Health Psychology
Resistance training
(or strength training) exercise that builds muscle mass and conditioning
What is systems theory, and why is it important to the study of health?
Systems theory conceptualizes something as a system governed by many different factors. A change in any level of the system can influence many other levels. This is important to the study of health because it relates to the biopsychosocial model. A change in any level of those can affect one another and also affect health. For example, a diagnosis such as cancer begins with changes in cells, but it can also lead to changes in behavior, health care, and mind.
What is the Alameda County Study, and what does it tell us about health behaviors?
The Alameda County Study was a longitudinal study that surveyed nearly 7000 people living in california. It asked if residents slept between 7-8 hours each night, controlled their wieght, got physical exercise, limited alchohol to fewer than 5 drinks per day, did not smoke, ate breakfast everyday, and limited snacking between meals.The study found that those who engaged in most of these healthful behaviors were healthier. Skipping breakfast and snacking between meals showed the weakest relationships to better health, but the other five behaviors were all very important
How does the typical American diet compare with others around the world?
The American diet has a long way to go before being healthy. Americans are typically over their daily sugar intake everyday. Americans also rely on high calorie fast food, which is very unhealthy and increases the risk of obesity and high cholesterol. The typical American diet is high in calories and low in nutrition. Most Americans barely get their daily fruit and veggies. Due to Americas diversity, the average diet is changing. Race, ethnicity, gender, and age all factor in to what the typical american eats.
What are the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) dietary requirements?
The USDa advocates for a plant based diet with lots of colorful fruits and veggies, seeds, nuts and beans. They emphasize limitng dairy, and limiting sugar to 12 tsps a day. They created the "My PLate" diagram to help people balance their diets.
What does the common-sense model of illness tell us?
The common-sense model of illness sees our health behaviors as based on how we perceive our health. We look to our own experiences, people we trust, how we feel. This is a parallel processing model, meaning everything takes place at once. We process the cognitive representations of illness along with the emotional representations of our health. Representations include what labels, emotions, and beliefs.
Explain how the theory of planned behavior describes health choices, and explain how to effectively change behavior.
The theory of planned behaviro sees health behaviors as a result of our intentions. It inclues values, hope to success and intentions to succeed. It considers attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control. For example, if someone has a strong attitude about quitting smoking, they have social support, and they believe they can quit and not be dependent on nicotine, they will be more likely to change their behavior. There are also developmental shifts in behavioral change: intention to change is used in older teens whereas willingness to change is more predictive in early adolescence.
What are health-enhancing behaviors?
The things we do that maintain and promote good health, well being and lonegevity. Ccording to Almaeda study the basic behaviors for good health are maintain a healthy weight eat nutriously dont skip breakfast avoid snacking drink in moderation sleep 7-8 hours dont smoke and exercise
What is the transtheoretical model of change?
The transtheoretical model of change sees a change in health as a process, not an event. There are five stages. The first stage, precontemplation, involves no intention to change. The second stage, contemplation, the individual recognizes the behavior is unhealthy, but is still not ready to commit. IN the third, preparation, the indiviudual has moved toward the point of wanting to work on the problem. In the fourth stage, action, they take the step. The fifth stage, maintenance, involves an ongoing effort to make the change last. This stage is reached if the new behavior is continued for six months or more
What are the health disparities in health behaviors?
Many health disparities exist in health behaviors. Women are more likely to engage in less risky behaviors and have regular checkups, whereas men are more likely to exercise. Adolescents are more likely to engage in risky behaviors. Those individuals with a higher socioeconomic status tend to enjoy better health and less disease than those with lower socioeconomic status. In general people with more education are more likely to practice healthful behaviors. They may have learned more about the importance and may have a higher income they can invest in their health. Cis-gender heterosexual people are more likely to practice healthful behaviors such as regular checkups as opposed to LGBTQ individuals. This may be because health care has a predominantly heteronormative framework so LGBTQ individuals may face discrimination stereotypes and stigma.
What is the significance of the waist-to-hip ratio?
The waist to hip ratio is absed on the circumference of your waist and hips and can point to where fat is stored. The risk of poor health increases with a wasit greater than 35 for women and 40 for men. Fat around your middle (central obesity) is more dangerous becaue it indicates fat deposits around internal organs. This can put you at risk for forgetfullness and dementia later in life.
What is the evolutionary significance of weight and fat, and what is stress weight?
Stress weight is belly fat that results from stress. Weight gain in repsonse to stress can be due to a change in eating habits, less physical activity, lower cortisol levels, and poor sleep. People who put weight on in the middle also tend to react poorly to stress.The thrifty gene hypothesis states that humans store fat when food was abundant for times of need when food was scarce. female hormones (estrogen) cause women to carry more weight in the hips thighs legs and butt for more successfull pregnancies. MEn tend to accumulate fat in the abdomen and upper body
How does the health beliefs model predict health behaviors?
The health beliefs model explains health behaviors as actions aimed at getting results. Cognitive assessment depends on the Perceived threat of a problem, including perceived suseptibility and perceived severity, and the belief that taking action will reduce the perceived threat, including Perceived benefits and perceived barriers. Perceived susceptibility is how one sees ones risk associated with the perceived threat. Perceived severity is the perception that there will be serious cpnsequences if the risk becomes reality. Perceived benefits are beliefs about the positive outcomes associated with a behavior in response to a real or perceived threat. Perceived barriers area person's feelings on the obstacles to performing a health action
What region of the brain regulates eating and satiety?
The hypothamlumus controls appetitie energy use and body weight. It adjusts our food intake in relation to our level of physical activity.
Health promotion
activities that promote or maintain good health
Preventive medicine
any efforts to promote and maintain health and offset disease
Safer sex
sexual contact that is respectful, is pleasurable, is freely consented to by both partners, reduces the risk of passing on any infections, reduces the risk of an unintended pregnancy, and is emotionally safe
Clinical trials
studies done in clinical research to determine whether a treatment or drug is effective
Quasi-experimental research
studies that compare groups of participants on one dependent variable but do not use random assignment of participants
incidence
the number of new cases of a disease at a given time
Theory of planned behavior
the theory that sees health behaviors as the result of our intentions, which are shaped by our attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
Common-sense model of illness
the theory that states that our perceptions about our health inform our health behaviors
How can preventive medicine help fight cancer?
Preventive medicine is any efforts to promote and maintain health and offset disease. A memmogram screening is used to screen for breast cancer. It is recommended every 2 years once the age of 50 is reached. Regular screenings, such as a colonoscopy, are recommended after the age of 50 to screen for colon cancer. These may lead to early detection of cancer and help prevent it from spreading. Wearing sunscreen and going to the dermatologist to look for precancerous skin lesions can help prevent skin cancer.
What are the different types of eaters, and what do these eating patterns mean for weight maintenance and mental health?
Restrained eaters constrict their eating to control calories. Emoitional eaters eat in response to negative emotions. External eaters eat in response to food cues. Emotional and external eaters have higher BMIS. People who have trouble regulating emotions, especially anxiet, are more liekly to be emotional eaters and have higher dsiordered eating rates. Emotional eaters relates to depression. external eaters tend to be high in neuroticism. They tend to be impulsive and use counterregulatory eating. This is bad for health and diet. restrained eating can signify body dissatisfaction and may put at risk for eating disorders. Intuitive eaters, eat when they feel hungry and stop eating when they feel full. This is the healtheist eating pattern.
What historical events led to institutional review boards and codes for scientific research?
Any scientist panning a study must gain approval from an institutional review board to ensure the study is ethical. One event that led to this was the Tuskegee experiemnt. In 1932 in Alabama 600 poor African American sharecroppers were asked to participate in this study in exchange for medical care and meals. Only later was it discovered they were studying the effects of untreated syphillis on the body. Participants were never told of this and were denied treatment once it was availabel. Another historical event that led to IRBS occured after World War 2 because German physicians had conducted painful, sometimes deadly experiements on prisoners in concentration camps without their consent.
What is safer sex, and who practices it?
Safer sex is a sexual engagement that is respectful, pleasurable, and freely consented to by both partners, and that reduces the risk of unitended pregnancy or infections. It does not involve the exchange of any blood, semen, or vaginal fluids. It involves open communication and knowing if either is a potential carrier of an STI. A vaccination to protect against HPV and is recomended in children11 to 12 years old.
What is body mass index (BMI), how is it calculated, and what do the results show?
BMI is a measure of body fat based on your height and weight. (weight*703)/(height squared). If your score is 18.5-24.99 you are in the normal rnage. IF you are over 30 you are obese. if you are under 18.5 you are underweight. BMI can misclassify people. It can overestimate the amount og body fat in athletes and it may underestimate body fat in those with less muscle tone. It is less accurate classifying men than women
What are some common barriers to exercise?
Barriers to exercise include lack of time, inconvenience, lack of self motivation and encouragement/support, not enjoying exercise (boring), low confidince in ability, fear of injury, inability to set goals, no safe place
How has the distinction between acute and chronic conditions influenced health care?
Chronicdiseasesarediseasesthatpersisorworsenovertime.Acutedisordershaveanabruptonsetandshortduration.
What experimental controls are necessary in a clinical trial?
Clinical trials are carefully controlled studies to see whether a drug works. It involves a control group that receives a placebo, usually an inert subtance in the same form of the treatment. This is important because simply being treated can affect the mind and symptoms. It is also a blind experiment, wehre patients are unaware of what treatment they are receiving. It is usually a double blind experiment, wehre no one involved knows who is assigned to what experimental condition. This is so a resaearcher does not treat subjects in different groups differently. Experimental protocol is a detailed plan of study, which specifies the experiment, data collection, and sampling methods.
What are some examples of contagious diseases?
Contagious diseases are diseases that spread through the transmission of an infectious agent, sometimes by physical contact between people. Examples include smallpox, typhoid fever, and polio
What individual differences affect weight and eating?
Self control is the baility to control ones desires, emotions, and behaviors. It involves the anterior cingulate cortex in the prefrontal cortex. Those with less self control tend to eat more, or unhealthier foods. Those with higher self control have lower BMIS. self efficacy is the belief in ones ability to succeed or reach a goal. It is related to health goals. Those with high self efficacy are more likely to eat healthier and work towards their goals of a healthier weight or diet. Aggressive people tend to have a more unhealthy diet. Studies have found links between obesity and pessimism. Neuroticism is related to higher bMIS and so is extraversion. Consecnetious people tend to choose health enhancing behaviors
How do cross-sectional and longitudinal studies compare when it comes to testing hypotheses?
Cross-sectional studies collect data from a group(or groups) of people at a specific time. Developmental studies are concerned with how age and developmental stages relate to outcomes. One problem that can arise is cohort effects, which are factors that arise from a group of people that share an experience or lifestyle. For example, younger people may use technology more because it has been a part of their whole lives, where older people may not use it as much. Cross cultural studies can be used to help understand how cultural differences affect health. For example encouraging people to get a vaccine by posing the statement as either a gain or loss can impact culturs differently. Longitudinal studies follow individuals over thei lifespan, determining how they cahnge and grow over time. Prospective studies follow individuals forward through time whereas retrospective studies look back in time and use past data to discover what lead to the present condition. One problem that arises with longitudinal studies is they take a lot of time. Some participants may drop out throughout the study, or pass away, or the researcher may retire before the experiement is complete.
What are deterministic genes and risk genes?
Deterministic Genes cause a disease to develop. For example, there is a deterministic gene for Alzheimers found in a few 100 extended families. It causes familial early onset diabetes. Risk genes increase the likelihood of developing a disease but do not directly cause it. APOE-e4 is a risk gene for alzheimers found in about 25% of cases.
What data does epidemiology provide?
Epidemiology is concerened with measuring health. iIt was first developed to discover the causes of contagious diseases, and now includes other diseases. They look at risk factors of a disease and try to find ways to protect against it. THey measure mortality, the number of deaths due to a specific cause, and morbidity, the frequency of cases in a specific group at a specific time
Why is evidence-based treatment important?
Evidence-based treatment is the conscientious application of current scientific evidence to health realted decision making. It is based on the best research evidence availble, clinical expertise, and patient values and preferences. This allows for greater confidence in success and the best option for the patient being provided to them.
What are the physical, cognitive, and mental health outcomes associated with regular physical activity?
Exercise delays conditions such as high blood pressure, osteoporosis, diabetes, and heart disease, imporves memory, increases seratonin levels. It increases the efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system, strengthens the immune system. It leads to improvement in reaction time, executive functioning, working and short term memory, reduces anxiety, increases positive mood, and increases the quality of life.
What are the health benefits of exercise? How much and what types of exercise are needed to get these benefits?
Exercise delays conditions such as high blood pressure, osteoporosis, diabetes, and heart disease, imporves memory, increases seratonin levels. It increases the efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system, strengthens the immune system. It leads to improvement in reaction time, executive functioning, working and short term memory, reduces anxiety, increases positive mood, and increases the quality of life. The guidelines are 150 minutes cardio ( raises heart rate and strengthens heart and lungs) and 2 or more days of resistance training (building muscle mass and conditioning)
How does where fat is stored affect health outcomes?
Fat around your middle (central obesity) is more dangerous becaue it indicates fat deposits around internal organs. This can put you at risk for forgetfullness and dementia later in life. People who tend to put on wight in the middle tend to react poorly to stress, which can lead to stres weight. Some cytokines produce fever, inflammation, and make disease worse. When abdominal fat triggers this can of cytokines, it can lead to stroke, CVD and diabetes
Is health a fundamental human right?
From a global perspective health is a fundamental human right. Who states that a nation must provide bare necesssities such as education, freedom from discrimination, and freedom to control ones body
Describe the innate and genetic factors that influence our food preferences and patterns of food consumption.
Genetically, we tend to have a predisposition toward sweet and salty food and an aversion to bitter and sour tastes. In adolescents genes have been found to influence preferences for fruits, vegetables, meat or fish, dairy products, and snacks. Eating habits and dietary preferences acquired in childhood last well into adulthood. Twin studies have shown food preferences have a genetic influence and so does neophobia, the fear to try new things. Food preferences begin in the womb. Once a child is born, they pick up on parents aversion to food. Eating dinner late is linked to greater calorie consumption. Eating dinner together, watching less tv, and getting enough sleep cal all lead to healthier eating.
Why are global perspectives and health disparities important?
Global perspectives look at different beliefs, behaviors, societies, and pblic health policies. Explanations that do not take into account context are likely ro fail. A global perspective highlights areas most need in help, such as Somalia. HEalth disparities are differences in overall health, access to quality health care, and health outcomes. Developed countries have a high average standard of living and developing countries have a low level of material well-being anf have less secure political structures and less stable economies. Local health problems become global health problems, both biologically and morally.
What does the field of health psychology encompass, what are its four focal points, and what are its origins?
HEalth psychology is focused on understanding the biological, osychological and social influences on health and illness with aims promoting health and preventing illness and improving health care systems. The missions of health psychology are to promote and maintain health, to prevent and treat illness, to identify the causes of health and illness, and to analyze and improve the health care system.
What is the difference between health behaviors and health habits?
Health behaviors are actions that promote and maintain good health or stand in the way of good health. Positive health behaviors, such as wearing seat belts and using sun screen, increase the chance of good outcome. Negative health behaviors, such as smoking, increase the risk of poor outcome. Abhealth habit is a health behavior that has become part of daily life. For example, if you wear your seatbelt every day as opposed to occasionaly, it is a health habit. Many health habits are deeply ingrained and develop early in life span.
How do health promotion and disease prevention affect health behaviors?
Health behaviors are actions that promote and maontaon good health or stand in the way of good health. Health promotion and disease prevetniont cann affect these behaviors. Health promotions are activities that promote or maintain good health such as eating right and staying physically active. Disease prevention refers to actions that reduce the risk of negative health outcomes, such as regular checkups and not smokng. Health promotion and health disease would increase positive health behaviors, which increase the chance of good outcomes, such as eating balanced meals and exercising regularly.
Aerobic exercise
(or cardio) an activity that raises your heart rate and strengthens the heart and lungs
Food scarcity
(or food insecurity) uncertain or limited access to nutritionally adequate and safe foods
Health disparities
(or health differences between groups) disparities in health that arise from poor health, risk factors for disease, and limited access to health care—especially among those with social, economic, and environmental disadvantages
Developing countries
(or less-developed countries) countries in which the economic and technological advances are emerging or developing
Hypnic myoclonia
(or myoclonic jerks) sudden jerky movements (or "sleep starts") during the first stage of sleep, due to spontaneous activation in the motor areas of the brain
Dependent variables
(or outcome variables) the factors that are observed or measured as possible outcomes of the independent variables
Social genomics
(or social neuroscience) the field that uses complex technologies and methods to examine the genetic, chemical, hormonal, and neural mechanisms of the reciprocal interactions between biological, cognitive, and social levels of analysis
Transtheoretical model of illness
(or stages of change model) the theory that sees a change in health behavior as not an event but a process of five stages that promote readiness for change
What are health enhancing behvaiors
Health enhancing behaviors are the things we do to maintain and promote good health, well-being, and longevity. The Almadea study pointed out certain activities that were health enhancing: mainting a healthy weight, eating nutritious balanced meals, not skipping breakfast, avoiding snacking, not smoking, drinking in moderation, exercising regularly and getting 7 to eight hours of sleep a night. These activities make poor health and disease less likely
Who practices good health habits, and why?
Health habits are a health bahevior that has become a part of our daily life. Many of our health habits are deeply ingrained and develop earliy in the lifespan. Children are more likely to practice healthful behaviors because of parental pressure. Older adults practive healthful bahviors when they are faced witht he reality of age related diseases. In general people with more education sre more likely to practice healthful behaviors. They may have learned more about the importance and may ahve a higher income they can invest in their health. Cisgender heterosexual people are more likely to practice healthful behaviors such as regualr checkups as opposed to LGBTQ individuals. This may be because health care has a predominantly heteronormative framework so LGBTQ individuals may face discrimination stereotypes and stigma.
What kinds of factors influence health behaviors and habits?
?Factors that influence halth behaviors and health habits are health disparities. One health disparitie is gender: women are less likely to engage in risky behavior and more likely to have regular checkups whereas men are more likely to exercise. Age is another: In adolescence all health behaviors decline for both genders. Sociocultural factors suhc as religion and networking sites also influence health behaviors and health habits. For example, some religiong forbid risky behaviors such as drinking and they emphasize good health practices. Another health disparitie is socioeconomic status. A higher income typically relates to better health, less disease and lower mortality. If someone is a member of the LGBTQ+ community, they may face stereotypes, discrimination, and exclusion in the health field.
What is a health value? Where do our health values come from?
A health value is the intrinsic importance we place on health or a health behavior. The more we value good health, the more likely we are to practice health enhancing behaviors. Health values may be imbued with culture. Research found that when health appeals are framed to be consistent with cultural values of health, more people are motivated to engage in health-promoting behaviors.
Why is a lifespan approach essential to understand health and wellness?
A lifespan approach considers how the factors that influence health and illness vary across the human lifespan. This is important because the biopsychosocial factors that influence personal choices or how we cope can change over the course of our lives. For example, now that people in the uNited States sre living longer, infectious diseases used to kill more people, but now it is chronic illnesses. Risky behavior is related to several of the most common causes of death.
What are the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations for a healthy diet?
According to who a healthy diet is one that maintains or ipmorves health, prtoects against malnutrition, and lowers the risk of chronic disease. For a healthy diet one should: burn as many calories as eat and vice versa, increase consumption of plant based foods, limit intake of fats and oils, sugar, salt and sodium.
What is health, and how is it defined and measured?
Healthisastateofoptimalwellbeing.Itincludesphysical,mental,andsocialwellbeing.Itexistsontheillness-wellnesscontinum.Movingfromthecentertoleftmeanshealthisgettingworse
What are the different interventions for behavioral change?
There are different interventions for behavioral change. One is psychotherapy. The therapist will get to know the client and can tailor suggestions to the clients need; however, this is expensive. Primary health care is where most people learn of the need to change their health behaviors. Physicians can provide information to help the patient make changes, or can suggest specialists to help. Large organizations such as work places or schools also offer wellness programs;unfortunately, workplace interventions sometimes have low enrollment rates, and their efficacy is still unclear
What are the stages of sleep, and which stages are most important for health?
There are five stages of sleep: 4 non rem and one rem. The first stage involves jerky movements and slow eye movement. The second stage sleep spindles occur. This is though to help the integration of new information into our knowledge base. Our brain is also cleansed by cerebrospinal fluid. Stages 3 and 4 are the deepest stages of sleep These are generally the most restorative. REM sleep appears like wakefulness and the body become more relaxed, to the point of mild paralysis.
What are the major historical influences on medicine and the field of health psychology?
There are many historical influences on medicine and the field of health psychology. IN 460 BCE Hippocrates argued that illness was a result of environment and lifestyle, and came up with the hippocratic oath, which is still used today. Van Leeuwenhoek came up with the germ theory of disease during the Renaissance which attributed disease to microorganisms. IN the 17th century Descartes set apart the mind and body, saying we function like machines and although they are different they are related. Fleming created penicillin and Salk created the polio vaccine. Sigmund Freud united the mind and body in holism in the late 19th century.
What are the statistics regarding food consumption for the average American adult?
Those aged 20-39 vonsume the most fastfood while those over 60 consume the least. Men consumer more food in every category than women. Blacks eat the most chicken, fish, turkey, and pork, while hispanics eat the most beef.
How does incidence differ from prevalence?
Incidence is the number of new cases at a given time while prevalence is the total number of cases at that time. The number of new cases may be declining (incidence), but each new case adds to the total (prevalance). Incidence tells us the risk of contracting a disease while prevalence indicates how widespread the disease is. Lifetime prevalence referes to the proportion of a population that has at some point in their lives had the condition
What are the various ways in which the environment shapes our eating?
Kids can easily pick up on paretns aversion to certain foods. Some parents may not have healthy food available for a child. On the other hand, pressuring a child to eat only healthy foods or lose weight or try new things may backfire becuase eating can become stressful, leading to avoiding it. Overprotective parents who cater to whatever their kids want can lead to super picky eaters. Parents should always encourage children to try new things. When healthy foods are available and the parents eat them kids are more likely to as well. Eating dinner after 8pm can lead to higher calorie increase. Eating dinner as a family can lead to healthier eating.
What is social engineering?
Social engineering uses the environment to shape behavior. Examples of this can be, prohibiting smoking, while offering free water bottle refill stations, and taxing tobacco and soda. Community based interventions can affect large numbers of people, educating and engagin them. The media, social organizations, or door-to-door campaigns can be used. For example, Walk Kansas, a team based program to help people lead a healthier life has had participants five years later who maintained their new levels of activity.
What do twin studies show us?
Twin studies have shown that genetics influence our preferences. Twin studies have found that genes influence preferences for desserts, vegetables, fruits, and preference for high protein foods, and a sensitivity to bitterness. They have also shown that neophobia, the fear of trying new things, is heritable
What are some cutting-edge advances in health psychology?
Some cutting edge advnaces have been made in health psychology. Social genomics aims to understand genetic, chemical, hormonal, and neural mechanisms using complex technologies and methodologies to examine the reciprocal interactions between biological, cognitive, and social levels of analysis. One approach looks at how emotions influence genes. Advances in genetics gave way to the discovery of the DNA model and the human genome. These advances also led to epigentics, the study of gene expression. An understanding of the microbiome, microbes that contain genetic information, has also emerged. THe microbiota-gut-brain axis was discovered and it was found that it is critical for health.
What are some barriers to practicing good health behaviors?
Some negative health behaviors are simply appealing, such as a ice cream sundae. Some people report positive reinforcement from negative health behaviors. Some smokers claim it relaxes them. Many American do not consume a well balanced diet. This can be from the convenience and low cost of fast foods.
What factors influence morbidity and mortality?
Mortality rate is the number of deaths due to a specific cause. Morbidity is the number or frequency of cases of an illness in a specific group at a specific time.
What are the important differences between objective and subjective health?
Objective health is the assessment of health from observable measures. It includes pain, heart rate, blood pressure, and reaction times. Subjective health is how an individual evaluate their own health, such as whenasked "how are you feeling." Subjective measures are often not directly tied to ones actual health status yet are very predicitve of health outcomes.
What is the distinction between apples and pears?
WHAT THE HECK
Tuskegee experiment
a 40-year medical research study that began in 1932 in which 600 poor, rural, African American men were enticed to participate in a study of "bad blood" in which they were intentionally (but without their knowledge or consent) infected with syphilis so that scientists could observe the effects of the untreated disease; the unethical medical study was exposed and shut down in 1973
Conscientiousness
a Big 5 personality trait; indicates task and rule orientation and a preference for order, structure, and clear expectations
Neuroticism
a Big 5 personality trait; marked by the experience of negative emotions, such as anxiety, anger, worry, self-consciousness, and guilt
Extraversion
a Big 5 personality trait; the tendency to be outgoing, warm, and sociable
Self-efficacy
a belief in one's ability to succeed or reach a goal
Alameda County Study
a classic study of the residents of Alameda County, California, that surveyed the health behaviors that are predictive of positive or negative health outcomes
Hippocratic oath
a code or oath of proper ethical conduct taken by those beginning medical training; from Ancient Greek and thought to have been written by Hippocrates in the fifth century b.c.e.; includes a phrase directing physicians to "do no harm"
Wait list control group
a control group used in clinical research in which participants do not receive treatment until after completion of the study
Neophobia
a fear of trying new things
black death
a form of bubonic plague that killed as many as 200 million people
Health habit
a health behavior that has become part of daily life
Body mass index (BMI)
a measure of your body fat based on your height and weight
Relapse prevention model
a model that identifies factors (immediate determinants and covert antecedents) that influence whether a person will relapse
Polyp
a noncancerous tumor in the inner lining of the colon or rectum
Double-blind experiment
a proper clinical trial in which no one involved, whether as a participant, a physician, or a researcher, is aware of the assigned experimental conditions
Hypothesis
a proposed explanation for a phenomenon that a scientist seeks to test in a research study
Negative correlation
a relationship in which two variables influence each other in the opposite direction: as one rises, the other falls (for example, stress and sleep: the more stressed you are, the less well you may sleep)
Positive correlation
a relationship in which two variables influence each other in the same direction: as one rises or falls, so does the other (for example, height and weight; taller people usually weigh more)
Surveillance
a research method that gathers detailed information about a disease by assessing the magnitude of a problem, by studying cases, or by doing door-to-door interviews
Mammogram
a screening and diagnostic tool that involves a low-energy x-ray of breast tissue
Theory
a set of ideas, or a general statement, that explains the world
Health
a state of optimal well-being that includes physical, mental, and social well-being
Meta-analysis
a study that compiles the results of many previous studies
Placebo
a substance in the same form as the treatment but that has no active ingredient
Systems theory
a theory that conceptualizes human experience and behaviors (the human body or society, for example) as a complex system, governed by many different, often interrelated, factors
Cross-cultural study
a type of cross-sectional study that compares groups from different cultures, ethnicities, or nationalities
Basal cell carcinomas
a type of skin cancer that rarely metastasizes
Squamous cell carcinomas
a type of skin cancer that usually develops on skin that is exposed to sun and metastasizes in 2% of cases
Correlation coefficients
a way to quantify a correlation: a number between -1 and +1 that represents the strength of the relationship between two variables; the larger (or closer to 1), the stronger the relationship
Health behaviors
actions that either promote and maintain good health or stand in the way of good health
Disease prevention
actions that reduce the risk of negative health outcomes
What is the difference between a quasi-experimental design and an experimental design?
an experimental desin involves direct manipulation of variables within carfeully controlled contdition. Quasi-experimental research resembles experimental studies, but does not involve random assignment, nor independent variables that can be controlled. Because of these, the influence of unexamined variables cannot be ruled out and thus cannot make claims of casuality.
Subjective health
an individual's evaluation of his or her own health status
Physical activity
anything that gets your body moving
Health locus of control
beliefs about the sense of control you have over your habits and your health
Stress weight
belly fat that develops as a result of stress
Psychoanalysis
both a psychological theory and a form of psychotherapy originally developed by Sigmund Freud that focuses on the interaction of conscious and unconscious processes through techniques such as dream interpretation and free association
Sleep spindles
brain waves that become more rapid and rhythmic and produce bursts of activity during sleep Stage 2 and are linked to learning
Developmental perspective
considers the influences of age, cohort, and time as drivers of development across the lifespan
What does correlational analysis tell us?
correlation aims to find a linkage between variables. If both variables increase or both decrease, they have a positive relationship. If the variables move in opposite directions they have a negative relationship. Correlation does not prove causation. It helps determine if there is a relationship between variables and how strong that relationship is. The closer the relationship is to the absolute value of one, the stronger the relationship.
developed countries
countries that have a strong economic and technological infrastructure; generally defined by the country's gross national income (GNI)
Infectious diseases
diseases that are caused by viruses or bacteria and are often contagious
Contagious diseases
diseases that spread by physical contact or exposure to the bodily fluids of another person
Antibiotics
drugs that treat infections caused by bacteria
What are the different methods used to assess BMI?
dual energy x ray absorptionary: sends harmless electrical signal thorugh body to measure impedance. calipers to take measures around the body underwater hydrostatic weighing technique: principle of displacement. The more water displaced, the greater the body fat.
Cohort effects
factors that are unique within groups with a shared temporal experience or lifestyle, such as having been born in a specific period ("baby boomers")
What developmental and gender differences are associated with weight?
female hormones (estrogen) cause women to carry more weight in the hips thighs legs and butt for more successfull pregnancies. MEn tend to accumulate fat in the abdomen and upper body Your physique is hsaped by genetics. Early feeding patterns, such as lack of nutrition, can influence weight, so can poor eating habits, especially in adolescence. In midlife metabolism slows down. If these people consume the same amount of calories as before they may increase in weight.
Big 5
five personality traits, including neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, first described by Costa and McCrae
Deterministic genes
genes that directly cause a disease to develop regardless of environmental or behavioral intervention
Risk genes
genes that may increase the likelihood that we will develop a disease but do not directly cause the disease or guarantee that we will get it
Control group
group that is not subjected to the condition we are testing and is used as a comparison for the experimental condition
Acute disorders
health disorders that have an abrupt onset and short duration
Chronic disorders
health disorders that persist or even worsen over time
How do health goals motivate us?
health goals define the way we envision our future selfs and they play a big part in motivation behaviors. The more important the health related goal, the more daily behaviors people engage in and the more capable people feel of achieveing the goal in the future. When faced with the need to change behavior, evoking possible selves is linked to self-efficacy and desired outcomes. The more central the goal, the more actively it is pursued, and the omre capable we feel of reaching it.
Health goals
health outcomes and the way we envision our future selves
Life expectancy
how long, on average, people live
Qualitative data
information (often descriptive and nonnumeric) that is gathered through field observations and open-ended questions, usually with little manipulation of the factors or context
Quantitative data
information (usually numeric) that is gathered in research studies and quantified or analyzed statistically
Biopsychosocial model
model that highlights the interrelated roles of biological, psychological, and social processes in health
Colonoscopy
one of the most widely used screening procedures for colorectal cancer in which a flexible tube (colonoscope) is threaded through the colon to examine the tissue and collect samples
Human genome
our genetic inheritance; a complete set or sequence of the DNA on the 23 pairs of chromosomes that contain all the genetic information inherited from each parent
Autonomic nervous system
part of the central nervous system that regulates internal functioning such as heartbeat and respiration, body temperature, and endocrine functioning
Restrained eaters
people who consciously restrict their eating to control their caloric intake and body weight
External eaters
people who eat in response to food cues, such as the sight, smell, and taste of foods
Emotional eaters
people who eat in response to negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, depression, disappointment, and loneliness
Intuitive eaters
people who use body cues for hunger and satiety to tell them how much, how often, and what to eat; they tend to eat only until they feel satisfied and full
Cytokines
produced by fat tissue, the cell-signaling protein molecules that help regulate the immune system
What is relapse, and how does it influence behavior change?
relapse is returning to a substance or behavior after a period of abstinence. AMrital problems, lonliness, family conflicts, mental health problems, substance abuse, and financial problems can all stand in the way of adherence, which is whether a persons behavior is consistent wiht medical or health advice, stated goals, or a behavioral change. Certain high risk cituations commonly lead to relapse. These situations can be high risk because of immediate determinants, factors that pose the msot danger and highest risk of relaspe, such as physiological or environmental problems, and covert antecedents, which are day to day activities and demands that put someone at risk of relapse. A relapse can cause guilt, which may lead to letting go of the goal. This is the abstinence violation effect, where each lapse makes the next more likely.
Correlational research
research that aims at finding relationships or links among variables
Relapse
reverting to a substance or behavior after a period of abstinence
blind experiments
studies in which patients are unaware of, or blinded to, the treatment they are receiving
Analytic studies
studies that apply statistical analysis to the causes of disease
Cross-sectional studies
studies that compare different groups (males and females, young and old, income levels, educational levels) at a given point in time
Developmental studies
studies that examine how biological, psychological, or social factors change as a function of age or with the passage of time across the lifespan
Prospective studies
studies that follow individuals forward through time
Longitudinal studies
studies that follow individuals through their lifespan, to determine how they change over time
Experimental research
studies that involve direct manipulation of the variable or variables within a carefully controlled experimental condition to determine the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable; requires random assignment of participants
Retrospective studies
studies that look back in time, starting with current health status, to discover the antecedents of a condition that occurred earlier in life
Descriptive studies
studies that provide information about demographics, general health, health beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, or characteristics of a disease
Self-control
the ability to control desires, emotions, and behaviors
Objective health
the assessment of health from observable measures
Dualism
the belief in the separation of the mind and body
Holism
the belief that the mind and the body are unified
Circadian rhythms
the biological cycles that carry us from day to night and night to day
Immune system
the biological system that defends against disease-causing microorganisms
Cardiorespiratory system
the biological system that includes the heart, blood vessels, and lungs and is responsible for transporting blood and oxygen through the body
Respiratory system
the biological system that includes the lungs and other organs that carry oxygen-rich blood throughout your body
What is the biopsychosocial model, and how does it help us understand, diagnose, and treat people's health experiences?
the biopsychosocial model highlights the role of biological characteristics (such as genes)psychological factors (such as stress and health beliefs), and social factors (such as support and cultural influences) in health. It considers the interaction between these three processes. For example, somebody who has few biological risks, has social support, strong coping schools, and accesss to information and treatment may be seen as having optimal health and wellness. IN contrast to this, a child who is malnourished, lives in one or the poorest countries, is an orphan, doesn't have access to treatment, education, food or other resources is vulnerable to every level of the bippsychosocial model. This model helps identify many different factors that contribute to health and helps treat people in ways that will be most beneficial to them
Psychosomatic medicine
the branch of medicine that examines the relationships between mind and body in health and disease (in Latin, psycho means "mind" and soma means "body")
What is basal metabolic rate (BMR)?
the calories that the body needs to carry out such basic functions as breathing, heart pumping, converting food to energy and sleeping.
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
the calories that the body needs to carry out such basic functions as breathing, heart pumping, converting food to energy, and sleeping
Etiology
the causes of a disease
microbiome
the collective genomes of microorganisms inhabiting a particular environment (for example, the human gut)
Obesity
the condition of having excessive body fat, usually measured by a body mass index (BMI) of greater than 30
Social determinants of health
the conditions or environments that influence all aspects of our lives and impact our mental and physical functioning, quality of life, and health outcomes
Evidence-based practice
the conscientious use of the current best scientific evidence applied to health-related decision making
What is sleep debt?
the cumulative effect of not getting enough sleep. It may have serious consequences to functioing and long term health. It can lead to significant impairments in attention, reaction times, learning, and memory, increased bmi, and possibly heart dsease
Sleep debt
the cumulative effects of loss of sleep over time
Experimental protocol
the detailed plan of a test, which specifies the experimental, data-collection, and sampling methods
Interindividual differences
the differences among people, which may include both subjective and objective factors
Independent variables
the factors that researchers manipulate across different groups or conditions within an experiment to see what effect they have on the dependent variable(s)
Health psychology
the field of study focused on understanding the biological, psychological, and social influences on health and illness with the aims of promoting health, preventing illness, and improving health care systems and policies
Sleep cycle
the four different stages of sleep that you cycle through each night
Illness-wellness continuum
the idea that health occurs along a continuum, from debilitating disease to an optimal state of feeling well
Abstinence violation effect
the idea that relapses have a cumulative effect; each relapse can make the next one more likely
morbidity
the incidence or prevalence rate of a disease or medical issue within a population
Health value
the intrinsic weight or priority we place on health or a health behavior
Covert antecedents
the less obvious factors, day-to-day demands, or desires that may cause relapse
Level of significance
the level at which we can say that a correlation is significant; reported as a p value (or probability level); when we are testing hypotheses, it is the criterion used to reject or support our hypotheses
Adherence
the maintenance of any behavioral change, such as taking medications, sticking to a diet, or quitting smoking
Melanoma
the most dangerous form of skin cancer that develops in the cells that produce pigment (melanin)
Institutional review board
the organization or other facility that reviews, approves, and monitors the ethical treatment of humans or animals used in scientific research
Open science
the practice of fully disclosing all of the factors that may have influenced analyses and findings throughout all stages of the research process
Sleep hygiene
the practices that lead to better sleep
Immediate determinants
the precipitating factors that are the most likely to cause relapse
Cognitive functioning
the processes concerned with knowing, perceiving, attention, and remembering
Lifetime prevalence
the proportion of a population that has, at some point in their lives, had a condition
Waist-to-hip ratio
the ratio of the circumference of the waist to that of the hips
Epigenetics
the scientific exploration of what factors cause genes to turn on or turn off, thereby influencing what is genetically expressed
Globalization
the sharing of ideas, values, goods, and services around the world
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
the stage in the sleep cycle when dreaming occurs; makes up about 25% of the sleep cycle
NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep
the stages of sleep marked by slow wave, dreamless sleep; makes up about 75% of the sleep cycle
Epidemiology
the study of the incidence, patterns, and factors that are correlated with, or occur most often with, a disease; a field concerned with gathering data on health-related issues
Germ theory of disease
the theory that attributed disease to microorganisms (bacteria and fungi)
Health beliefs model
the theory that explains health behaviors as a result of the perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, and barriers of taking action
Humoral theory of illness
the theory that four bodily fluids (black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm) govern temperament and health
Health-enhancing behaviors
the things we do that maintain and promote good health and well-being
Prevalence
the total number of cases at a given time
mortality rate
the total number of deaths due to a specific cause
What are the consequences of a sedentary lifestyle?
those who reported 2 or more hours a day sitting had two times the risk of heart attack. Four or more hours watching tv are more than 50% likely to die of any cause.
Social engineering
using the environment to shape behavior; for example, putting a tax on cigarettes and snack foods
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
viral infections or diseases that are transmitted through sexual contact with an infected partner