HIS 166B Midterm

Miguel Hidalgo

- Mexican priest and revolutionary. Although the revolt he initiated (1810) against Spanish rule failed, he is regarded as a national hero in Mexico's struggle for independence from Spain. September 16, 1810—the date now celebrated as Mexican Independence Day—Hidalgo issued the "Grito de Dolores" ("Cry of Dolores"), calling for the end of Spanish rule, for racial equality, and for redistribution of land. The speech effectively launched the Mexican War of Independence (1810-21). father of ind while Napoleon's troops were occupying Spain and King Ferdinand VII was still in captivity—Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a fifty-seven-year-old priest from an old family of criollos (Mexican-born Spaniards) had suddenly begun to harangue his parishioners in the small town of Dolores in the state of Guanajuato, "seducing them" (according to a chronicle of the time) to rise up in arms—even with stones, slings, sticks, or spears—in order to defend their religion against the "French heretics" who had occupied Spain since 1808 and now threatened to come over to the Americas. What Hidalgo intended—and accomplished—was to launch his flock against the hated gachupines (Spaniards born in Spain and living in Mexico) "who had been exploiting the wealth of the Mexican people with the greatest injustice for three hundred years." Within a month, he had been joined by more than fifty thousand men, mainly Indians from the poorest levels of society. Attracted by his religious magnetism and by other, less noble motives, this multitude devastated the cities of San Miguel, Celaya, and Guanajuato and were on the point of entering Mexico City when Hidalgo ordered them to retreat. A few months later, in July of 1811, he was tried by the Inquisition, condemned by the civil authorities, and executed.

Convention of London

-After 3 yrs, benito juarez emerges victorious, becomes president of MX in 1861, faced with debt claims that he needs to face as a result of previous years of ongoing fighting. -in these 3 yrs, foreigners living in mx whose properties destroyed during war. Their govts made claims on newly elected admin. Other problem, was that creditors wanted to collect. Gathering of three main powers that had citizens affected, or creditors pressing for repayment. 3 countries, france, GB and spain gathered in CONVENTION OF LONDON 1861, trying to come up with plan/treaty for how to get juarez govt to pay off debts. -showed up in warships, seized custom house in vera cruz and used tariffs to pay off debts and damages. (combined armada of british, french and spain came to gulf of mexico..) SIG: Led to the French Intervention in Mexico

Benito Juarez PRESIDENT 1861-72 elected 3 times

-Benito Juarez was the second. -Juarez was a key towering figure. For next two decades. -Regarded as major hero. Died in office. But was on his way to becoming dictator. -He was born in Oaxaca -Was an indian. Did not speak spanish at first. Became orphan at young age and raised by an uncle. Was a shepherd. -Was talented. Wanted to do something. With help of a Franciscan brother, learned spanish, was going to become a priest. -later became lawyer instead of a priest. Thus began a remarkable career practicing law. Was not only working as a lawyer but also writing in press. Also got involved in state politics of home state. -at 37, in 1842..he took one more social step by marrying an almost white woman. Children from margarita, would no longer be indians but mestizo -1847, became gov of Oaxaca. During MX AMER war. -REFORM WARS 1858-1861 >Second empire or french intervention 1862-1867 >AFTER three years of war, >foreign creditors would loan money to establish govt, at very hefty premiums. Because of situation very unstable. Alternative liberal govts, contracted debts at disadvantageous terms but did it because that was the only way to preserve power. -After 3 yrs, benito juarez emerges victorious, becomes president of MX in 1861, faced with debt claims that he needs to face as a result of previous years of ongoing fighting. -INSTEAD, juarez was able to strengthen power of the executive. Central transition Mexico will experience. This transition would culminate with Porfirio. This process began with juarez. If juarez had lived longer, may have become dictator. How he do this? Amendments to constiution: 1. Added senate to legislative banch, with intention of diluting power of congress/legislature. 2, introduced amendment giving president the right to veto any bill and give...less power to congress. 3. Also created system to regulate country, in particular, introduced new police force called rural police. They will become key player under 34th year of porf. Dictatorship. These were criminals taking out of jails, idea was that criminals would be best to fight other criminals. Other idea was that by creating police force alternative to military, u are also limiting possibilty of coup from military by creating two military bodies in competition. -IN 1871, juarez had term expired under intervention, but was then de facto president, continues and his term was up in 1871, juarez decided to run again and become reelected by great majority. -By time of reelection, had no political opponents. Was already transforming into personal chiefdom. -military figure emerged during french intervention from oaxaca, criticized juarez. 41 yr old. Criticized juarez for seeking reelection which was ironic.

Plan of Tuxtepec 1876

-political manifest negate reelection of Lerdo de tejada after Juarez died of heart attack. Again, juarez rose up w no reelection and got enough support for the presidency. Got into power, not through election but military uprising. -PD was not great speaker, was butt of jokes of congress. -He tried to make himself whiter.. -in 1876, he became president of mx. Definition: Plan drafted by Porfirio Diaz in 1876 in which he proclaimed the "no reelection" principle. He aimed to take the presidency from Juarez's vice president, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada. He succeeded. Significance: This was the second time he ran for presidency with the idea of no reelections but did not succeed the first time in the plan of Noria.

Lerdo Law (1856)

-the main proponent of law is a minister of treasury. -the law prohibited ecc. And civil institutions from owning or administering property not directly used in day to day operations. -This was most controversial law that triggered warfare between conservatives and liberals. -law said that if u were the church, u had to give up property that was not used day to day. -law forced church to disinvest itself from enormous properties. Idea was that all the wealth had to be plowed back into rest of the economy. -the church resisted, basically triggered civil war. -church found deeply catholic conservatives who would purchase on behalf of church but then keep it (prestanombres) -Who were the civil? Indigenous communities. Before, many had been protected from spanish crown. They were given joint managed land or ejidos. After conquest, spanish said, u guys living here but this piece of land is yours...none of u own land individually but own the land collectively. Cant sell or buy, this is on behalf of the community. This from the colonial period continued into the 19th C. -liberals wanted, including full blooded Indians like juarez, that indigenous people should be farmers. That land should be broken up, and create a stable community of small farmers out of indigenous communities. -CONSERVATIVES wanted to keep the previous set up, whereas liberals would be more modern. -INDIGENOUS ppl were on both sides of the issue. On one hand, had govt protection to these lands. Fought for conservatives, on the other hand saw juarez as one of their own- and supported his law. >WHO got the land? Instead of giving land to poor people, and ordinary citizens. They sold the land. Society became even more unequal. Landowners gained even more land. Large haciendas started to develop. Reform Law sponsored by the minister of finance, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada which restricted the right of ecclesiastical and civil corporations to own lands by decreeing that church lands not directly used for religious purposes and lands held in common by indigenous communities (ejidos) must be sold. Significance: Although it forced the church to sell its property, it contained no threat of confiscation. By breaking up large landed estates, the government hoped that many Mexicans would be able to acquire property and thus create the middle class that it believed was essential for a strong and stable Mexico. The climax of the reform was the liberal constitution promulgated in February 1857.

Mexican Liberals

1. wanted to decentralize the govt. Thought greatest threat to Mexican freedom was a centralized govt or dictatorial govt. (As would happen) 2. Not supportive of church or military. In particular, liberals had anti church bend to ideology which had two components. Ideological: believed church was not encouraging progress of people of mexico. Instead of encouraging working people to work and save money, encouraged to buy candles, attend church activities. ALSO, Believed church economic role was detrimental. -The church was the wealthiest landowner. Why? When people died in MX, basically leave a will and church acquired from those individuals close to death to leave property or funds for the church. (pious works) -church also had right to charge a 10 percent tax on everything, from animals or crops being raised. (tithing) -finally church provided services for everyone, if had to baptize, get married, death and burial. Church charged hefty fees. -liberals opposed to all tis, believed this wealth that could be used for progress of mexico ended up in dead hands, manos muertas. Their idea was that money needed to be recirculated in economy to kickstart mexicos growth. -liberals tended to be in peripheral regions, they were caudillos. -Finally, liberals encouraged popular participation- universal male suffrage.

Mestizo

A new racial concept that develops in Latin America following the intermixing that occurred between European colonists and the native American population. Spanish and indigenous descent. It is said that the Malinche and Hernan Cortez created the first Mestizo.

Juarez Law (1855)

ABOLISHED military and ecclesiastical fueros (special exemptions) -idea was that this is creating a society where diff people had different rights and obligations. Everyone should be treated the same. -would be tried by system of the nation. -This would be blow to military and ecclesiastical apparatus. They considered it a main privilege LAW abolished mil and church tribunals so all people committed crimes tried by mexican gov instead. SIG: Centralized and liberalized MX by taking power away from church and institutions and giving to fed gov.

Cientificos

Advisors of government of Porfirio Díaz who were strongly influenced by positivist ideas; permitted government to project image of modernization. -He also forged a remarkable alliance with a group of MX thinkers and well-placed individuals known as los scientificos. -Diaz was widow when became president, married the daughter of manuel romero rubio. RUBIO was the leader of "THE CIENTIFICOS" -The group was shaping the underpinnings of PD regime. Embraced positivism. The entire support for his system was that without order it was impossible to continue with progress. Positivistic ideas played role in many countries. -Mexicans truly believed it was a natural, biological process... -War of indep led to two factions lib and cons, and now Mexico was at higher stage of more stable govts. -at this point no longer would there be politics, but a clear scientific answer to each challenge. If know all facts, we could all agree on scientific solution. That is what he was hoping to bring with admin, very technocratic approach. This is ultimately his main justification for dictatorship -The cientificos, find differences of opinion. In 19th C the indian problem, the cientificos had diff ideas. Some were social Darwinists, thought they would disappear. Others thought mx needed strong gov to provide clear direction to indigenous.. -all cientificos believed they could rise above politics and arrive at scientific solutions for policies.

Maximilian of Austria

Austrian Hapsburg prince who Napoleon put on the throne in Mexico. Napoleon wanted to turn mexico into a french satellite Foreign intervention backed by a conservative faction in MX with hopes that foreign monarch would roll back liberal reform, so they would reverse everything under juarez. -The french agreed to support Maximillion of Austria and his 24 yr old wife Carlotta to go to mx and sit on throne supported by French troops. Meanwhile, troops were plentiful and were able to chase juarez out of MX city and had to move further into north. Irony: Maximillion himself was product of liberal europe. He was liberal monarch. Supported by conservative, this will create problems. -Was younger brother of king joseph of austria. -He was married to charlotte amelee, daughter of king of belgium, cousin of queen victoria. Changed name to fit in better w mexican society. Carlotta. -first encounter of these individuals, at port in veracruz. The reception was cold. No one knew of their arrival. Maximillion delivered speech that denied reality...mexicans have wished for me..chosen me.. FALSE. -As time went on, with the help of French troops and conservative faction. They entered mx city and ESTABLISHED themselves in a palace de Chapultepec. -Max and Carlotta used this to legitimize themselves...had some sway on ordinary mexicans. 1. Tried to legit. Their rule. -Second thing: tried to bring order to govt and economic life of mexico. Brought in cartographers, stats... brought an impulse to measure and categorize everything. -Had a survey of prostitutes working in MX city: Cataloged as beautiful, medium, or ugly.. Age... -Finally, and most critically, part of program.. Emperors sought some accommodation with liberals. Greatest paradox of affair. were pretty liberal, and had sympathies for liberal project in mx. 1. Conservatives expected MX to suspend reform laws. Restore land to church..and to reestablish roman catholicism as only religion in mx. Max allowed them (laws) to stand, this created upheaval for conservatives 2. Conservatives expected solidly conservative cabinet, but they appted moderate liberals. Bypassing many conservatives for these posts. 3. Max made attempts to reach juarez and offered position in supreme ct of mexico. Sent him a letter. -neither conservatives or liberals were pleased with this second empire. -France got into trouble with russia, had to recall troops in mexico. Recall made imperial govt not able to survive. Carlotta tried to appeal for napolean to get troops back. Then she went to pope, for defense of their empire, all the while appeared to have lost her mind. Was convinced she was pursued by mexicans. Only ate eggs and water from fountains. -Max decided to stay on until surrounded in Queretaro. Taken prisoner, tried for treason. Juarez govt decided too dangerous to let him go. Calls from queen victoria to save him, in the end he was shot by liberal troops. SIG: Most enduring legacy of french intervention was complete elimination of conservative party in mexico. By pinning hopes on foreign intervention, they committed political suicide. No longer would they be credible force in mexico. They became discredited. Only liberal govts would hold sway in mex. The two main parties in contention disappear. One reason which led to dictatorship, bc ideological debates ceased. 2. The end of the second empire paved way for juarez govt to establish more effective national govt. → juarez able to parlay personal repoir and knowledge into very strong political figure and form at end of govt. 3. Finally, the triumph of mexican liberals gave new sense of national purpose or nationhood to mex. There is quite a difference compared to what happened w war of US. Liberals joining together, and finally creating country/nation.

Cananea Mine 1906

CANANEA 1906, copper mine acquired by colonel green. He had bought rights to mine from the widow of former governor. Largest producer of copper in mexico and around world. On june 1st 1906, mexican workers went out on strike. Main grievances was dual wage system. Means that cananea had mixed fore of Mexicans and americans. Americans paying more for same job. Market forces dictated wages too. Cananea workers seized on this as one protest, protest turned violent. Group of workers attempted to force in to lumber yard. Manager responded by turning on a high pressured hose. Colonel green called on gov of sonora to send soldiers to put down striking workers. But also called friends in arizona, who got in touch with arizona rangers, who crossed and showed up to put down strike SIG: Lesson that mexican workers would derive from these actions: conclude that porfirian regime is not interested in well being, allowing foriegn law enf. To come into country and put down efforts. Slogan that came out of this, mexican people are steps...

Sisal or Henequen

Comes from a hardy species of a century plant that produces henequen or sisal hemp. Henequen fibre can be made into twines and rope, may be used in agriculture and shipping. Leaves of plant were cut, sent to stripping machine, resulting in green powder and greenish hair like fibre called henequen which was sent to dry and turn color of the sun. Pressed into bales and shipped out. Very labor intensive, spiny plants have to be cut with machetes and processed in order to extract fiber to make cords to use with mccormick reaper and other products. McCormick Reaper, cutting edge tech. needed belt made out of fiber to hold bales, best way to do that was w this plant. Unexpected boom, Yucatan not connected to rest of country. No RR going there had to take boat to steamship, from vera cruz to Merida which was main city in yucatan pen. Small landowners acquired more land for this plant to thrive, needed laborers, turned to maya indigenous pop, in conditions resembling slavery. Sig: Chief Crop of the state of Yucatan, which was produced on large haciendas through use of slave labor. The climate of Yucatan perfectly adapted to production of this plant. Haciendas grew dramatically during Porfirio Diaz' regime. Produced enormous wealth for mexico. Foreign markets created cash booms in mx, that effected local economies and regions.

Latin America

Definition term brought about during the "French intervention" to classify people living in meso and South America, including Mexico. Emerged w napoleon 3, before, mexico known as former spanish colonies. France shared medditeranean latin culture, and that is what they were empphasizing by latin america. Term came to great use during this time SIG: aimed to use as counterweight to angloamericanization.

Company Store (Tienda de Raya)

General stores owned by companies, selling limited range of food clothing and other necessities to employees. Workers usually got credit so they could purchase things that would be deducted from salary. Since they were in remote areas, had monopoly on goods where employees lived. In 1907, strike in RIO BLANCO, Wives showed up at company store. When strike came on, company stopped lending to workers, led to violence This led to violence, and eventually, workers broke into two shops got some firearms and riot got out of control. Rurales were dispatched to put down the strike, as many as a hundred people died during the exchange of fire

Ricardo Flores Magon

In 1905, he led a group of middle class intellectuals for the overthrow of DiaZ and created the Mexican Liberal Party. TWO DIFFERENT OPPOSITIONS TO PORFIRIOS REGIME First one was headed by flores magon brothers (RICARDO FLORES MAGON) this family came from oaxaca. children ricardo and enrique studied law and along way discovered opposition journalism. He joined forces first with other liberal thinkers, believed that what mexico needed to do was go back to tenants of lib constitution of 1857. People revolting in order to retain what existed in past.. Magon brothers believed that diaz est de facto dictatorship and forgot true liberal tenants of constitution of 1857- from juarez era. Because prosecuted, ricardo started thinking more drastically, got in touch with an anarchist group from mexico city. > Problem was not that PD had betrayed the constitution, but was more difficult, had to be destruction fo system that put diaz in power in first place. WE CALL this radical opposition to diaz. >Magon brothers became professional orgnizers, moved to la laguna region. There, they found audience to their ideas. Also, agents were involved in cananea mining stike. >eventually, flores magon would cross border into US. small group of anarchists, radical opponents to diaz regime. FROM SLIDE: In 1905 in st Louis Missouri, they founded: the PLM OR MEXICAN LIBERAL PARTY -plm showed moderate platform. -advocated establishment of 4 year election term, minimum wage, eight-hour shifts in factories. -idea was that they would start that way, and bring about destruction of regime that produced diaz. -US put the brothers in jail, and died in jail. -DIAZ regime neutrality laws, mexican gov pressed under neutrality laws to nab flores magon brothers and they did. Their effort ended. Ricardo Flores Magón was born to a wealthy liberal family that believed in the original tenants of the 1857 constitution. Ricardo and his brother were arrested by the Porfirio regime as political dissidents. While in prison the Magón brothers became radicalized anarchists. After release from prison the Magón brothers moved to the la Laguna region and began actively resisting the Porfirio regime. Significance: After being driven out of Mexico the Magón brothers ended up in St. Louis, MO and founded the Mexican Liberal Party (PLM) in 1905. Utilizing international neutrality laws the Porfirian regime had the United States arrest the Magón brothers and they died in the U.S. federal penitentiary of Leavenworth in 1922.

John K Turner

Journalist who wrote Barbarous Mexico, Acted as a wealthy American investor in Yucatan and Valle Nacional to earn the trust of plantation/property owners, so they could confide in him. He Called out slavery, peonage, poverty, and illiteracy and general prostration of the people and faulted the financial and political organizations that ruled the country under Diaz system. Document labor contitions in plantations. Was able to gain the confidence of Mexican henequen producers, showed how he could buy Indians, disipline laborers. Significance: Exposed the realities of the unconstitutional and horrendous human slavery going on, Called out the government and specifically Porfiro's regime for being complacent in the slavery scheme. Potentially played a role in accelerating the revolution. Blames Diaz for reestablishing peonage in MX, more merciless than under spanish. In Yucatan: The Slaves were 8,000 Yaqui Indians imported from Sonora, 3,000 Chinese (koreans), and between 100,000-125,000 native Mayas who formerly owned the lands the henequen kings owned.

Cinco de Mayo

Mexico beats France in the Battle of Puebla in 1862. Battle between army of liberal gov under JUAREZ and french forces sent by NAPOLEON 3. 1. US- Monroe doctrine warns European powers against further interventions in latin america, hard to enforce bc America in civil war. enabled tripartite occupation. 2. Napoleon the third, wanted to restore past glories of france, he came to power on that promise. Wanted a counterweight to angloamericanization of north america. France worried about rapid expansion of US. Wanted a latin presence, vs anglo. 3. France wanted to stay in mexico, Napoleon 3 bent on imperial adventure, pretext of debt was justification to go into mx and establish another french colony in new world. (french intervention) France dispatched military unit further into mexico, inland. Marks famous battle that took place in puebla, conservative catholic town. Ignacio Zaragoza commanded group of mestizos and indigenous and managed to defeat advancing french troops. that is what is celebrated in cinco de mayo. SIG: great victory over french, but nap was bent on accupation and dispatched more troops. Within few months french troops took over puebla and eventually mexico city and entire territory. Was a delay more than a game changer. How did MX react to occupation? -Conservatives: had lost in 3 year war of reform, this was only way to regain some power w foreign intervention, willing to sacrifice sovereignty of mexico in order to bring ideological objectives to the fore. in 1840s, a lanky aristocratic JOSE gutierrez de estrada proposed monarchy under foreign prince to cure mexico instability, was forced into exile until french occupation bc ideas were outlandish then. >Estrada and mexican olig eventually got together, agreed to offer crown of mx to foreign monarch in the shape of archduke from Austria: Maximillion. Was married to a princess. Charlotte Analee. Backed by conservative faction. hoped they would roll back on liberal reforms.

francisco madero

Mexico supporting archeology as the discipline of Mexicans. Census of 1910 listen 8000 haciendas in mexico. Many could be 40-50,000 acres. Hacendados could have dozens of prestanombres. A few families could own millions of hectares and cattle. Mostly absentee hacienda owners. Most owners were in cities, traveling in europe. Not in day to day operations of the haciendas. Example of this is madero familiy. Madero was Family in Coahuila, would be main opposition to porfirio. FRANCISCO MADERO: > madero fam was richest family in state of Coahuila, bordering state. >grandfather had been governor of the state, and had been on good terms with porfirio. >richest fam, owned vast lands. > initially, supported flores magon brothers. When he discovered that they were anarchist, stopped his support. >francisco and gustavo sent to study in france and came to california to study ag. Methods. To study ways to make holdings more productive. >madero picked up some beliefs, became a spiritist. That you could talk to spirits through mediums. > made some drastic changes in his life bc of this, h > contrary to flores magon, was most mellow oppositions imaginable. >in 1908, (two years before next election) porfirio, showing signs of age, gave an interview to american journalist james Creelman, in interview, he defended his government, said that some authoritarianism had been necessary to move mex forward. But because of his advanced age, he would consider opposition in 1910 elections Mexican news papers, reproduced creelman interview. Reached ears of madero, who was ready to take the challenge, thought diaz had done a great job, but also believed he had outlived his usefulness, >madero believed he was person destined to do service for mexico, to move into more democratic future. Which is why he wrote the PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS OF 1910. He made argument that porfirio diaz had been good, defended accomplishments, but clearly outlived his term and he threw his hat in ring of upcoming elections. >madero embarked on enormous unprecedented campaign. Toured the country, talked to people all over, made them familiar with ideas and founded anti-reelection party. Was an electoral reform for mexico, promised to keep same policies wih less strong arm tactics. Offered gentler capitalist system. >diaz could nto stomach this, had not been sincere in interview, and during political rally before election, madero was imprisoned on order of porfirio. Was released provided that he would not leave city of san luis potosi. He stayed for a while, but eventually in oct 1910, slipped out and bordered a train in disguise, and he went to texas. In san antonio, began drafting a revolutionary plan. Transformed into very revolutionary opponent, was loyal and friendly at first. > plan was on oct 5th and called it plan of san luis potosi to avoid entanglements. He made emotional appeal to resist tyranny, declared last elections null and void. He designated sunday nov 20, for all towns to rise in arms after 6 pm. > why would he announce it? Believed that it was going to be a massive insurrection. >did not pan out that way.

Napoleon III

Nephew of Napoleon 1, and elected emperor of France from 1852-1870, he invaded Mexico when the Mexican government couldn't repay loans from French bankers. He sent in an army and set up a new government under Maximillian. Civil War happening during this tripartite occupation of Mexicos port. --> ignored Monroe doctrine. -HE wanted to restore the past glories of france. He came to power on that promise. -French Worried about rapid expansion of the U.S. Wanted to offer a counterweight to Anglo. Wanted a latin-American presence in north America. -France wanted to stay in MX. Nap III was bent on imperial adventure. And whole debt issue was a justification to go into mx and establish another french colony in the new world. (french intervention) Foreign intervention backed by a conservative faction in MX with hopes that foreign monarch would roll back liberal reform, so they would reverse everything under juarez. French agreed to support Maximillion of Austria and his 24 yr old wife Carlotta to go to mx and sit on throne supported by French troops. Meanwhile, troops were plentiful and were able to chase juarez out of MX city. SIG: Most enduring legacy of french intervention was complete elimination of conservative party in mexico. By pinning hopes on foreign intervention, they committed political suicide. No longer would they be credible force in mexico. They became discredited. Only liberal govts would hold sway in mex. The two main parties in contention disappear. One reason which led to dictatorship, bc ideological debates ceased.

Yaquis

Political exiles? Dying in strange land, alone, and faster. Every Yaqui family is torn apart on way to yucatan. They revolted, lands confiscated, extermination by army, Diaz order of deportation. An "agricultural people" Tilled soil, discovered mines, constructed irrigation systems, When Spanish missionaries came, they were in possession of whole of territory south of Arizona which today comprises state of SONORA Origin of yaqui troubles attributed to plot on part of number of politicians, for purpose of possession of rich lands in southern sonora which yaquis held for hundreds of years. For 24 years past the only govs 3 were rotated in office for more than a gen. No pop elections, all three answered to no one except Diaz. they were force into war, men at head of gov wanted their lands, sent bogus surveyors to mark out land and tell people gov had decided to give to foreigners. Confiscated 80k in bank belonging to chief. , they went to arrest him and count not find so set fire to his house and neighbors assulted women. Provoked war. Chief executed, took place by another yaqui and fight continued. In 1894, by act of fed govt lands taken and handed to torres. Existence of renegades who refuse to surrender is only excuse to deport yaqui families. 1908 decree, diaz ordered all deported to yucatan RURALES and soldiers traveled over exile road guarded deportees aken land from then and give to political favorites of diaz. Land registration law diaz father made it okay to claim any land posessor could not prove title to. State taxes also confiscate homes. Must pay if not listed as properties of jefe politico.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

President of Mexico no less than 11 different times. Even after losing all battles of MX AMER war he was called into office again and again, signing texas off...etc. Was good at manipulating people, was talented for politics required in MX, had few resources he could count on. He was born to prominent creole family: meaning white but MEXICAN OR SPANISH WHITE Important in state of Vera Cruz, on gulf of MEXICO. The port of VC is a key place. It was the gateway of Europe and US into Mexico. All goods funneled through the port of VC through Mexico City on mules. (strategic state) Decided on military career early on, 1810-20 - still in the old imperial spanish army. under control of spanish empire. officers mostly white from spain, some born in MX. Well known conduit to good political contacts. Became officer in army. In 1813, he was dispatched to Texas which had risen up and was wanting independence from spain. Put down rebellion ruthlessly. Fighting leaders who advocated independence from spain. in 1820, during independence wars when it was clear royalist side was losing, santa anna switched sides, became pro independence officer and thus launched political career. Switched to winning faction in conservative vs liberal fight. SIG: typifies worst excesses of the caudillo system. He was typical caudillo, in that as his career prospered he acquired lot of land, most famous is Manga de Clavo. declared 483k acres of land in wil. properties were essential for role as caudillo. Was a fortress, headquarter, and political retreat. Able to surround himself with peons, derive food, and rent. Essential to his power base. When ousted from power, goes back to manga even when in function as president, left VP in function as pres and would retreat. BUREAUCRACY in vera cruz was also important to his power, whole industry dedicated to taxing goods that came in through the port. Controlled loyalties from ppl from appointments, and got cut of percentage from appointments. by having control of bureau of VC, controlled appts indirectly and extract favors. BUREAU at national level, established santanista party Was a loose configuration of politicians at the national level who were beholden to SA because appointed by SA. The military → Career mil. Man. Had fought all over mexico during wars of indep. Had met many other caudillos, and befriended them- when faced with a choice of a mil figure like SA and civilian, they sided with SA. Caudillos broke down along party lines, SA was exception. royalist to patriot, imperialist to a republic. non ideological caudillo. MILESTONES: -First became president in 1833, continued 11 times total Santa Anna is known for role in TX rev. Mexican texas rose up and succeeded as lone star rep. --> For nine years. SA president at time, went back to his hacienda, raise army between workers, and other caudillos and marched from southern central mx into far north. in middle of winter, 6000 ppl many barefoot. Early alamo victory, in battle of san jacinto was captured and taken to texan camp and remains prisoner, forced to sign treaty for indep from mx. back to VC, was disgraced bc lost texas Later in 1838, france decided to blockade port of vera cruz and seize customs house and use proceeds from payment of tax to repay debts owed. SA rallied and raise another army from hacienda, engaged troops and wounded in leg, became infected and amputated. few months later back as pres. during war mx us, when mx losing war SA recalled, as president lost every battle, recovered position in 1850s--> time of greatest excesses. Wanted to make Mexico an inherited dictatorship. Son as leader. Ousted for last time in 1854, died in exile He rebelled against spanish rule and fought for the independence of Mexico (1810-1821). He was involved in the Texas revolution (1835-1836) and was viewed as a failure because he lost all the battles which resulted in Mexico losing half its territory. Became president of Mexico for 11 times.(1833- 1854).

Hacienda

Spanish estates in the Americas that were often plantations. They often represent the gradual removal of land from peasant ownership and a type of feudalistic order where the owners of Haciendas would have agreements of loyalty to the capital but would retain control over the actual land. This continued even into the 20th century. anded estates that are a significant size. Most of the haciendas were owned by Spaniards or Criollos. Many Haciendas had plantations, factories, or mines in which they also had contract laborers (slaves). The owners of these haciendas were able to acquire more land and haciendas by using prestanombres. Significance: land= money=power. This is significant because owners were able to uphold more power by using prestanombres. land individually but own the land collectively. Cant sell or buy, this is on behalf of the community. This from the colonial period continued into the 19th C. -liberals wanted, including full blooded Indians like juarez, that indigenous people should be farmers. That land should be broken up, and create a stable community of small farmers out of indigenous communities. -CONSERVATIVES wanted to keep the previous set up, whereas liberals would be more modern. -INDIGENOUS ppl were on both sides of the issue. On one hand, had govt protection to these lands. Fought for conservatives, on the other hand saw juarez as one of their own- and supported his law. >WHO got the land? Instead of giving land to poor people, and ordinary citizens. They sold the land. Society became even more unequal. Landowners gained even more land. Large haciendas started to develop.

Conservative Party

These were mostly individuals who were well off, although not all of them. They lived mostly in and around central Mexico. For centralists, most troublesome aspect of MX becoming independent from Spain was pervasive regional dispersion. Very clear MX had suffered terrible defeats bc of lack of integration, and there was possibility of further territorial losses bc of dispersion. >This is why needed to centralize, into true national power. To do that, had to get rid of elected governors. SINCE the elections were corrupt, not free elections. For them, this was because of the grafting of alien system imported from the US into political tradition that did not yet support such political innovation. 1. DO AWAY WITH ELECTIONS< AND CENTRALIZE GOV They wanted to centralize government and appoint governors because they believed the dispersion of power is why MX had lost Texas, other territories, and the War with the US. They wanted to centralize power, have a strong central government. 2. They were also supportive of the Church and the Military. The only way to accomplish centralization was by supporting two institutions that were national in scope: church and mil. Mexico as a colony of Spain had been Catholics only. Mexico remained a Catholic only place. BC of this assumption that MX was catholic-only, the catholic church provided some grounding for national cohesiveness...people had to go to church and participate in sacraments. Instead of doing away with church, First role of mx gov was to support catholic church. Same thing with military, Conservatives believed that to be centralized, military would play a key role because how else were you to force regions otherwise. 3. They wanted to restrict popular participation. They were not opposed to elections in principle, but opposed in the way they were being carried out in MX in the 1840s: the elections were flawed, managed, controlled. People told who to vote for, people who controlled voting polls forced voters to cast their ballots one way or another. Elections often confirmed power structures in regions that tended to favor the caudillos. Did not reflect will of majority. BC of this, conservatives in favor of RESTRICTED electoral participation. GOV SHOULD BE APPT not ELECTED, so governors would act in interest of nation, not region. (just male, no female suffrage until 1950s.) Ideas: restrict the participation of adult males, by just allowing rich to vote- level of income. 4. Many conservatives in favor of monarchy, or imperial gov. (empire) others more in favor of republic with strong central gov. SIG: would be the competing faction to the liberals in the war of reforms 1857-60, where they resisted the legitimacy of the liberal gov.

Juan Alvarez

Was a mestizo caudillo and became president of Mexico after Santa Anna was exiled in 1854. (Liberal Ascendance) Began a "middle transition period" in the 1850s. Álvarez was the leader of the Revolution of Ayutla along with the caudillo strongmen Melchor Ocampo and Benito Juárez that finally ousted Santa Anna. SIG: While the presidency of Álvarez was very short-lived his liberal policies, along with this immediate successor, Ignacio Comonfort, paved the way for La Reforma, the constitution of 1857, and the rise of Benito Juárez. Juan Alvarez: arrived in power in 1854 Santa anna presidency ended in 1850s. His excesses prompted caudillos to rise up (like Juan Alvarez) -Juan Alvarez was central. Also in war of indep. He had always been a patriot. He became most important caudillo in Guerrero. He had particular ascendancy for indigenous. Guererro was indigenous state, also sizable mulatto pop. Juan Alvarez was consistent in political ideas during the last 40 years he had been in politics. -Political camps were fundamental disagreements about what kind of country mx would become. paralleled santa anna. Unlike SA, very ideologically driven strongman. -Brought with him a series of young politicians that would plunge Mexico into new period of warfare between conservatives and liberals. Revolution of Ayutla (1854-55) >Melchor Ocampo >Benito Juarez Juan Alvarez launched Revolution of Ayutla. Called for downfall of Santa Anna govt. Within a year, he had been kicked out. Alvarez, brought liberal politicians, one was Melchor Ocampo - congressman from state of michoacan. Became well known throughout mexican liberal circles. Well known for bitter dispute with clergy from state of mich. Debate about burying a peon. Widow could not pay sacramental fees. Ocampo took side of widow, said it was immoral and nonchristian. Church enriching themselves at the expense of poor peons. the other was juarez

Rio Blanco strike VERACRUZ 1907

Year: 1907 Definition/ reference: strike where workers demanded for higher wages. The wives of the workers showed up to the tienda de rayas (company store) because the store no longer provided credit.They were angry that Rurales were dispatched to control the strike and it became violent. Significance: This is significant because it shows a pattern of strikes from workers. The Porfirian Regime brought business and economic growth but did not treat workers with respect and an acceptable wage. big textile mill. Workers demanded higher wages, strike went on, many wives of striking workers showed up at company store. TIENDA DE RAYA> in that store, workers usually got credit so they could purchase things and be deducted from salary. When strike broke out, company stopped lending to workers. This led to violence, and eventually, workers broke into two shops got some firearms and riot got out of control. Rurales were dispatched to put down the strike, as many as a hundred people died during the exchange of fire. Porfirian press expressed these strikes as mere hiccups, other people saw this as real problems that needed to be addressed. Real opposition emerged.

Caudillo

a system of political-social domination, based on the leadership of a strongman, that arose after the wars of independence from Spain in 19th-century Latin America. It was used to describe the head of irregular forces who ruled a politically distinct territory. These forces were governed through an informal system of sustained obedience based on a paternalistic relationship between the subordinates and the leader, who attained his position as a result of his forceful personality and charisma. A strongman or regional chiefdom, who derived power from control of resources- key industries, haciendas, financial resources. BC of the control caudillos exercised, they were able to enjoy the support of ppl who benefited from the key assets. Caudillos were able to turn individuals into personal armies. Caudillos were the product of the 11-year war of independence. After indep, the leaders allied with each other, formed coalitions and that was the way mexico found a political system that was more or less workable. B/w 1821-54, there was a change of govt on average every 9 months. This was bc of fickle nature of caudillo system. SIG: Instead of growing and consolidating as nation, MX lost half of its territory and remained a collection of regions. Unlike the U.S. at the same time period.

Rurales or rural guards

federal corps of rural police established on May 6, 1861, by the Mexican president Benito Juarez to combat the banditry that threatened travel and commerce throughout Mexico. Significance: The force had been planned four years earlier but could not be established during the War of Reform. In 1869, after the overthrow of the empire of Maximilian, it was reconstituted under the Ministry of the Interior (Ministro de Gobernación) and charged with patrolling the highways and railways, assisting the army, guarding special shipments of goods and bullion, and policing local elections. Under President Porfirio Diaz (governed 1876-1911), its powers were considerably enlarged to include escorting prisoners, guarding public buildings, intimidating political opponents, and acting as a kind of praetorian guard for the dictatorship. It acquired a considerable reputation (rather exaggerated) for oppression and efficiency. By the end of Díaz' reign, the Rurales numbered about 2,700 men. The Rurales were disbanded in 1914. SIG: IN PLANTATIONS guards , protected gang of enganchadores heading to VN or other slave districts. Rurales do not act on their own initiative, completely under orders as are the soldiers of regular army. DIAZ enhanced rurales. He did not invent this institution. Were invented in juarez. These were mostly criminals who offered jobs in rural police force. PD grew this force and came to personally control the group. By end of 19thC, grown reputation as completely ruthless. The royales cut down on the banditry. Rural police offered countervailing force to the national army. At the time, national army was underfunded. The rurales served many functions, making sure silver cargos were received, to spying and killing.

Colonel William Greene

had no military training. was american investor. Called on porfirio to make some investments in MS, bought mine of widow from former gov of sonora called CANANEA MINE Case of labor unrest at his mine in 1906. Bought rights to mine from widow of former gov. Largest producer of copper in mx. Called on gov of sonora to send soldiers to put down strike, also friends in arizona rangers, crossed and put down strike. SIG: ownership represented how politics and econ went hand in hand during porfiriato bc this is when diaz would facilitate connections bw foreigners and MX local land holders. Politics and economics working hand in hand in a cycle, what accounts for rapid development and reviving of businesses for MX.

Second Empire 1861-67

is also known as the French Intervention. The conservatives supported the establishment of a monarchy under a foreign King. The chosen one was Maximilian. During this period, conservatives and liberals were unhappy with the 2nd empire. Conservatives believed Maximilian was going to suspend reform laws and give back the land to the Church. Liberals did not agree that the Mexican crown should be given to a foreign monarch. Significance: The second empire made people realize that the conservative party was no longer a credible source because they supported this intervention. This resulted in the elimination of the conservative party. Moreover, this 'political suicide' paved the way for the Juarez government and he was able to create a more efficient government. -They put emphasis on ceremonies and festivities surrounding the courts Clear logic: in four week passage in castle of miramar, max, instead of learning about mx problems, he spent time composing 400 page ceremonial of mexican court. Max went to great lengths to regulate life at the courts. Who could sit where, who could dance with who.. -Imperia gov of MAX also tried to reimagine mexicos past and present. Came across many artists. Gave us a glimpse of mexico at the time. They had all these connections to european artists. Cards given out to people. -Tried to weave themselves in history of MX. EX: emperors going to Virgen(patron saint) pilgrimage. Show to mx people that they have respect for catholicism.. -Max and Carlotta used this to legitimize themselves...had some sway on ordinary mexicans. 1. Tried to legit. Their rule. -Second thing: tried to bring order to govt and economic life of mexico. Brought in cartographers, stats... brought an impulse to measure and categorize everything. -Had a survey of prostitutes working in MX city: Cataloged as beautiful, medium, or ugly.. Age... -Finally, and most critically, part of program.. Emperors sought some accommodation with liberals. Greatest paradox of affair. They were pretty liberal, and had sympathies for liberal project in mx. 1. Conservatives expected MX to suspend reform laws. Restore land to church..and to reestablish roman catholicism as only religion in mx. Max allowed them (laws) to stand, this created upheaval for conservatives 2. Conservatives expected solidly conservative cabinet, but they appted moderate liberals. Bypassing many conservatives for these posts. 3. Max made attempts to reach juarez and offered position in supreme ct of mexico. Sent him a letter. mexico. By pinning hopes on foreign intervention, they committed political suicide. No longer would they be credible force in mexico. They became discredited. Only liberal govts would hold sway in mex. The two main parties in contention disappear. One reason which led to dictatorship, bc ideological debates ceased. 2. The end of the second empire paved way for juarez govt to establish more effective national govt. → juarez able to parlay personal repoir and knowledge into very strong political figure and form at end of govt. 3. Finally, the triumph of mexican liberals gave new sense of national purpose or nationhood to mex. There is quite a difference compared to what happened w war of US. Liberals joining together, and finally creating country/nation. -church and army in shatters at end of second empire. Church no land, army in diasarray. Mexico had reverted back to caudillos. War had created new crop of military leaders, some conservative some lib. Mex seemed to be going back to terrible fragmentation as had occured during 10 year war of independence. Finally, the constitution of 1857, remained in effect. Had been conceived to restrict the powers of the executive. It was a liberal constitution. Mandated unicameral congress. Idea was that it would be cohesive unified group that could stand up to executive. Bc of these three factors, real danger that it could go back to old ways. -INSTEAD, juarez was able to strengthen power of the executive. Central transition Mexico will experience. This transition would culminate with Porfirio. This process began with juarez. If juarez had lived longer, may have become dictator. How he do this? Amendments to constiution: 1. Added senate to legislative banch, with intention of diluting power of congress/legislature. 2, introduced amendment giving president the right to veto any bill and give...less power to congress. 3. Also created system to regulate country, in particular, introduced new police force called rural police. They will become key player under 34th year of porf. Dictatorship. These were criminals taking out of jails, idea was that criminals would be best to fight other criminals. Other idea was that by creating police force alternative to military, u are also limiting possibilty of coup from military by creating two military bodies in competition. -IN 1871, juarez had term expired under intervention, but was then de facto president, continues and his term was up in 1871, juarez decided to run again and become reelected by great majority.

Constitution of 1857

the constitution followed a similar path to 1824 constitution of MX. The one thing departing from pred, it required the catholic religion was only religion of land NEW ONE had no mention of that. So anyone noncatholic could come into country for the first time since 16th C (colonial time) this detail caused a complete storm. -Catholic church decided it would excommunicate anyone who would pledge allegiance to new and this plunged mexico into 3 year bitter was between liberals and conservatives. -THIS IS THE SECOND TRANSFORMATION. SIG: ignited reform wars, lib mx taking away influence of church, religious freedom.

Porfiriato 1876-1910

the long period of rule by Mexico's Porfirio Diaz, 1876-1911, often cited as a prime example of neocolonialism in Latin America. Diaz imposed strict political control, encouraged European and US investment, and gave special influence to a group of positivist thinkers called Cientificos. The culmination of processes that had already started under the restored republic. PD is a figure resembling juarez in that both had difficult inprivileged childhoods. PD was almost full blooded indigenous person and father was indig. Mother was mez.. -Father died from cholera. -had to be a figure of house. He helped his mother. Was handyman and carpenter. Breadwinner from the beginning. -Early on, decided to pursue military career. 17 year old. Participated in us mexico war. Real participation occurred in wars of reform and played key role during french occupation, cinco de mayo- stopping french advance. Involved in capture of austrian emperor -Well recognized, he thought he was the equal to juarez. -Elections after maximillian captured, PD contended in election. Juarez beat him. PLAN OF LA NORIA 1871 Another uprising to unseat juarez. Plan issued in one of his haciendas called la noria. In 1871, election juarez intended to reelect himself, PD rose up with motto of no reelection even tho he lost that election -juarez died, VP took place Got into power, not through election but military uprising. -PD was not great speaker, was butt of jokes of congress. -He tried to make himself whiter.. -in 1876, he became president of mx. DIAZ initially succeeded in part bc pursued similar policies to predecessors. Was a liberal and was the same as juarez. -He also forged a remarkable alliance with a group of MX thinkers and well-placed individuals known as los scientificos. PORFIRIAN POLITICS Retain freedom in form (PD came up as result of coup in 1876 and stayed on for first 4 year term until 1880, then stayed down, made good on no reelection promise. Also retained formal freedoms. In mid 19th C, mexico had free press, could criticize the pres. But, at same time PD put internal stability as first priority. To achieve this, he had resorted to repression, resulted in assassination to put down opponents. Group of individuals plotting against him in Veracruz, sent a telegram said kill them on spot. No less ruthless in killing peasants in many states. No reelection promise Support regional leaders Embrace conservatives He extended olive branch with conservative elite to retain stability. Allowed many to retire. Some properties were returned to exiled mexicans. In terms of church diaz was a known anti cleric. Used young wife who was devout catholic to take fore in matters of church to symbolize a middle of road approach. Was not antagonistic to church. -exiled leaders -peace with the church Maintain Order He emphasized order w/ series of enhanced institutions that will become critical. One was jefes politicos. This is key new post. Hierarchically, jefes politicos were below governors. Would oversee municipalities, would act as informants and execute orders of governor. In reality, many pol chiefs were linked to diaz. This is how he was able to keep tabs on various states in mexico. Second, he enhanced rurales. He did not invent this institution. Were invented in juarez. These were mostly criminals who offered jobs in rural police force. PD grew this force and came to personally control the group. By end of 19thC, grown reputation as completely ruthless. The royales cut down on the banditry. Rural police offered countervailing force to the national army. At the time, national army was underfunded. The rurales served many functions, making sure silver cargos were received, to spying and killing. -jefes politicos - function served as spies to diaz and make sure that order remained. -rurales ECONOMIC BOOM Porfirio Diaz was the first effective dictatorship since indep. -The idea to increase and centralize power in the presidency. This also led to political centralization and economic growth. Two sides of same coin. (WHY? Makes it less risky investment.) Mexico seemed like safe space to invest money. -Apaches defeated, pacified northern mx. All this happened under diaz. The areas became available for investment. -Political cent. And control enabled greater investment. Greater inv, led to greater centralization. Two processes supporting each other. Best example of this is the RAILROAD> - The RR line made everything else more efficient, including deploying troops. Ex: in 1845, santa anna had to march peons into mex. Diaz, w network of railroads could deploy troops anywhere within 24 hours. - After this first RR line, foreign investors proceeded to improve MX infrastructure. Mexican central RR company backed by boston investors, created line going from MX city to el paso. -On either side of central railway, two other ones built in 1880s, all lines going from central western or eastern, to northern towns. TWO economies, us and mx, worried PD. tried to counterbalance, by awarding concessions to non americans to try to balance out american presence.e turned to British investors. Like SIR WEETMAN D PEARSON OR LORD COWDAY..got rr linking pacific to atlantic. Was costly project because of terrain. Line was completed in 1907, by then panama canal was underway...FOR MANY PROJECTS PD sought out unamerican investors to balance out enormous presence. -RR were backbone of mexicos growth during this time. 1894-1900 GNP rose at 8 percent in MX, led to creation of national economy that had not existed before. RR also reignited Mexicos silver economy. -When RR introduced in US effect was modest. -In colonial times, mexico was leading silver producer in world. In mines of northern mx. However, with wars of indep., had extreme misfortune of happeining around civil mines. Mines abandonded bc of warfare. Once abandoned, it gets flooded. Incredible riches become a hole in the ground with water that cant be pumped out at the time. Mexican prod of silver collapse during 1810-1820. British investors tried to pump water out and lost fortunes doing so. In 1880s, mexico started regaining some of old levels of silver production of colonial period. -Silver mines were dreadful, indigenous people in poor conditions. Silver difficult to mine. Mines flourished as a result of Porfirian railroads and econ booms.

Valle Nacional

worse than Yucatan according to turner. the worst slave hole. 15,000 new slaves a year. Many died in months. Slaves there not indians, they are mexicans, skilled artizans. Artists, common laborers. Not criminals, hardly any charged. VN is a deep gorge from two to 5 miles long tucked away among almost impassable mountains in extreme northwestern corner of state of oaxaca only a river and bridle path to get out of VN. it is a tobacco centered plantations, production carried out in 30 large plantations owned and op by spaniards Geographic isolation accounts for its being just a little worse than most other slave dist in mx. Takes different form of contract labor. VALLE nacional had belonged to chinanteco indians, peaceable tribe among whom it was divided by juarez. Diaz failed to make provisions to secure their land, against spaniards so they gobbled land and valle nacional indians now secure their food from rented patches high up on the mountain sides which are unfit for tobacco cultivation. The Valle nacional consists of Tobacco plantations. Unlike the other plantations, the slaves were Mexican and not 'Indians' but are peons (labor for debt) They are beaten, starved, kidnapped, and raped. Families are separated and attractive women are often taken to the owner for sexual services. Moreover, people in Mexico City often go 'missing' and are later found working in Valle Nacional. Jefe politicos also arrest 'criminals" and sell them to 'labor agents' in order to gain profit. 95% of slaves in Valle Nacional die within seven or eight months.