender differences by theory: * cognitive developmental theory:

**•Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Kohlberg)** *Gender Identity*. •Knowledge that one is male or female *Gender Stability*. •Recognize people retain their gender for life *Gender Constancy*. •Recognize gender does not change, even if people modify behavior or dress -Once a child has achieved gender stability and constancy, they seek to behave in ways consistent with their gender

Pros and cons of parental employment

**•Greatest concern is lack of supervision** •No evidence of negative effects. -Greater independence, emotional maturity, and higher achievement orientation.. -Employed mothers were less depressed than working-class full-time homemakers. -Extra income improves financial well-being. -More flexible gender roles.

Advances in memory from 2 to 11 years of age, capacity in working memory· *5-11*

*5-7 years* Purposeful and conscious memorization using rehearsal. *7-9 years* New strategies, including visual clues (remembering how a particular spelling word looks) auditory hints (rhymes, letters), and organization. *9-11 years* Learn various memory techniques from teachers and other children. Can organize material themselves, developing their own memory aids.

· What behaviors are associated with the birth of a new sibling?

*Adjusting to birth of sibling* -Both positive and negative reaction to stress of new sibling. •Regression. •Anger and naughtiness. •Increased independence and maturity. •Preparing the child for the new baby can reduce sibling rivalry.

autonomous morality/autonomous reality:

*Autonomous Morality - "autonomous reality"*. -Emerges between *ages 9 and 11*. -Social rules are arbitrary agreements that can be changed. •Circumstances can require breaking rules. -Consider the intentions of the wrongdoer. •Decentration and increased empathy. -Develops as a result of cooperative peer relationships.

how do peers affect social emotional development by: age 2: preschool: Early elementary:

*By age 2, children*: -Imitate another's play. -Engage in social games. -Show a preference for a few specific playmates. *Preschool friendships*. -Show higher levels of interaction, prosocial behavior, positive emotions. *Early elementary*. -Based on shared activities and having fun together.

· ADHD- definition/symptoms for diagnosis:

*Definition and symptoms*: •Child demonstrates symptoms of inattention. •And/or child demonstrates symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity. •Onset before age 12 years. •Several symptoms present in >1 setting. •Clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in social, academic, or occupational functioning. •Many parents do not seek treatment due to concerns with their child being "labeled.

What is emotional and social intelligence

*Emotional intelligence* Salovey & Mayer. -Recognition and control of one's feelings. *Social intelligence.* -Ability to read social concerns of others and respond appropriately.

Development and influences on prosocial behavior

*Empathy*. -From infancy, babies cry when they hear other children cry. •May be reflexive or the start of empathy. -By second year, approach others in distress and try to help. •Unresponsive emotionally - more aggressive behavior in school years. -Girls show more empathy than boys. •Perspective-taking improves with age..

*Identify origins of gender differences by theory: * evolution & heredity: organization of the brain:

*Evolution and Heredity*: -Gender differences are the result of natural selection, adaptation. -Survival set passed through genes (heredity. *Organization of the Brain*: -Example: Use of hippocampus when navigating. •Males use both hemispheres and rely on geometry. •Females use right hemisphere (with right prefrontal cortex and rely on landmarks. -Males' hemispheres may be more specialized than females'.

how does birth order affect developmental outcomes? Know pros and cons.

*Firstborn Children* -More highly motivated to achieve, more cooperative, adult-oriented. -Show greater anxiety, less self-reliant. -More likely to have imaginary playmate. *Later-born Children* -Tend to be more popular with peers. -More rebellious, liberal, and agreeable. •Parenting style may differ between first- and later-born children.

How do peers affect social emotional development in general?

*Functions of Peer Interactions* -Learn social skills. -Learn leading and following. -Develop physical and cognitive skills. -Provide emotional support.

· What are the functions of siblings?

*Functions performed by siblings* -Give physical care. -Provide emotional support and nurturance. -Offer advice and direction. -Serve as role models. -Provide social interaction. -Make demands and impose restrictions. -Promote certain cognitive advances.

Gender differences in play.

*Gender differences in play*: By 15 to 36 months, children show more preference for gender-stereotyped toys. *Gender differences in play activities*. -Boys prefer vigorous, outdoor, rough and tumble play. -Boys - slightly greater strength and activity level. -Girls prefer arts and crafts, domestic play; more closely directed and structured by adults. -Girls - slightly greater physical maturity and coordination

Stages of Gender Roles:

*Initially label the genders*:. •2 to 2½ years - accurate identifying of pictures of girls and boys.. •3 years - display knowledge of gender stereotypes for toys, clothing, work, and activities. -Increasingly traditional in stereotyping between 3 and 10 years of age (Hilliard & Liben, 2010.. -Older children become somewhat more flexible •Recognize individual differences.

Instrumental vs. hostile aggression

*Instrumental aggression*: is the intentional use of harmful behavior so that one can achieve some other goal. Aggression used as a means to get something. *Hostile aggression*: has the sole goal of causing injury or death to the victim. Aggression aimed solely at hurting someone else.

intellectual disability and giftedness:

*Intellectual Disability*: -Significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior starting before age 18. -IQ scores no higher than 70 to 75. •*Giftedness*. -Involves more than excellence on standard intelligence tests. -Also includes those who •Demonstrate outstanding abilities..Are capable of high performance in specific academic area..Show creativity, leadership, distinction in arts or bodily talents!

prevalence:

*Prevalence*: Between 5 and 10% •At least twice as common in boys •Exists in other countries •Controversial; can be misdiagnosed

Self-concept and self-esteem

*Self-Concept:* Contains ideas about self that include intelligence, personality, abilities, gender, and ethnic background. Gradually becomes more realistic, specific, and logical, Is dependent on social comparison. *Self-Esteem*: •Value people attach to themselves •Make judgments about their performance; display an overall self-concept.. Children's self-esteem actually declines throughout middle childhood, reaching a low point at about age 12 or 13. Then it increases during adolescence.

*Identify origins of gender differences by theory: * sex hormones: social cognitive theory:

*Sex Hormones*: -Gender differences in personality and gender-typed activity preferences may be related to prenatal levels of sex hormones.. -Cross-species findings suggest gender-typed preferences might develop without socialization.. *Social Cognitive Theory* (Learning Theory: * -Rewards and punishment. -Observational learning.

· Parten's levels of play and examples

*Six Types of Play Parten, 1932)* * Nonsocial (Not influenced by other children.* 1). Unoccupied Play. 2). Solitary Play. 3). Onlooker Play. * Social (Interactive and influenced by other children.* 4). Parallel Play. 5). Associative Play. 6). Cooperative Play.

Theoretical explanations of aggression on social cognitive:

*Social Cognitive Theory*. -Reinforcement. •Aggressive children associate with aggressive peers. •Parental coercion to control children's behavior. -Observational Learning. •Model aggressive peers. •Parental models.

· theory of the mind:

*Theory of Mind* -Understanding of how the mind works. -Allows us to explain and predict behavior.

Advances in memory from 2 to 11 years of age, capacity in working memory· Age *2-5!*

*Under 2 years* Memory is implicit, triggered by sights and sounds (an interactive toy, a caregiver's voice. *2-5 years* Words are used to encode and retrieve memories. Explicit memory begins, do not yet use memory strategies. Children remember things by rote (their phone number, nursery rhymes.

Whole Brain Child approach to tantrums (downstairs vs upstairs tantrums)

*Upstairs:* The upstairs brain is when you make great decisions even if sometimes you dont get your way. *Downstairs:*: Where your big feelings come from-> Lets you care about others, feel love and other strong feelings. --> The upstairs brain calms down your downstairs brain!

*Parenting styles:* authoritative: authoritarian:

*authoritative*: High on Warmth, High on Restrictiveness Self-reliance.. The child has independence, high self-esteem, and social competence qualities. *authoritarian*: Low on Warmth, High on Restrictiveness Less socially competent.. The child has lower self-reliance, and self-esteem qualities.

Know the components of. information processing: selective attention:

*information processing*: •Cognitive development akin to computer systems: Information input, storage, retrieval, output! •*Sensory Memory*-Attention •*Working Memory*-Short-term Memory-encoding •*Long-Term Memory*(Permanent Memory/retrieval *Selective attention*: Capacity for storage and retrieval of information. Strategies for processing information. *how the ability to ignore distractions changes across childhood: structure of memory*

media influences on aggression:

*media influences on aggression:* -Bobo Doll experiment (Bandura, 1963. •Imitation of modeled behavior. •Disinhibition of learned aggressive responses. -Television viewing. •Circular relationship between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior.

· Basic physical and neurological advances in middle childhood.

*physical*: Period between early childhood and early adolescence, approximately from ages 6 to 11. -Healthiest years of the lifespan. -Growth of brain and body steady but slower than early childhood or adolescence. *•Neurological advances*: -Selective attention improves-> maturation + experience. -Reaction time shortens. -Progress in working memory, goal setting, fluid intelligence.

Self-concepts- categorical self and self-esteem

*•Categorical self*- external traits.. -e.g., I am tall, small, a boy, a girl.. •By age 3, use behaviors and internal states. -Appear to occur frequently and are fairly stable over time. •*Self-esteem*: -By age 4, begin evaluative judgments. •Cognitive and physical competence. •Social acceptance by peers and parents.

· Fine and gross motor skills in middle childhood:

*•Connections between cerebellum and cortex become myelinated* •*Gross Motor Skills* -Increase in balance, coordination, and strength. -Reaction time gradually improves. •*Fine Motor Skills* -Tie shoes and hold pencils as adults do. -Abilities to dress and maintain hygiene functions develop.

the different theoretical explanations of aggression: evolutionary, biological, cognitive.

*•Evolutionary Theory*: Struggle for survival *•Biological Factors*: -Genetic factors, Testosterone •*Cognitive Factors*: -Inaccurate interpretation of others' behavior -Lack of empathy and perspective-taking

importance of play. play is protected by the UN Convention of the Rights of the Child.

*•Importance of Play (Video Clip.* -Social skills. -Physical activity. -Executive functioning. Children's Right to Play. •UNICEF Children's Right to Play.

· Asthma and risk factors

*•Risk factors of developing asthma (Martel, et al., 2008* -Previous respiratory infections and skin irritations. -Family history of asthma. -Lower SES. *Treatment*. •Nasal corticosteroids or other medicines to block reaction to allergens and open airways. •Parents advised to remove dust, dander, mites, and other sources of respiratory irritation from the home.

parenting a child with ADHD:

-Associated with higher family stress, parent-child conflict, greater risk of parental anxiety and depression.. -Parents need to be flexible yet consistent. -Parents can help by:. -Having same daily routine; preparing for changes. -Helping child stay organized. -Having consistent rules. -Offering rewards and praise.

Conduct disorders and treatment

-Child persistently breaks rules or violates rights of others. -Emerge around age 8, more prevalent in boys. -Tend to endure. **Treatment of conduct disorders** -Cognitive behavioral techniques involving parent training. -Teach children social, coping, and problem-solving skills.

· Childhood depression, origins, treatment

-Feel sad, down in the dumps, hopeless. -Show poor appetite, insomnia, difficulty concentrating. -Loss of self-esteem and of interest in people and activities they enjoy; may have thoughts of suicide. -Many children do not recognize their own depression until age 7. *Treatment of depression*. -Psychotherapy, mainly cognitive-behavioral. -Antidepressants, which have mixed reviews for effectiveness.

Kohlberg's 3 components (pre-, conventional, and post-.

1) *Pre-conventional level* -Obedience and punishment -Good behavior allows you to satisfy your own needs and perhaps, the needs of others 2) *Conventional level* -Good-boy/good-girl orientation -Judgments based on rules that maintain social order 3) *Post-conventional level* -Based on person's own moral standards -Universal ethical principles orientation

· Percent of U.S. Child overweight/obese; associated outcomes and risks

16% to 25% of children and adolescents in US are overweight or obese. •Specific high-risk groups in middle childhood: African American females and Latin American males. •Most overweight children become overweight adults. -Often are rejected by peers. -Perform poorly in sports. -Have poorer body images than children of normal weight.

Cognitive limitations in the concrete operations period

Cognitive Limitations: Struggle with abstract/hypothetical problems, Lack of broad knowledge!

Piaget's classification of play. functional: symbolic: constructive: formal games:

Functional play - repetitive motor activity. Symbolic play - pretend play. Constructive play - draw or make something. Formal games - games with rules.

· Schooling in the US- gaps and segregation status

Gaps between income and ethnic groups from prekindergarten to high school. U.S. schools more segregated than four decades ago There are a lot of issues on how the funding is used, Public education and public funding priorities.

Gender identity: sex-typed behavior: gender roles/schemas:

Gender identity: Identity as boy or girl; male or female. sex-typed behavior: Actions that conform to cultural expectations about what is appropriate for boys and for girls. gender roles/schemas: Knowledge of cultural stereotypes regarding males and females.

How aggression develops:

How aggression develops: •Aggression in preschoolers. -Frequently instrumental or possession-oriented. -Usually causes rejection by peers. •Aggression at 6 or 7 years old. Hostile and person-oriented. -->>>•Aggressive behavior appears to be stable over time and predictive of a variety of social and emotional difficulties in adulthood

Variations in IQ.

IQ scores vary according to a bell-shaped, or "normal," curve. Scores tend to cluster around the central score (100) and then to decrease in frequency as they move upward and downward

Explain the following: what is lead poisoning. what is the relationship to poverty. what are considered safe levels. associated outcomes. treatment.

Lead poisoning is when someone is exposed to lead and is ingested, either through paint, pipes, etc. Lead poisoning is related to poverty because typically it is older and poorer neighborhoods that have pipes that haven't been updated. Or companies don't really care about the poor communities and dumping happens there. Lead poisoning is incredibly detrimental to the child's brain. any amount of exposure to it causes irreversible brain damage. There is no treatment. It is also important to note that a child's brain absorbs lead more efficiently than an adults.

Reading: cognitive skills and teaching approaches to reading; how reading develops in childhood

Learning involves active discovery · Find stimulating materials instead of imposing knowledge Instruction geared to student's level · Consider the level of cognitive development Encourage development of perspective taking · Encourage group discussions and peer interaction *Phonetic method for decoding new words*! * Advances in Reading*

· precausal thinking transductive reasoning, animism, artificialism

Pre-casual thinking: Also known as, Transductive reasoning, means that child believes that things happen for a reason, Child shows animism, child shows artificalism. Animisim: attributing life to inanimate objects, believing your teddy bear is alive. Artificialism: assumes environmental features are made by people.

middle childhood and the following: Reversibility: conservation:

Reversibility: shows that the child is getting ready for an adult way of thinking. Now the child understands that things can be reversed! 3x4=4x3. Conservation: •Demonstrate understanding of conservation. Now child understands that Objects can have several properties or dimensions. Child can de-center and focus on more than one dimension!

Scaffolding: ZPD:

Scaffolding: helping the child get to that next step. ZPD: the period where the child is at a crossroads that if scaffolded will reach the next level.

What is Home Assessment?

Stands for: Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment. -Identification of barriers within the home that have the potential to lead to injury and or decrease function.

· Symbolic/pretend play: know how it looks from 12 to 30 months.

Symbolic/pretend play: A type of play in which children make believe that objects or toys are other than what they appear. 12-13 months: pretend they are engaging in familiar activities such as feeding or bathing themselves. 15-20: pretend to feed their baby doll. focus shifts from themselves to others. 20-30: can pretend the baby doll is feeding herself.

Understand the parent approach to their child's transgender identity highlighted in the video clip "Life as a 5-year-old transgender child"

The parents seemed very open to the idea of their child being transgender, while they both believed that it might be a phase, they were rather open and accepting!

pros & cons of mainstreaming students in regular classroom vs placing in special education classrooms.

The pros of special education include meeting the needs of children with mild to moderate disabilities.. -The cons of special education is separating them from their peers who are developing typically which removes stronger role models to learn from. -Another con is that students who have mild and moderate disabilities might get treated differently by the general education teachers -Most students with mild and moderate disabilities are mainstreamed meaning that they spend part of the school day with students who are developing typically and part of the school day getting special education resources.

· know the three mountain test. What does being able to do it or not tells us about early childhood cognition?

There are 3 mountains, all different colors and all with different objects.. The child is asked to describe what they see on one side of the table and what someone else would see on the other side of the table. Every single time, the child describes what They themselves see! The child shows us that ego-centrism truly inhibits the child from taking the view point of others.

Know views on whether Piaget's theory represents how we think about cognition in early childhood today

Today, it is believed that toddlers and preschoolers may know much more than previously thought. The misunderstanding may be due to: 1) errors in language development. 2) child may misunderstand what the researcher is asking. 3) approach may lead the child to expect a change.

know the who, what, when, why of the Flint Water Crisis

Who: the flint Michigan, and the old water plant they wanted to open. What: water in homes was coming out pitch black and contaminated with lead. When: April 2014 why: the water plant had not been treated properly before sending the water out to the city, and hence, it all became infected with lead. with most individuals having lead damage and some dying. ALSO it only affected poorer communities.

middle childhood and the following: classification: egocentrism:

classification: now children understand classification, they understand that things can have two or more separate characteristics such as blue and red buses and they can be sorted either by shape or color. egocentrism: Now children can take the view point of other people and begin to feel and understand empathy.

confusion of mental & physical events: centration:

confusion of mental & physical events: Child assumes thoughts reflect external reality, child believes dreams are real. centration: considering one instead of multiple. meaning only focusing on one aspect of a situation rather than other options.

middle childhood and the following: decentration: transivity: seriation abilities:

decentration: Now children can take their focus away from an initial "rule" and do multiple at once. transivity: Assess transitivity through seriation tasks Systematically compare an array of objects seriation abilities: Seration abilities are understanding the gradient of color andd size and applying them accordingly. Also recall video of boy organizing the paper from shortest to longest by comparing the sizes.

egocentrism: conservation:

egocentrism: "Its all about me"- Putting oneself at the center of things such that one is unable to perceive the world from another persons viewpoint. conservation: the idea that the properties of substances, such as weight and mass remain the same when superficial characteristics like containers are changed.

Know the components of. how the ability to ignore distractions changes across childhood: structure of memory:

how the ability to ignore distractions changes across childhood: as the child gets older they are able to ignore non-relevant information. Structure of memory includes: Sensory Memory (Sensory Register. •Working Memory (Short-term Memory. •Long-Term Memory (Permanent Memory.

Irreversibility:

in Piaget's theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action. Example: 2x3 VS 3x2. They dont understand the concept!

magical thinking: cause and effect immature:

magical thinking: This is believing in magical things such as the tooth fairy, Santa Claus, or that the room is magically cleaned once the kid is at school. cause and effect immature: the children believe that because something happened thats the way its meant to be! "because mommy told me to"

Define operations

mental acts (schemes) in which objects are changed or transformed and then can be returned to their original states. Mental operations are flexible and reversible.

*Parenting styles:* permissive: rejecting/neglecting (uninvolved):

permissive: --> Indulgent, High Warmth, Low Restrictiveness...Child is Less competent in school and more deviant behavior, but fairly high in social competence and self-confidence. rejecting/neglecting (uninvolved): Low Warmth, Low Restrictiveness...Child is Least competent, responsible, and mature children; most prone to problem behaviors.

· inner/private speech

self directed speech used to guide behavior

· know how poverty relates to brain development (see Ted Talk by Dr. Noble.

the cortical surface area of the brain was impacted by financial status in children. Children who were living in poverty had a significant difference in their brain structures, as opposed to children whose families were much wealthier. Two important factor that are affected by poverty, were one, cognitive-language outcomes such as reading and writing, and the second were self-control and the ability to get distracted were also impacted.

Peer influence in middle childhood;

•**Socialization Influence**! -Increasing importance of peers. -Exert pressure to conform. -Broaden children's physical, cognitive, and social skills. •**Difference relating to parents versus peers**! -Learn appropriate emotional responses. -Peers may serve as a sounding board. -Peers provide "real-world" social skills practice.

Friendships in middle childhood and how friendships change in middle childhood..

•*Early Middle Childhood*: -Friendships based on proximity, shared activities. -Superficial, easily formed and broken. •8- to 11-year-olds. -Friends are nice to each other and trustworthy. -Pick friends similar in personality and behavior.

*meta-cognition*: *meta-memory*:

•*Metacognition*. -Knowledge and control of cognitive abilities; •*Metamemory*. -Children's awareness of the functioning of their memory; •As children develop, they utilize more strategies for memory;

· Know the prevalence of children expected to have high and low working memory capacity: signs of low capacity working memory: accommodations for lower capacity working memory:

•1:10 significantly high capacity; 1:10 have significantly low capacity. •↓capacity can cause difficulty with: -Remembering instructions; -Mental math and spelling; -Writing lecture notes; etc. -and ultimately poor academic achievement. •Accommodations can be made: e.g., shortened instructions, lists, choosing motivational material, etc.

false beliefs as related to cognition at this stage (during the theory of mind stage):

•Ability to separate their beliefs from another person's who has false knowledge of a situation -Develops by age 4 - 5 •Ability to deceive others

learned helplessness

•Acquired belief that one cannot obtain the rewards one seeks.. -"Helpless" children quit following failure. -Doubt their ability, and believe success is due more to ability than effort. -Persistence seems futile.

· appearance/reality distinction

•Appearance-reality distinction -Understand difference between real and mental events, fantasies, and misleading appearances -May appear in children as young as three.

Stanford-Binet: the theories explaining intelligence.

•Assumed intelligence increases with age. •Older child must answer more items to obtain comparable score to younger child (mental age. •Yielded a score - mental age (MA. •Yields a score - intelligence quotient (IQ. •Based on chronological age and mental age. -Today, IQ scores compare performance to age appropriate norms with an average score of 100.

bilingualism IN middle childhood!

•Bilingual children -Occasionally show some confusion about which language is which, or which word is appropriate -Are usually proficient in both languages -Are more likely to understand that symbols in language are arbitrary -Have more cognitive flexibility

connections between language and cognition and vice versa:

•Cognitive development precedes language development (Piaget: -Understand concept then describe it. -Vocabulary explosion (18 months) follows categorization. •Language development precedes cognitive development. -Create cognitive classes to understand things labeled by words.

Implications of divorce at this stage

•Decline in quality of parenting and financial status. •Cross-cultural research shows consistent effects. •Boys tend to have a harder time coping with divorce; tend to take longer to recover.. •Status of mother related to child's well-being. •Psychological treatment is helpful for children. -Many programs also involve parent.

· outcomes related to TV viewing for preschoolers (pros and cons)

•Educational Television: Pros: -Children's Television Act -Sesame Street - most successful educational TV show! •Regular viewing = increased skill in numbers, letters, sorting, classification! •May increase impulse control and concentration among preschoolers!! Cons: Entertainment television may be harmful Watching long hours of TV is correlated with an increase obesity and being overweright.

grammar development:

•Expand telegraphic speech (age 3) -Include articles, conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions, and possessive adjectives! •Combine phrases into complex sentences (age 3-4. •Overregularization. -Strict application of grammar rules. -Represents advances in syntax.

· Anxiety in middle childhood and treatments

•Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD. •Phobias. -Separation anxiety disorder (SAD. -School phobia. -School refusal. •Girls are more likely than boys to report feeling of anxiety.

Relationship between creativity and intelligence

•In Sternberg's triarchic model, creativity overlaps with intelligence.. •Most tests that measure intelligence and creativity show only low to moderate relationship.. •Possible explanation for low to moderate relationship. -Intelligence testing requires convergent thinking Creative thinking requires divergent thinking.!

Gender differences in cognitive, social, and emotional development.

•In infancy, gender differences are small and inconsistent.. *•In early childhood.* -Boys engage in more rough-and-tumble play and are more aggressive. -Girls show more empathy and report more fears. -Girls show more verbal ability; boys more visual-spatial ability.

· Learning disabilities:

•Inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills. -Problems with reading, math, writing. -Difficulties with speaking or understanding speech. -Problems with motor coordination. •Performs below expectations for age and intelligence. -Without evidence of other disabilities. •Usually persist throughout life.

Intelligence, what is it, why do we measure it:

•Intelligence = -Child's underlying learning ability. -Cognitive basis for academic achievement. -Psychologists disagree about the nature and origins of a child's underlying competence or learning ability. *WHY;* •Categorize. -Identify intellectual disability or giftedness. •Educational Planning. -Describe areas of strength and challenge.

vocabulary development:

•Learn average of nine new words per day •Early cognitive biases continue -Fast-mapping process -Whole-object assumption -Contrast assumption

dyslexia

•Learning disorder that involves difficulty reading due to problems identifying speech sounds and learning how they relate to letters and words.

· Piaget applications to the classroom:

•Learning involves active discovery -Find stimulating materials instead of imposing knowledge •Instruction geared to student's level -Consider the level of cognitive development •Encourage development of perspective taking -Encourage group discussions and peer interaction

trends in play today.

•Less time in play.. •Less focus on child-directed. •More adult supervision of play, risk. •Current push toward early mastery of academic skills. •More electronics.

Treatment for ADHD

•Medication efficacy rates range from 70-90%. •Medication discontinuation rates high 30-50%. -Adverse side effects. -Inadequate response. •Stronger evidence for short-term effects rather than long-term. -May have reduced effectiveness over time. •Abuse of Adderall and Ritalin. •Cognitive behavioral therapy is an alternative treatment. -Focus on self-control and problem-solving abilities. •Some children "outgrow" ADHD. -At least two-thirds exhibit one or more symptoms in adolescence and adulthood.

Piaget moral realism/objective moralism:

•Moral Realism - "objective morality". -*Emerges at about age 5.* -Behavior is correct when it conforms to authority or rules. •Rules are absolutes. -Punishment is inevitable. •Immanent justice or automatic retribution. •Do not excuse accidental behavior.

causes of ADHD:

•No clear cause; multiple pathways.. •Evidence for genetics. •Prenatal exposure to teratogens (Shaffer & Kipp, 2007); exposure to lead. -Executive functions. •Food additives and dyes (some evidence; currently being studied.

and outcomes associated with step families

•No conclusive effects of living in stepfamilies. •Stepparents may become intimately involved with child's well-being. -Children often report being content with divorce. •Risks in stepfamilies. -Greater risk of being physically abused by stepparents. -Infanticide, though rare, occurs 60 times as often in stepfamilies. -Higher incidence of sexual abuse by stepparents.

Long term memory in middle childhood: moving information to long term memory;

•No known limit of information. •Moving information to long-term memory. -Rehearsal. -Elaborative strategy. -Extended semantic codes. -Organization in long-term memory. -Recall memory is improved by ability to process information (scan and categorize. -Memory is a good overall indicator of cognitive ability.

· What are typical fears of preschoolers; overcoming fears in the preschool years

•Number of fears peaks between 2½ and 4 years! •Decline in fears of: -Loud noises, falling, sudden movement, and strangers. •Most likely to have fears about:. -Animals, imaginary creatures, the dark, and personal safety. In middle childhood, fears become more realistic!

· perceptual VS. cognitive ego-centrism:

•Perceptual egocentrism: Not understanding that others perceptual and visual capacity is different from your own. *Example:* covering your eyes and thinking others can't see you, talking over phone as if the person on the other end can see you.. •Cognitive egocentrism: Not being able to take into account someone elses cognitive view point. *Example*: thinking that others have the same knowledge and beliefs you do-- such as buying presents, assuming parents want what you want!

evaluation of the usefulness of Piaget's theory today.

•Piaget tended to underestimate children's abilities. •Development of cognitive skills may be more independent and continuous than in stages. •Sequences of development appear to remain the same.

grammar development: 1) Questions: how do they ask questions? 2) Passive Sentences: 3) Pragmatics:

•Questions: First questions are telegraphic with rising pitch at the end! -Later incorporates why, when, and how questions! •Passive Sentences: Young children have difficulty understanding passive sentences.. •Pragmatics: Adjust speech to fit the social situation -3 - 5 years: develop more pragmatic skills.

· memory in early childhood: recognition, recall, and how they changes with age, what influences memory skills? Memory strategies for preschoolers

•Recognition: -Indicate whether items have been seen before. •Recall: -Reproduce material from memory. --> these become more defined with age. rehearsal and retrieval cues are memory strategies that aid children.

how theory of mind and false beliefs relate to brain development:

•Relationship with brain development -Executive functioning -Working memory -Attention and self-control

· How do situation and child affect parenting styles

•Role of the Situation in Parenting: -Use of power-assertive techniques in stressful situations. •Role of Child's Characteristics in Parenting: -Aggressive behavior. -Willful disobedience.

· Parent-child relationship issues at this stage

•School-related matters, chores, peer activities.. •Transfer of control from parent to child. •Spend less time with parents. •Become more critical of parents; (remember ↑ cognition in cognitive flexibility/shifting, seriation, etc.. •View parents as best source of emotional support.

· cognitive as well as, short and long term outcomes associated with high quality preschool education

•Short-term benefits: -Positive influence on IQ scores. -Gains in school readiness and achievement. •Long-term benefits: -Better high school graduation rates. -Less likely to be delinquent, unemployed, or on welfare.

What IQ scores predict, how intelligence develops in middle childhood,

•Success in school. •Success in occupations that require abstract thought Very low and very high IQs more predictive. *DEVELOPS*: by exposure to different topics, places, and exposure.