HIST 006 Midterm

The Long 19th Century timeframe

1789-1914

Ottomanism

ID: A tanzimat effort to promote loyalty and a sense of imperial belonging. It formed as a response to colonialism and promoted osmanlik (ideology that promotes a sense of belonging to the Ottoman Empire around the time of the Ottoman first constitution). SIG: Was an idea in opposition of colonialism and European nationalism. It was an important component of the tanzimat period and after to retain faithful citizens of the OE

Abdel Qadir

ID: After the French colonize Algeria they create a dualistic economy that leads to rural impoverishment and leads resistance to French imperialism in Algeria. The French then come and quell the resistance and then the French take over the land and turn it into plantations and introduce cash crops and peasants no longer have communal land because of private property. Peasants then migrate to cities or work on French plantations. SIG: His resistance failed and led to more French imperialism and impoverishment

Ottoman decline thesis

ID: Argued that there was sustained imperial decline in every realm of life: militarily (after the 1683 loss at Vienna), economically (as there is a price revolution where prices increase, and there is a lot of debt to Europe), politically (tax farming and provinces challenges political power of the imperial center), culturally, and technologically (there was progress in Europe but not ME). Characterizes the OE in civilizational terms. In reality is not civilizational decline. SIG: shown in the debate between al-Afghani and Renan

Jalili family

ID: Based in Mosul; local power group; maintained secure grip on office of provincial governor and maintained local and Ottoman support; promised resources / stay when Ottomans fought along border SIG: an example of a local provincial notable, but not as powerful as others

Bernard Lewis

ID: British-American historian of the Mid East, believed people living in the West should take advantage of the resources available there to learn about he Mid East, encourages the study of Mid East; more conservative than Said, believes in "othering" and claims white Europeans other people. SIG: traditional, more Orientalist perspective of the Mid East, in opposition to Said.

Tanyus Shahin

ID: Christian peasant who established a republic and led a revolt in Mount lebanon. He interpreted doctrines of tanzimat differently than they were intended. For example, he interpreted equality between religions as also being equality within religions. Shahin wanted to be equal to the maronite church and proposed three forms of justice by which the church and peasants should remain on equal footing: (1) paternalistic justice (Church has a responsibility for peasabts as the feudal landlord) (2) religious justice (it's fair to be equal because God said so) and (3) rites-based justice. The revolt develops into a religious civil war when it was originally a class-based uprising. Also Shahin speaks in christian terms (like "brotherhood") and his language of religious freedom makes it seem like the conflict is religious/sectarian. SIG: serves as an example of how the tanzimat reforms were interpreted by ordinary people and how it caused sectarianism. Sectarianism has modern roots and there is a shift in how people view religious identities as being of more importance.

Fahmy reading

ID: Differences between Egyptian army and Mehmed Ali's army. The government provides food, uniforms for soldiers/janissaries. This shows more centralization. Also there are tight military training camps and highly specialized workshops for soldiers' uniforms, surveillance, hospitals, etc. in order to made the standing army work. SIG: Mehmed ali's reforms in the military. Shows the emergence of the modern state

Qajar dynasty

ID: Dynasty that replaced Safavid empire in Iran, advanced defensive developmentalism under Nasir al din Shah. Not completely successful in reforming the state and army but it was known for the dar al funun and the cossack brigade. SIG: another example of defensive developmentalism

Hizab-al-Watani

ID: Egypt's first nationalist party. Formed in 1895 and led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha. SIG: nationalism

Cultural Turkism (1876-1924)

ID: Emphasizes Turkishness as a distinct ID; Ziya Gokalp is the founder and leader who argued that Turks possess their own heritage before Islam and promoted Turkish language because Arabic is influenced by other parts of the OE. SIG: example of local identity that formed as a result of imperialism and european dominance but also formed out of other identity movements like ottomanism and islamic modernism. It wasn't nationalist but pre-nationalist or protonationalist

culturalism

ID: Emphasizes qualities of enduring difference between the colonized and the colonizer. The basic idea is that some people need civilizing so imperialism is a civilizing mission SIG: this and liberal universalism are two poles that legitimate imperialism

liberal universalism

ID: Emphasizes shared qualities between colonized people and their colonizers. SIG: builds on liberalism in Europe which was the foundational principle of 19th century French Revolution. It emerges with capitalism and imperialism. Liberalism assumes that society is made of individuals and you can enter into groups. Also assumes that there are natural unalienable rights and you can make claims in a universalist fashion.

Eastern question

ID: European question of what to do with the Ottoman Empire, because the British tried to maintain the Ottoman Empire to prevent competing powers from assuming more power in the event of Ottoman collapse. The Ottoman empire served as a buffer between British and other competing powers SIG: reflects the rise of European imperialism and European involvement in the East.

Jamal al-Din al-Afghani

ID: Founded Islamic Modernism. The first major public debate between a Muslim intellectual and a European Intellectual was between him and Ernest Renan. Renan argued along the lines of the Ottoman decline narrative, claiming that Islam is fundamentally opposed with technology and science and will not advance, but Afghani argues against that and says that OE will advance in the same way that European society progressed; science is stifled where there is a lot of religion. SIG: finds a balance between religion and modernity

Civilization

ID: How orientalists view Islam. Islam as a civilization emerges in 1800s when people divide the world into East/West. The idea is that groups can be put into civilizations and then ranked. Redefined by Tahtawi. SIG: we should not view islam in civilizational terms. Newer perspectives (like Said and Aydin) reject civilization idea and highlight interconnections

tributary system

ID: How the imperial administration functioned. There was autonomy but a lot of taxations You pay tribute to the imperial admin. SIG: allowed for centralization and contributed to imperial success

Waqf

ID: Islamic religious endowment; any revenue maker can become a waqf and the revenue can be used for religious life (like maintaining a mosque). Over time it changes and revenue goes to the donors and their heirs because waqfs could not be confiscated by the state. Tax farms on the other hand came from state auctions. SIG: another example of decentralization that occurred and showed the rising importance of local notables; allowed local elite to pass down wealth to descendants through donations

Midhat Pasha

ID: Leader of tanzimat reforms; trained bureaucrat who studied at one of the new schools and worked among Ottoman administrators. He was Europeanized and took Mahmoud II's reforms and continued them SIG: Defensive developmentalism and tanzimat, continued efforts of Mahmoud II and pushed for new elites that would distinguish modern ottoman empire that's more European from premodern one

defensive developmentalism

ID: Modernizing reforms and changes initiated by Ottoman and/or local rulers to reorganize their economies, militaries, and states. Began by rulers to reform militaries in the 19th century; techniques were inspired by European training tactics SIG: There were anxieties across the OE about European military expansion. Soon transformed into administrative reforms to increase the power of the Ottoman central state

Egyptian nationalism

ID: Nationalist movement that formed and grew in response to British Imperialism. Especially grew after British occupation in 1882 and after the failed Urabi Revolt SIG: First example of national identity in the Middle East.

standing army

ID: One of the reforms made by Mehmed Ali to modernize the military. It required him to kill the Mamluks and increase state revenue. Based on the French model. Restructured taxation by abolishing tax farming and instituting private land ownership and then bureaucratic officers to seize agricultural surplus. SIG: modernisms

Sultan Abdel Hamid II

ID: Restored royal authority in the Ottoman Empire and eliminated parliament. He promoted an Islamic Identity. Shifts osmanlik from liberal osmanlik to islamic osmanlik SIG: promoted a shared identity that relied to Islam, not liberalism. Shows that in the face of state centralization and reform the religious sectors are still trying to gain power. He declared himself Caliph but later there is a revolt by the Young Turks against him

Mahmoud II (1808-1839)

ID: Sultan of OE who rose to power after Nizam failed. In 1826 he murdered jannisaries and abolished the Sappahi/timar system and creates a new military force. He organized the bureaucracy under the sultan and educational policies to create new officers in the military. He also strenghtened the military and bureaucratic arms of government and focused on raising/training people to run them SIG: Put an end to the old notable groups, older systems, and established tanzimat reforms. Made a space for new notables to rise to power. Also he represents the clash between the old and new order.

Ottoman First Constitutional Era (1876-1878)

ID: Tanzimat period ends when the new Sultan systems the constitution because ottomans are suffering from losses of Christian provinces and the only thing left are Turkish and Kurdish provinces. Changes from liberal to islamic. SIG: constitutional reaction 19th century

Islamic modernism

ID: The idea that Islam is compatible with Western notions of progress and modernity. Founded and promoted by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani who traveled around the OE and encouraged leaders to change their societies. He was the first lay educated man to think about Islam and was not a product of traditional religious institutions. People denounced him. SIG: Argued against people like Renan who claimed that Islam isn't compatible with science and technology. He thought those things were within Islam. The ottoman decline narrative

peripheralization

ID: What happens to the Ottoman Empire as a result of its incorporation into the capitalist world system. European nations began establishing commercial manufacturing centers at home and they obtained raw materials abroad. Rooted in the 17th century, happens in the 18th/19th. Also makes ME susceptible to volatilities. SIG: this is how the mid east was incorporated into the global capitalist system. It results in uneven development which contributes to the great divergence. ME becomes dependent on Europe.

Middle East

ID: a geographic term describing the region. Created by a military historian and the term was used frequently after WWI, not defined by any internal realities, just geography. SIG: geographic construct invented by outsiders. Reflects eurocentrist view of history.

Abu Bakr

ID: after Muhammad's death, he is selected to lead Muslims as the caliph; sought to spread Islam over the entire Arabian peninsula; led some incursions into Sassasian and Byzantine empires. SIG: after his death, Khattab is chosen to succeed him. then conflict breaks out about how successors should be chosen and this begins the Sunni-Shia division.

Battle of Vienna (1683)

ID: battle between Hapsburg dynasty and the Ottoman Empire; ottomans wage war against Hapsburgs and they end up losing. End of geographical expansion for Ottoman empire; some scholars claim that this battle was about Christians vs Muslims but Aydin says really it was about empires clashing. SIG: end of Ottoman expansion

religion

ID: begins as an individual sense of duty (pre-Christian) and evolves into questions of theology and religious jurisprudence. After the protestant reformation, religion became a sense of competing beliefs. Distinction between internal/external = internal individual faith vs external morality, law, politics, tradition SIG: Islam transitions from an Ummah to a set of orthodox doctrines and understandings

Muhammad (570-632 CE)

ID: born in the Arabian peninsula poor, receives revelation from Gabriel and becomes the last prophet of Allah. Threatened Pagan beliefs by believing that there is one God. Gains followers and goes to Medina after persecuted from society in Mecca. Believers conquered Arabia after battling in Mecca. SIG: threatened pagan society in Arabian peninsula, established monotheism, gained followers... all of this resulted in the proliferation of Islam. After death, his lineage became the source of the Sunni/Shia divide.

modern world system

ID: capitalism: oriented towards production for profit, efficiency, profit for its own sake. Integrated systems where goods are circulated around states, took centuries to create the trade and commercial dynamic of the modern world system. Characterized by politically fragmented, economically united states. States no longer traded luxury goods - now raw materials. Agricultural production for world markets (esp Europe); global connectivity with technological, political, economic dimensions enables all parts of the world to participate. SIG: huge transformation from the 18th → 19th century. Reflected a shift in the way trade was conducted between provinces and nations and was a sign of increased globalization as a result of European expansion. Shift from military → economic expansion.

Provinces

ID: chain of command in admin: province→ imperial center. The power of provincial elites increases with more autonomy. They begin cooperating with local elites. Ottoman admin declines as local power groups and notables increase in power. SIG: important part of administration

Abbasid Empire (750 CE - 1258 CE)

ID: created out of the old Persian empire, defeated the Umayyads, converted people to Islam, based in Iraq, opened potential for Eastern expansion of Islam, ended with Mongol invasion in 1200s, defeated the Umayyads in 8th century SIG: "Golden Age of Islam," contributed to advancements in many fields, including literature, philosophy, science, medicine, math, and art.

Islahat Fermani

ID: decree that called for equality of all ottoman subjects. Also said that all Ottoman citizens must serve in the military. Created a new sense of belonging. Reaffirmed the Hatti Sharif SIG: example of DD; elimination of some hierarchy, paved the way for an ottoman identity in the world of rising European dominance

empire

ID: different from nation; difference was the rule; a state that rules over a large territory with the intention to expand; from 1300-1800, there is an increase in scale of polity organization where larger political movements produce wealth, agricultural revenue, taxation, aristocracy SIG: Great Asian Empires

janissaries (1300-1683)

ID: elite infantry in the Ottoman Empire; consisted of paid slaves that were forced into military service. SIG: they contributed to the military power of the Ottoman Empire and the expansion/military successes

cultural imperialism

ID: epistemic project to reform knowledge. SIG: there is a relationship between power and knowledge

Umayyad Empire (mid 7th century CE - mid 8th century CE)

ID: established after 1st and 2nd fitnas; ruled over the entire empire and consisted of the first Arab/Islamic dynasty; based in Damascus; ruled over the land with Sharia law, contained a very diverse population and was NOT Muslim at first (people were converted under the Abbasid empire) SIG: religious tolerance

Mehmed Ali (1769-1849)

ID: first attempt at DD; Albanian commander who is sent to lead a military force in OE to get the French out. Then he becomes the Khedive of Egypt and secures hereditary rule for his dynasty. He introduces military reforms like the standing army, military conscription, liquidates the Mamluks so he can be more powerful, est cash crops and elims tax farming for more revenue. Also brings Egypt into the cap econ by becoming a huge exporter of cotton (which makes Egypt peripheral), creates private land ownership for tax collection purposes, makes state schools for new officers; he is used as a leader of Egyptian nationalism but irl people didn't see him like that when he was leader because he just wanted power. SIG: defensive developmentalism

Ottoman Constitution of 1878 (to 1878)

ID: first constitution of Ottoman Empire, established a short-lived constitutional republic focused on equality and rights among citizens. Indirectly placed new groups in power like bureaucrats, military officers, and public intellectuals. Constitutional order was like a contract between rulers and the people and it resulted from rising social groups who demanded a constitution that would keep them in power. It stopped when the new Sultan ended the constitutional era in 1878. SIG: first major shift from dynastic lineage to constitutional order. It showed that they were using European political structures like liberalism and it was a tanzimat reform

Ali (Muhammad's cousin)

ID: fourth successor of Muhammad, put in power after Uthman is killed; he was controversial and part of the leadership struggles after Muhammad's death. SIG: sparked a series of civil wars (1st and 2nd fitnas = descendants of Ali vs descendants of Uthman) and the wars ultimately result in the establishment of the Umayyad Empire

Sipahis

ID: freeborn Muslims given rights to income from land (timars); in return, empire gets more revenue from taxes from the land; backbone of the military until the 1600s then empire becomes big enough that households self-recruits; developed alongside the janissaries; SIG: they contributed to the military power of the Ottoman Empire and the expansion/military successes

Sunni

ID: group of Muslims who believe succession should be based on elections rather than familial succession. Elected succession would create the Caliph system. SIG: caused on of the major divisions in the Mid East.

Shia

ID: group of Muslims who believe succession should be based on familial connections to Muhammad, those who were Shia were in favor of making Ali (cousin) the 4th caliph after Uthman's murder, which began the familial accession .Shias believed in Imams, broke up into different forms of Shiism. SIG: caused one of major division in Mid East.

modernity

ID: it was a process of historical transformations in the 19th and 20th centuries that consisted of 1. the making of a modern world economy, 2. modern states and centralization, and 3. national identities. SIG: these are the three big things that Shokr says to focus on all the time

timars

ID: land grants given to soldiers by the Ottoman Empire that allowed soldiers (sapahis) to collect income generated from certain land and then the sultan would collect taxes. If you wanted a timar you needed to do military service. SIG: same as above

tax farms

ID: land/industry purchased upfront in return for right to collect revenue from land; timars' importance wanes as the Ottoman administration becomes less reliant on them. They are different from timars because they do not come with military service and because they are bought with cash upfront and provided actual money instead of service to the empire (these two differences show the emergence of capitalism). SIG: example of decentralization and transformation in the Ottoman empire; you can begin to see the effects of capitalism in the region

Urabi Revolt - Egypt (1879-1882)

ID: led by colonel Ahmad Urabi in order to oppose foreign control of state finances and articulated it in terms of constitutionalism. It was supported by the army but didn't succeed because it prompted a British military invasion which in turn leads to more British occupation SIG: leads to more egyptian nationalism. It was also a constitutional reaction from Egyptians in an attempt to govern themselves

malikanes

ID: lifetime tax farms (not a specific period of time); allowed OE to make alliances with local leaders SIG: it's just a type of tax farm -- resulted in rise in power for families (e.g. Azms)

Muhammad Abdel Wahab (1703-1791)

ID: local power holder; derives power not from the state; his movement sought to eliminate Ottoman rule; denounced unorthodox Islam and joined an elite family to spread his teachings among elites, ultimately leading to the spread of orthodox Islam and Wahhabism (although incorrectly termed). SIG: another example of religious leader that made up the provincial notables and didn't derive power from the state

Great Asian Empires (1700s)

ID: lots of wealth, taxation, cities, aristocracy; consists of Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal Empires SIG: led world economically, scientifically, and culturally for hundreds of years

imperialism

ID: modernizing reforms imposed by outsiders. Imperialism and defensive developmentalism are developed together and it is a conceptual distinction. There are some overlaps between the two. SIG: There were anxieties across the OE about European military expansion. Soon transformed into administrative reforms to increase the power of the Ottoman central state

Cultural Arabism

ID: movement in Egypt highlighted by the Al Nahda (Arab literary renaissance movement led by Rifa al Tahtawi); the idea was that Arabs possessed a distinct cultural identity that deserved more privileges from the Ottoman Empire. SIG: served as an example of local identities that formed as a result of British occupation, but also formed as a result of other movements like cultural turkism and islamic modernism. It wasn't nationalist but pre-nationalist or protonationalist

Niazam-e-Jadid (1797)

ID: new infantry trained according to European model; more focused on recruiting Anatolians. They opposed the old military order. There was opposition from jannisaries and they lead a coup that defeats the N-e-J. SIG: one of the Ottoman tanzimat reforms

intermarriage/succession

ID: one of the imperial successes in the Age of Asian Empires; intermarriage was used for alliance making; marriage for politics helps people form alliances and gain territory; Ottoman + Byzantine intermarriage helps integrate and consolidate imperial rule. SIG: imp success; allows for peaceful expansion

modern states

ID: originally the primary role of the OE was revenue collection byt now there is a production of knowledge and data (maps, censuses, statistics). There is also infrastructure and technology. Modern states mobilize social factors (mobilizing for war, prison, idolizing people, creating national holidays) and also create standardized institutions like schools. SIG: increasing European influence

North African Deys

ID: pay tribute to the ottoman state but maintain more local authority. They maintain defacto independence until French colonialism SIG: example of local provincial noble

national identity

ID: people who have a shared history and national affiliation. There were anti-colonial and anti-imperialist movements that helped form a sense of national identity. SIG: increasing European influence in ME

notable (ayan) politics (1700s)

ID: power of notables increases. The notables include officials who are centrally appointed and their descendants, pre-ottoman elites who had power before the Ottoman empire, and Mamluks. SIG: represents the decentralization in the 17th and 18th centuries where power in Istanbul declined and instead Ottoman provinces gained political dominance

tanzimat (1839-1876)

ID: process by which new officers and bureaucrats embark on large scale processes of reform, led by people like Midhat Pasha. Two major reforms were the Hatt-i-Sharif and the Islahat Fermani. During this period tax farming was abolished, military conscription began, intermediaries (local elites) were irrelevant, and equality was spreading (because there was an elimination of the traditional hierarchy. SIG: example of 19th century reformist movement

colonialism

ID: process functioning on the periphery not the center like imperialism. There was a spectrum of European colonialism, ranging from informal, economic expansion (like loans and concessions) to formal, settler colonialism (where migrants from european countries come to ME to colonize). The spectrum is economic expansion → diplomatic coercion (like forced treaties) → indirect control (political structure for economic rule like the mandate system) → military occupation (physical presence like British occupation of Egypt) → settler colonialism. SIG: same process as imperialism but from the perspective of the periphery

nation-state

ID: product of the modern world; empires are different from nations because empires didn'twant cultural homogeneity like nations do. After WWI there is a collapse of empires and a rise of nationalism and nation states. Minorities only exist in nation states because nations like majoritarian rule. SIG: different from empire, represents modernity, explains rise in nationalism, leads to minority rights issues

mamluks (1600s/1700s)

ID: professional slave soldiers who had been brought into military servitude and their descendants gain power. Invented by the Abbasids and adopted by the Ottomans, rose to power under OE and became an elite group involved in commerce and tax farms; they are killed by Mehmed Ali at the dinner party. SIG: powerful group -- tax farms

Hatt-i Sharif of Gulhane

ID: promise by sultan to eliminate tax farming. It established military conscription in the Ottoman empire and eliminated intermediaries. Also guaranteed rights to all ottoman subjects regardless of religion or ethnic group. SIG: defensive developmentalism and military reform to compete with the european powers. It was also an effort towards ottomanism to create a unified ottoman identity

Constitutional Revolution (Iran 1905)

ID: protests in iran following the assassination of Nasir; result in the constitutional revolution that was composed of (1) bazariz (merchants, money lenders who are hit hard by foreign concessions to Europeans) (2) religious clergy (who want to gain religious independence from centralizing state) and (3) small radical reformers (who dont want qajar corruption and stagnation). Despite the const, Qajar state remains weak and const ends after) SIG: was a response to defensive developmentalist reforms by Nasir Shah in the Qajar dynasty

Edward Said (1900s)

ID: scholar of colonialism, creates the term "Orientalism" (representing the Middle East in a colonial way). He is interested in cultural and intellectual aspects of colonialism, advocated for going directly to Islamic primary sources, claims that no knowledge is objective. SIG: advocated against people studying Islam in an orthodox way, people should be weary of where their information is coming from.

Dar al Funun (1851)

ID: school that trained young intellectuals. People could also train to go to Europe to study. Influence was on trade schools in agriculture and military colleges SIG: Europeanized, defensive developmentalism, tanzimat reform

Cossack Brigad

ID: small military unit led by russian leaders as part of the Qajar dynasty SIG: one of the leading reforms of defensive developmentalism in the qajar dynasty

Asian circulatory system (1200s)

ID: system of segmentary movement of trade that occurred across Asia, Europe, NA after the fall of the Mongol empire; occurred because of nomadic tribal dominance and trade in the whole area during Mongols. (Turkic migrations, Arab/Muslim migrations, Mongols) SIG: early globalization before Europeans; allowed for the spread of ideas and trade

The Great Divergence (1750-1800)

ID: the transformation from a poor but equal world to a divergent world of poor countries and wealthy countries. SIG: states become richer due to colonialism. Creates the narrative that Europe = developed/progressive and Middle East = underdeveloped/barbaric/antiquated

Crisis of the 17th century

ID: there was political instability and a crisis of imperial authority. Price revolution (things get expensive and there is inflation), states increasingly rely on cash econ = dependence, Spanish conquest means there is an influx of gold and silver and there is more money in circulation). Also the Mongol collapse results in a population increase (because it occurs at the same time as BD). Also introduces the modern world system which is a big change for the Ottomans). Power and domination look different (with the peripheralization); new actors gain power; increasing trade; capitalist world system; shift in the balance of power. SIG: big shift for the Ottoman Empire

Ummah

ID: ummah is meant to transcend national, racial, and class divisions to unite all Muslims. The concept of the ummah dates to the time of the Prophet Muhammad and stresses the importance of the organization of society along ethical (and Islamic) lines SIG: not actually adhered to really (pol > religion)

Aydin

ID: writes about the Great Asian Empire period. Thesis = umma contains diverse elements of all cultures; there was no conception of a unified umma, rather this idea comes from the 19th century to make islam in opposition to the west. Ottoman empire = mush of histories and traditions from earlier empires (fusion of Mongol/Arab/Persian/Turkic legacies). He is arguing against people who make an East-West division anachronistically as though it has always existed. He is responding to orientalists like Lewis who represent Islam as if it is a unit. Believed that Islam was a facilitator of interactiona and sharia law is a community of discourse that non-Muslims can use in court and stuff SIG: important scholarship indeed

Eaton

ID: writing against orientalist scholarship and people who talk about civilizations. He instead talks about societies. Claims that people who write about civilizations like Lewis are only talking about the literate classes, so your studying would only represent elite sources. IRL society is more pluralistic. He says we should think of Islam as a form of globalization and the Ottoman Empire as a cultural, political syncretism SIG: nuanced view of history, rejects orientalism