Histology Midterm
What is the function of pleural fluid?
Assists in breathing movements by acting as a lubricant (reduces friction)
At the esophageal-stomach junction, there is an abrupt change from ________________ to __________________ epithelium, in most species.
At the esophageal-stomach junction, there is an abrupt change from *stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium* to *simple columnar* epithelium, in most species.
Why is the absolute diameter of an airway tube not a good feature to use to identify it?
Because the same type of airway tube (e.g., primary bronchi) will be a different size depending on the species (e.g., in cow vs. cat lungs). VARIATION
What is *bile*? What is its function?
Bile is a complex substance required for emulsification, hydrolysis, & uptake of fat in the duodenum
Where is the mucus that lines the nasal cavity produced? [specific structure]
Bowman's (olfactory) gland
How can thyroid gland activity be assessed, histologically?
By looking at: - the relative height of follicular cells (squamous vs. cuboidal vs. columnar) - the presence & extent of colloid resorption vacuoles or lacunae
Which cell type produces calcitonin?
C cells (parafollicular cells)
What are *Clara cells*?
Clara cells are a group of cells, sometimes called "*nonciliated bronchiolar secretory cells*", found in the bronchiolar epithelium of mammals including man, and in the upper airways of some species such as mice.
What is the function of *club cells*? Where are they found?
Club cells are found in terminal bronchioles of the respiratory system. Functions: - secretion of surfactant lipoproteins & mucins into fluid layer on epithelial surface - detoxification of inhaled xenobiotics - secretion of antimicrobial peptides & cytokines for local immune defense
Describe the flow of urine out of the nephron, into the bladder.
Collecting duct -> renal papilla -> minor calyx -> major calyx -> renal pelvis -> ureter -> bladder
How do hormones produced in an endocrine cell get into the bloodstream? [microcirculation]
Endocrine cell synthesizes hormones, then releases them into the basal extracellular space. From there the hormone enters the blood through fenestrations in the capillary endothelial cells
T/F: "There are no glands in the mucosa of the stomach."
False
T/F: "Thyroid hormones are involved in the regulation of electrolytes (Na+ & K+)."
False
T/F: "There are no glands in the submucosa of the duodenum."
False (there can be Brunner's glands in the submucosa, in the duodenum)
T/F: "There are no glands in the submucosa of the esophagus."
False (there can be mucus glands in the submucosa, in the esophagus)
T/F: "The liver has very limited regeneration capacity."
False, it has superior regeneration capacity
T/F: "The lumenal surface of the gallbladder is very smooth mucosa."
False, it is a highly folded mucosa
T/F: "Transitional epithelium in the bladder is highly permeable to salts & water."
False, it is impermeable to salts & water
T/F: "Enteropeptidase can be found in the intestine and the pancreas."
False, it is only found in the duodenum
T/F: "Enteropeptidase can be found in throughout the GIT."
False, it is only found in the duodenum
T/F: "Epithelium that covers the tongue is never keratinized."
False, the dorsal side of the tongue is often keratinized
T/F: "The liver is retroperitoneal."
False, the liver is an intraperitoneal organ. Intraperitoneal organs: - stomach - spleen - liver - bulb of duodenum - jejunum - ileum - transverse colon - sigmoid colon
T/F: "The liver is the largest organ in the body."
False, the skin is the largest organ. The liver is the 2nd largest
T/F: "Chief cells in the parathyroid gland are found as single cells/ in small clusters."
False, they are arranged in cords/ clusters
T/F: "Oxyphils in the parathyroid gland are arranged in cords/ clusters."
False, they are found as single cells/ in small clusters
T/F: "Paneth cells are part of the adaptive immune system."
False, they are part of innate immunity
T/F: "Extramural glands are only found in the duodenum."
False, they aren't found in the duodenum, they are found in the liver & pancreas
T/F: "You can find Paneth cells at the bottom of crypts in both the large and small intestines."
False, you can find them in small intestine crypts of some species, but they are not found in the large intestine
T/F: "There is cartilage in the bronchioles."
False. Bronchioles do not contain cartilage
T/F: "There are free dust cells in the interalveolar septa."
False. Dust cells (alveolar macrophages) in the alveolar septum are FIXED, not free.
T/F: "The dust cells in the alveolar lumen are fixed."
False. Dust cells (alveolar macrophages) in the alveolar space/ lumen are FREE, not fixed.
T/F: "The thyroid gland has very little vasculature."
False. It is surrounded by an extensive vascular network
T/F: "Parathyroid glands are simple tubular glands."
False. Parathyroid glands are endocrine glands, but terms like "simple tubular" only apply to exocrine glands (those w ducts).
T/F: "Approximately 40% of endocrine glands are serous glands."
False. Terms like "serous" or "mucous" do not apply to endocrine glands.
T/F: "Endocrine glands that secrete protein/polypeptide hormones are classified as serous glands."
False. Terms like "serous" or "mucous" do not apply to endocrine glands.
T/F: "The wall of thyroid follicles is usually 2 - 3 cells thick."
False. The follicular wall is composed of single layer of epithelial cells.
T/F: "There is always one papilla per kidney."
False. The number of papillae depends on the number of renal pyramids (each pyramid has its own papilla). So multipyramidal kidneys have multiple papillae.
T/F: "The pancreas is covered in a thin capsule of CT & mesothelium of the peritoneum."
False. The pancreas IS covered in a thin CT capsule, but it is not covered in peritoneum b/c it is retroperitoneal.
T/F: "The pituitary gland is a compound acinar gland."
False. The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland, whereas terms like "compound acinar" only apply to exocrine glands (those w ducts).
T/F: "Some of the functional adaptations in the GIT to increase the surface area available for absorption are rugae, villi, and microvilli."
False. The sentence is true except "rugae" should say "plicae". Rugae are temporary folds that accommodate *distension*, not absorption.
T/F: "Myoepithelial cells surround the pancreatic duct."
False. There are no myoepithelial cells in the pancreas. (recall that myoepithelial cells are cells usually found in glandular epithelium as a thin layer above the basement membrane but generally beneath the luminal cells. They can contract and expel the secretions of exocrine gland.)
T/F: "All endocrine structures are multicellular structures, though they can be embedded in other structures."
False. There are single-celled endocrine structures, for example, the diffuse neuroendocrine system in the GIT mucosa
T/F: "The large intestine lacks microvilli."
False. There is a brush border on the large intestinal epithelium
T/F: "The CT in the thyroid gland is extensive."
False. There is very little CT in the thyroid gland
T/F: "The muscularis externa of all tubular GIT organs is made up of smooth m."
False. Usually smooth m., but can be skeletal m. in some organs
What does the gross appearance of a liver with centrilobular necrosis?
"nutmeg" liver
What are the two main divisions of the respiratory system? What is the function of each?
(1) *conducting portion* -> conditions the incoming air & moves it into/ out of the lungs (2) *respiratory portion* -> site of gas exchange
What are the two main divisions of the respiratory system?
(1) conducting portion (2) respiratory portion
What is the difference between the adventitia and the serosa of a tubular organ?
*Adventitia* -> an adventitia is CT of the tubular organ that blends with surrounding CT to anchor the tubular organ. *Serosa* -> a serosa is a layer of simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) which keeps the tubular organ un-anchored, so it can move within the body cavity.
What is the difference between an *adventitia* and a *serosa*?
*Adventitia* => layer of CT that surrounds hollow organ and anchors it to surrounding tissue (e.g., trachea, esophagus) *Serosa* => layer of simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) that surrounds the hollow organ, allowing it to slide within the body cavity (e.g., lungs, stomach)
What is the difference between endocrine, paracrine, and neuroendocrine signalling?
*Endocrine* signalling is where hormones are released into the blood and travel to distant sites. *Paracrine* hormones get released into the extracellular space and diffuse to local cells. *Neuroendocrine* hormones are released by neurons into the blood, and travel to distant sites to affect other cells.
Describe the structure of the mucosa of respiratory bronchioles.
*Epithelium* -> simple cuboidal/columnar - non-ciliated, mostly. Some ciliated cells - Clara cells *Lamina propria* -> very reduced; elastic fibres *Muscularis mucosae* -> present
Which condition would you likely suspect if, on a histological section of the thyroid gland, you observed: - columnar follicular cells - collapsed follicles - large resorption vacuoles
*Hyperthyroidism*, b/c these signs point to excessive colloid resorption -> increased levels of T3 & T4 in the blood.
Which condition would you likely suspect if, on a histological section of the thyroid gland, you observed: - squamous follicular cells - large follicles - homogeneous colloid
*Hypothyroidism*, b/c these signs indicate excessive colloid production & storage -> decreased T3 & T4 in the blood.
How do the secretions of surface mucus cells differ from neck mucus cells, in a gastric gland?
*Surface mucus cells* secrete very thick, sticky mucus particularly well-adapted to protection. It also contains bicarbonate (to help buffer the acidic stomach contents). *Neck mucus cells* secrete watery mucus that mixes with food.
List the three layers of the adrenal cortex, and state the function of each.
*Zona glomerulosa* -> electrolyte balance (mineralcorticoids) *Zona fasciculata* -> energy metabolism & immune system (glucocorticoids) *Zona reticularis* -> sexual development (sex hormones)
Blood supply to the liver is: a) 25% hepatic artery + 75% portal vein b) 75% hepatic artery + 25% portal vein c) 50% hepatic artery + 50% portal vein d) 90% hepatic artery + 10% portal vein e) 10% hepatic artery + 90% portal vein
*a) 25% hepatic artery + 75% portal vein* b) 75% hepatic artery + 25% portal vein c) 50% hepatic artery + 50% portal vein d) 90% hepatic artery + 10% portal vein e) 10% hepatic artery + 90% portal vein
In which of the following cells of the adenohypophysis could you find growth hormone (GH)? a) acidophilic cells b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
*a) acidophilic cells* b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
In which of the following cells of the adenohypophysis could you find prolactin (PL)? a) acidophilic cells b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
*a) acidophilic cells* b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
The zona glomerulosa is part of the: a) adrenal gland b) anterior pituitary gland c) posterior pituitary gland d) enteric nervous system
*a) adrenal gland* b) anterior pituitary gland c) posterior pituitary gland d) enteric nervous system
Which of the following blood vessels associated with the renal corpuscle has a larger diameter? Why? a) afferent arteriole b) efferent arteriole
*a) afferent arteriole* b) efferent arteriole ^ the afferent arteriole has a larger diameter than the efferent arteriole to increase hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capillaries, favouring filtration
The trachea has: a) an adventitia b) a serosa c) neither
*a) an adventitia* b) a serosa c) neither
Why cell type produces PTH? a) chief cells b) oxyphils c) follicular cells d) parafollciular cells e) chromaffin cells
*a) chief cells* b) oxyphils c) follicular cells d) parafollciular cells e) chromaffin cells
Which is the most abundant cell type in the respiratory epithelium? a) ciliated columnar cells b) goblet cells c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) e) basal cells
*a) ciliated columnar cells* b) goblet cells c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) e) basal cells
Which of the following respiratory epithelium cell types is columnar in shape and has hundreds of cilia on its apical surface? a) ciliated columnar cells b) goblet cells c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) e) basal cells
*a) ciliated columnar cells* b) goblet cells c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) e) basal cells
Which of the following is the area drained by one central venule/ vein? a) classic liver lobule b) portal lobule c) hepatic acinus
*a) classic liver lobule* b) portal lobule c) hepatic acinus
Olfactory epithelium is: a) highly vascularized b) moderately vascularized c) minimally vascularized d) avascular
*a) highly vascularized* b) moderately vascularized c) minimally vascularized d) avascular
What stimulates the exocrine pancreas cells to secrete? a) hormones b) nervous input c) mechanoreceptors in pancreas
*a) hormones* b) nervous input c) mechanoreceptors in pancreas ^ - acinar cells stimulated by cholecystokinin - ductal cells stimulated by secretin
Cushing's syndrome is also known as: a) hyperadrenocorticism b) hypoadrenocorticism c) hyperthyroidism d) hypothyroidism e) pheochromocytoma
*a) hyperadrenocorticism* b) hypoadrenocorticism c) hyperthyroidism d) hypothyroidism e) pheochromocytoma
Which of the following conditions is often due to a 'benign' tumor in the adenohypophysis? a) hyperadrenocorticism b) hypoadrenocorticism c) pheochromocytoma
*a) hyperadrenocorticism* b) hypoadrenocorticism c) pheochromocytoma
What effect does parathyroid hormone (PTH) have on blood [Ca2+]? a) increases it b) decreases it c) no effect
*a) increases it* b) decreases it c) no effect
Which type of embryonic tissue is the adrenal cortex derived from? a) mesoderm b) endoderm c) ectoderm/ neural crest d) each layer is derived from a different tissue
*a) mesoderm* b) endoderm c) ectoderm/ neural crest d) each layer is derived from a different tissue
Aldosterone is a: a) mineralcorticoid b) glucocorticoid c) sex hormone
*a) mineralcorticoid* b) glucocorticoid c) sex hormone
Which of the following contains sensory neurons? a) olfactory epithelium b) respiratory epithelium c) both d) neither
*a) olfactory epithelium* b) respiratory epithelium c) both d) neither
The sheet-like folds of mucosa & submucosa of the small intestine are called...? a) plicae b) villi c) microvilli
*a) plicae* b) villi c) microvilli
Which of the following functions correlates more strongly with the RENAL CORTEX? a) site of blood filtration & some transport b) site of urine concentration c) site of urine excretion d) site of mineralcorticoid secretion
*a) site of blood filtration & some transport* b) site of urine concentration c) site of urine excretion d) site of mineralcorticoid secretion
What type of muscle tissue is the internal anal sphincter made of? a) smooth m. b) cardiac m. c) skeletal m.
*a) smooth m.* b) cardiac m. c) skeletal m.
The muscularis externa of the gallbladder wall is: a) thick b) thin c) they don't have one
*a) thick* b) thin c) they don't have one
Which way does bile flow in a classic liver lobule? a) toward the portal triad b) toward the center of the lobule c) same direction as bile flow
*a) toward the portal triad* b) toward the center of the lobule c) same direction as bile flow
The cells in which of the following regions of the hepatic acinus have the highest metabolic rate? a) zone 1 b) zone 2 c) zone 3
*a) zone 1* b) zone 2 c) zone 3
The cells in which of the following regions of the hepatic acinus have the most glycogen storage/utilization? a) zone 1 b) zone 2 c) zone 3
*a) zone 1* b) zone 2 c) zone 3
The cells in which of the following zones of a hepatic acinus are more metabolically active? a) zone 1 b) zone 2 c) zone 3
*a) zone 1* b) zone 2 c) zone 3
In a hepatic acinus, in which region do cells get the most O2, nutrients, and toxins (i.e., highest concentration of stuff in the blood)? a) zone 1 b) zone 2 c) zone 3
*a) zone 1* b) zone 2 c) zone 3 ^because they're closest to the portal region
Which structure is bile secreted into, directly from the hepatocytes that produce it?
*bile canaliculi* (the small channels that are created by the common edge between hepatocytes)
What is the difference between brachydont teeth and hypsodont teeth
*brachydont*: - low crowned - cease growing after eruption - milk teeth & most incisors - ex. humans, pigs (except their canines), carnivores *hypsodont* - longer crown - continue growing in adults - ex. all horse teeth, pig canines (tusks), ruminant cheek teeth, elephants, etc.
What general features would you look for on an LM section of a liver lobule to differentiate cirrhosis & centrilobular necrosis?
*cirrhosis* -> more CT than you would normally see *centrilobular necrosis* -> dead cells in zone 3 (centrilobular region; area around central vein)
What is the difference between a "closed" type enteroendocrine cell and an "open" type?
*closed* -> no direct contact with gut lumen *open* -> direct contact with gut lumen; act to sense environment in the gut ("taste")
What is the difference between *respiratory bronchioles* and *terminal bronchioles*?
*respiratory bronchioles* -> the bronchiole division right before the wall is interrupted by alveoli *terminal bronchioles* -> the bronchiole segement immediately preceding the respiratory bronchiole (you can only identify a bronchiole as a terminal bronchiole if you follow its course and see that it gives rise to a respiratory bronchiole.
What are the 2 main regions of the classic liver lobule?
- *centrilobar zone* (region closest to lobule middle) - *periportal zone* (region at periphery of lobule)
List 2 important structures present in olfactory mucosa
- *filia olfactoria* (bundles of non-myelinated axons) - *Bowman's* (olfactory) *glands* (secrete mucin onto nasal epithelium)
List 3 types of functional adaptations found in the GIT
- *increased surface area for absorption* via plicae, villi, and microvilli - having *glands for secretion* -> mucosal, submucosal, and extramural glands - *protective adaptations* -> physical protection w stratified squamous epithelium (+/- keratin) and mucus; immune protection w MALT/GALT, Peyer's patches
Describe the structure of the exocrine part of the pancreas
- Arranged in serous acini - each acinus consists of several serous cells surrounding a tiny lumen - each acinus surrounded by a basal lamina - each acinus supported by a delicate layer of reticular CT, rich in capillaries - acinar cells are pyramidal in shape w very eosinophilic apical regions (H&E)
List the three structural elements involved in glomerular filtration
- FENESTRATIONS in capillary epithelium - glomerular basement membrane (fused basement membranes of the endothelial cells & the podocytes) - filtration slit diaphragms (made by podocyte pedicels)
List the 3 main cell types normally found in the liver
- Hepatocytes - Kupffer cells - Ito cells
List 3 types of cells you can see in an H&E stained LM section of the adenohypophysis
- acidophilic cells - basophilic cells - chromophobic cells
List the components of bile
- bile acids/ salts - water - electrolytes - fatty acids - phospholipids - cholesterol - iron - copper - bilirubin
What are the components of a portal triad in the liver?
- bile ductule - venule (from portal vein) - arteriole (from hepatic artery) - (lymphatics)
List the 5 cells types that are part of the respiratory epithelium
- ciliated columnar cells - goblet cells - brush cells - small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) - basal cells
List 2 functions of the conduction portion of the respiratory tract
- clean & humidify inspired air - provide conduits for air movement to & from alveoli
Describe the features of the gallbladder cells you would be able to see/ use to identify them in TEM (ultrastructure)
- columnar cells - abundant, short microvilli - apical junctional complexes - mitochondria localized to apical & basal cytoplasm - complex lateral folds - mucus granules on apical side
Which signs would you expect to observe in a histological section of the thyroid gland of a patient with hyperthyroidism?
- columnar follicular cells - collapsed follicles - large resorption vacuoles
Describe the structure of a type II pneumocyte
- cuboidal/ round cell w prominent nucleus - nucleus is round w many nucleoli - cytoplasm is lightly staining w many vesicles
List the three components of the tunica *mucosa*
- epithelium - lamina propria - muscularis mucosae
What are the four tissue layers generally found in the upper part of the conducting portion of the respiratory tract (from nasal cavity -> bronchi)?
- epithelium - lamina propria/submucosa (normall blended in resp. system) - a bone/cartilage/muscle layer (analogous to muscularis externa) - CT adventitia
Describe the structure of *mucosa* (innermost layer of hollow organs).
- epithelium layer - CT layer (lamina propria) - (smooth) muscle layer (muscularis mucosae) ^smooth m. layer not always present
Which features of hepatocyte ultrastructure are visible in TEM?
- extensive amounts of ER (rough & smooth) - numerous mitochondria - cytoplasm has stored nutrients (depends on location of hepatocyte in lobule) - outside (lateral) surface associated with sinusoids
What are the three basic functions/actions of a nephron?
- filter - secrete - absorb
Decsribe the structure of the epiglottis
- flattened structure projecting from the upper rim of the larynx - upper (lingual) surface lined by stratified squamous epithelium - ventral surface has respiratory epithelium - mucous & serous glands in lamina propria
What do *Kupffer cell* look like in LM?
- found in the lumen of sinusoids, pressed up against the wall - elongated - light purple cytoplasm/with coloured vesicles; purple/blue nucleus
List the parts of the renal corpuscle
- glomerulus - Bowman's capsule
List the cell types found in the crypts of Lieberkuhn
- goblet cells - stem cells - enteroendocrine cells + Paneth cells, in some species
Which 2 vessels bring blood to the liver?
- hepatic artery (branch of aorta) - hepatic portal vein (from cranial & caudal mesenteric veins, and the splenic vein)
List the 4 components of the urinary system
- kidney - ureters - urinary bladder - urethra
What do hepatocytes look like in H&E specimens? (what are the features)
- large & cuboidal/ polyhedral epithelial cells - large central nucleus (frequently binucleated) - eosinophilic, mitochondria-rich cytoplasm
Describe the structure of *submucosa*
- located under mucosa - generally dense irregular CT - often contains glands
List the layers found in the wall of hollow organs, from deep to superficial.
- mucosa - submucosa - muscularis - adventitia OR serosa
How can you tell if a cross section of part of the respiratory tract is a terminal bronchiole?
- mucosa has non-ciliated simple columnar/cuboidal epithelium - only 1 or 2 layers of smooth m. - the tube is embedded in CT - there are alveoli in the surrounding lung tissue - presence of club cells
Describe the structure of *muscularis externa*
- muscle layers, variable number - usually smooth m., but sometimes skeletal m. - not always present
List the components of the upper portion of the respiratory system
- nasal cavity - pharynx - larynx
List the 4 distinct cell types present in the olfactory epithelium
- olfactory receptor neurons - basal cells - sustentacular cells
List 4 functions of mesangial cells
- physical support of glomerular capillaries - adjust vessel diameter in response to blood pressure changes - phagocytosis of protein aggregates adhering to the glomerular filter - secretion of cytokines, prostaglandins, and other factors for immune defense & glomerular repair.
List 6 endocrine glands
- pituitary gland - adrenal gland - thyroid gland - parathyroid glands - pancreas - gonads (ovaries/testes)
What are the three levels of structure in the small intestine that increase the surface area available for absorption?
- plicae - villi - microvilli
Describe the structure of classic liver lobules
- polygonal shape - boundaries demarcated by CT - corners of lobule contain portal triads
List the 3 main functions of the liver
- produce bile - act as a major interface between the digestive system & the blood; nutrients - synthesis of many plasma proteins; detoxification of xenobiotics
By which mechanisms do benign tumors of the adenohypophysis effect the body?
- producing hormones - compressing the gland
List 5 general types of enzymes found in the zygomen granules of the exoocrine pancreatic acinar cells
- proteolytic endopeptidases - proteolytic exopeptidases - amylolytic enzymes - lipases - nucleolytic enzymes
What do Kupffer cells do? [function]
- recognize & phagocytize aged erythrocytes (frees heme & iron for reuse, or storage in ferritin complexes) - removes bacteria debris in the portal blood - antigen presentation to immune system
Describe the makeup of the CT in the visceral pleura
- rich in collagen & elastin fibres - contains blood vessels & lymphatics
List the exocrine components of the GI tract
- salivary glands - pancreas - liver - gallbladder
Describe the structure of the larynx
- short passage for air b/w pharynx & trachea - rigid wall w hyaline cartilage (thyroid cartilage) & elastic cartilage (cartilage of epiglottis), connected by ligaments --> maintain an open airway & participate in vocalization
What type of cells are present in the large intestine's mucosa epithelium?
- simple columnar enterocytes w brush border - numerous goblet cells
List 3 types of cells found in the epithelium of the small intestine mucosa
- simple columnar epithelium w brush border (microvilli) - goblet cells - M cells
Which signs would you expect to observe in a histological section of the thyroid gland of a patient with hypothyroidism?
- squamous follicular cells - large follicles - homogeneous colloid
What is the role of Ito cells?
- store vitamin A & other fat soluble vitamins (tend to accumulate lipids) - produce ECM components (role in fibrosis) and cytokines that regulate Kupffer cell activity
List the components of the lower portion of the respiratory system
- trachea - bronchi - lungs
List 8 functions of the urinary system
- water balance - acid-base balance - electrolyte balance - excretion of bioactive substances - regulation of arterial BP - secretion of EPO - conversion of pro-vitamin D3 to its active form - gluconeogenesis (along with the liver)
List the three main classes of hormones
1) Proteins & polypeptides 2) Steroids 3) Amino acid derivatives
What is the purpose of the watery secretion produced by the numerous glands in the lamina propria/submucosa underlying the olfactory epithelium?
1) To lubricate the surface epithelium 2) To dissolve odorant molecules so that they can bind to olfactory receptor cells
What are the three structures that make up the blood-air barrier in the lungs?
1) Very thin type I pneumocytes in the alveoli 2) Fused basal laminae of the type I pneumocytes & the capillary endothelial cells 3) Capillary endothelial cells
What prevents the pancreas from being autodigested by its own enzymes?
1) the fact that the pancreas only synthesizes *inactive enzyme precursors* that don't get activated until they are in the duodenum 2) the pancreas co-packages *trypsin inhibitor* in the secretory vesicles with the trypsinogen 3) the *pH* in the acini & duct system is sub-optimal for enzyme activation (due to bicarb secreted by the centroacinar & intercalated duct cells)
List the three concepts/ways of organizing the liver into lobules.
A) Classic lobule B) Portal lobule C) Hepatic acinus
Describe the process of thyroid hormone production.
Follicular cells in the thyroid synthesize thyroglobulins & thyroid peroxidase, which they secrete into the follicular cavity. Iodine gets transported into the colloid from the blood by ion pumps of the follicular cells. The iodine is then oxidized and coupled to thyroglobulins in the colloid to create T3 & T4. The follicular cells then endocytose colloid containing T3 & T4, and the vesicles are transported across the cell, and the contents released into the basal space for uptake by the fenestrated capillaries.
What are fusiform vesicles?
Found in umbrella cells --> have an important role in the formation of the umbrella cells' (urothelium) specialized asymmetric membrane areas. as bladder distends, fusiform vesicles unfold & become part of apical surface as cell stretches and flattens
What demarcates the borders of the classic liver lobule?
In some species (ex. pigs) you can see the CT at the borders of the lobule (the CT containing the portal triads) but in most species you have to draw imaginary lines between the portal triads
Where does the pancreatic duct empty? Be specific
Into the *duodenum* at the *hepatopancreatic ampulla*
What is the function of *enteropeptidase*? Where is it found in the body?
It is the trypsin activator enzyme found only in the duodenum (cleaves trypsinogen -> trypsin)
Extraglomerular mesangial cells are also known as...?
Lacis cells
How are endocrine and exocrine glands different?
Main difference is that exocrine glands have a duct, endocrine glands do not.
What is the difference between a MINOR calyx and a MAJOR calyx?
Minor calyces surround the apex of renal pyramids. Major calyces are formed when 2 or 3 minor calyces converge to form a major calyx, which then drains into the renal pelvis (and from there, the ureter)
What are Herring bodies?
Neurosecretory vesicles filled with hormones (oxytocin/ADH) that accumulate in the "swollen" terminal boutons of the axons of the hypothalamo-hypohyseal tract. A.k.a. neurosecretory bodies.
What is the function of alveoli?
O₂ & CO₂ exchange between blood & air
What is the main way to tell if a section you're looking at is the esophageal-stomach junction vs. the rectal-anal junction?
Presence of *goblet cells* -> there are goblet cells in the rectum (& therefore, the rectal-anal junction), but there are no goblet cells at the esophageal-stomach junction
Where in the type II pneumocyte is surfactant processed before it is packaged in lamellar bodies?
RER & Golgi
What are *rugae*? Where are they found?
Rugae are non-permanent folds found in the stomach; their function is to accommodate distension of the stomach, not increase surface area available for absorption
Which hormones are produced & stored in the thyroid?
T3 - triiodothyronine T4 - thyroxine
What is an *alveolar septum*? What is it made of?
The *interalveolar septum* is a wall common to two adjacent alveoli. It contains: - a dense network of capillaries - the smallest of the blood vessels - a skeleton of CT
What is the difference between *parenchyma* & *stroma*?
The *parenchyma* of an organ consists of that tissue which conducts the specific function of the organ and which usually comprises the bulk of the organ. *Stroma* is everything else (which type of tissue is considered "stroma" depends on the function of the organ")
What is the *hilum* of the kidney?
The concave medial border where the vessels, nerves, and ureter enter/exit
What is the *nasopharynx*?
The first part of the pharynx (above the soft palate); the part of the pharynx that the nasal cavities open into posteriorly
What is the function of the macula densa?
These are specialized cells of the DCT that act as chemoreceptors for monitoring ion (Na+) concentrations in the filtrate.
Where do interlobular arteries run? Which arteries do they arise from?
They are branches of the arcuate arteries that run deep into the cortex
What are *intercalated ducts* of the exocrine pancreas? Describe their structure and function.
They are small ducts with simple cuboidal epithelium (ducts of the serous acini). They merge with larger ducts (columnar epithelium), which eventually join the pancreatic duct.
What are M-cells? [in the small intestine]
They are specialized cells covering Peyer's patches & lymphatic nodules
What is the role of reticular fibres in alveoli?
They provide structural support/ scaffolding. (Reticular fibres + elastin make a web in the lamina propria, which encircles the alveolar openings and closely surrounds each alveolus).
Where do interlobar arteries run? [location]
They run from where they arise from the segmental arteries in the renal pelvis, up to the corticomedullary junction (where they become arcuate arteries) a.k.a. *they span the medulla* on either side of each kidney lobe (the run between lobes)
How can you differentiate the jejunum/ ileum from the duodenum, in an LM histological section?
They're similar to each other, but unlike the duodenum, the ileum & jejunum do NOT have submucosal glands + their villi are differently-shaped/ sized + they have more immune tissue
What is the function of cartilage rings in the trachea?
To prevent the trachea from collapsing completely between breaths, but the rings are C-shaped instead of complete rings to allow the trachea to collapse slightly at the back, so that food can pass down the esophagus.
T/F: "Brunner's glands are only found in the duodenum."
True
T/F: "Chief cells in the parathyroid gland are arranged in cords/ clusters."
True
T/F: "Chief cells produce PTH."
True
T/F: "Chromaffin cells are derived from the neural crest."
True
T/F: "Oval cells in the liver are stem cells that can generate both hepatocytes & cholangiocytes."
True
T/F: "Oxyphils in the parathyroid gland are found as single cells/ in small clusters."
True
T/F: "Paneth cells are part of the innate immune system."
True
T/F: "Pheochromocytes are derived from the neural crest."
True
T/F: "The dust cells in the interalveolar septa are fixed."
True
T/F: "The large intestine lacks rugae."
True
T/F: "The large intestine lacks villi."
True
T/F: "The liver has regeneration capacity."
True
T/F: "The liver is covered in a thin capsule & mesothelium of the peritoneum."
True
T/F: "The liver is the largest gland in the body."
True
T/F: "The lumenal surface of the gallbladder is highly folded mucosa."
True
T/F: "The pancreas is a mixed exocrine-endocrine gland."
True
T/F: "There are free dust cells in the alveolar lumen."
True
T/F: "There are no Paneth cells at the bottom of crypts in the large intestine."
True
T/F: "There are no glands in the mucosa of the esophagus."
True
T/F: "There are no glands in the wall of the ruminant forestomach."
True
T/F: "There is cartilage in the bronchi."
True
T/F: "There is cartilage in the trachea."
True
T/F: "There is very little CT in the thyroid gland."
True
T/F: "Thyroid hormones are involved in heat regulation."
True
T/F: "Thyroid hormones are involved in the regulation of growth & development."
True
T/F: "Transitional epithelium in the bladder is impermeable to salts & water."
True
T/F: "Hypothyroidism can be cause by diet."
True (ex. low iodine intake)
T/F: "There are no glands in the submucosa of the stomach."
True (glands are only in the mucosa, in the stomach)
T/F: "Hepatocytes are frequently binucleated."
True, and about 50% of them are polyploid (-> contain more than 2 homologous sets of choromosomes). For interest: The polyploid hepatocytes are formed during postnatal liver growth as a result of a change from normal mitoses to polyploidizing ones. An hypothesis of the biological significance of liver cell polyploidy is based on the fact of a high level of spontaneous chromosome aberrations in mitotic hepatocytes.
T/F: "The urethral length is variable."
True, depends on species & sex
T/F: "The thyroid gland has extensive vasculature."
True, it is surrounded by an extensive vascular network
T/F: "Cattle kidneys do not have a renal pelvis."
True, you won't see a renal pelvis in cattle, because the calyces are thinner and just fuse to form the ureter directly.
T/F: "The pancreas is retroperitoneal."
True. Retroperitoneal organs: - Suprarenal (adrenal) glands - Aorta/ caudal vena cava - Duodenum (2nd & 3rd segments) - Pancreas - Ureters - Colon (just the ascending & descending parts) - Kidneys - Esophagus - Rectum
T/F: "At the esophageal-stomach junction, mucus is secreted from glands in mucus glands in both the distal end of the esophagus, and the cardiac stomach."
True. The esophageal mucus glands are submucosal. The cardiac stomach mucus glands are mucosal.
T/F: "Brunner's gland secretions vary by species."
True. In dogs & ruminants, they secrete mucus; in pigs & horses, their secretion is serous ; in cats, the secretions are seromucous
T/F: "The wall of thyroid follicles is 1 cell thick."
True. The follicular wall is composed of single layer of epithelial cells.
T/F: "The thyroid gland is lobulated."
True. There are trabeculae that project into the gland, dividing it into lobules.
Which of the following is secreted by *chief cells*? Select all that apply [ ] HCl [ ] pepsinogen [ ] intrinsic factor [ ] mucus
[ ] HCl [✔] pepsinogen [ ] intrinsic factor [ ] mucus
Which cell types are found in the *isthmus* of a gastric gland? Select all that apply [ ] chief cells [ ] enteroendocrine cells [ ] mucus neck cells [ ] parietal cells [ ] stem cells
[ ] chief cells [ ] enteroendocrine cells [ ] mucus neck cells [✔] parietal cells [✔] stem cells
Which cell types are found in the *neck* of a gastric gland? Select all that apply [ ] chief cells [ ] enteroendocrine cells [ ] mucus neck cells [ ] parietal cells [ ] stem cells
[ ] chief cells [✔] enteroendocrine cells [✔] mucus neck cells [✔] parietal cells [ ] stem cells
Which of the following is secreted by *parietal cells*? Select all that apply [ ] HCl [ ] pepsinogen [ ] intrinsic factor [ ] mucus
[✔] HCl [ ] pepsinogen [✔] intrinsic factor [ ] mucus
Which cell types are found in the *base* of a gastric gland? Select all that apply [ ] chief cells [ ] enteroendocrine cells [ ] mucus neck cells [ ] parietal cells [ ] stem cells
[✔] chief cells [✔] enteroendocrine cells [ ] mucus neck cells [✔] parietal cells [ ] stem cells
What makes up a functional lobule, in the kidney?
a collecting duct and all of the nephrons that empty into it = a functional lobule
What is the *vomeronasal organ*?
a complex of different structures that forward specific chemical signals (from pheromones) to the CNS. It mainly influences mating & social behaviour.
What is a calyx?
a cuplike cavity or structure where urine drains into
State where each of the following glands is located: a) Crypts of Lieberkuhn b) Brunner's glands c) Extramural glands
a) *Crypts of Lieberkuhn* - intestines b) *Brunner's glands* - duodenum only c) *Extramural glands* - liver & pancreas
a) What type of cells are olfactory (receptor) cells? Be specific b) Describe their structure
a) *Type*: modified bipolar neurons b) *Structure*: elongate and slender with an apical projection (olfactory rod -- cilia)
Which hormones are released from each of the following cell types found in the adenohypophysis? a) acidophilic cells b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells
a) *acidophilic cells* - GH & PL b) *basophilic cells* - FSH, ACTH, TSH, LH c) *chromophobic cells* - none (they're inactive/stem cells)
Which hormone stimulates secretion by each of the following cells of the exocrine pancreas? a) acinar cells b) ductal cells
a) *acinar cells* - cholecystokinin b) *ductal cells* - secretin
What type of tissue is the: a) adventitia? b) serosa?
a) *adventitia?* -CT that attaches the hollow organ to other structures b) *serosa?* - serous membrane (mesothelium) that lines the hollow organ so it is mobile
What do hepatocytes do with each of the following nutrients in the hepatic portal vein blood? a) amino acids b) glucose c) triglycerides
a) *amino acids*: - uses them to make plasma proteins (which it then releases into the blood) - uses excess amino acids for gluconeogenesis b) *glucose* - makes it into glycogen; can release it from glycogen if the body needs more glucose c) *triglycerides* - stored as lipid droplets in the cytoplasm & used in lipoprotein synthesis
List the regions of the a) anterior pituitary gland b) posterior pituitary gland
a) *anterior pituitary*: - pars tuberalis - pars intermedia - pars distalis b) *posterior pituitary*: - infundibular stalk - pars nervosa
What "shape" is each of the following lobules, in a section? What structures are found at the corners of each "shape"? a) classic liver lobule b) portal lobule c) hepatic acinus
a) *classic liver lobule* - polygon (corners are portal triads b) *portal lobule* - triangle (corners are central veins) c) *hepatic acinus* - polygon (corners are central veins/ portal triads)
State which type of epithelium lines each of the following: a) dorsal aspect of epiglottis (lingual side) b) ventral aspect of epiglottis c) vestibular folds (in larynx) d) vocal folds (in larynx)
a) *dorsal aspect of epiglottis (lingual side)* - stratified squamous epithelium b) *ventral aspect of epiglottis* - respiratory epithelium c) *vestibular folds* (in larynx) -> respiratory epithelium (regions near epiglottis are stratified squamous epithelium) d) *vocal folds* (in larynx) -> stratified squamous epithelium
State whether each of the following parts of the small intestine has an ADVENTITIA or a SEROSA: a) duodenum b) jejunum c) ileum
a) *duodenum* - adventitia b) *jejunum* - serosa c) *ileum* - serosa
State whether each of the following has a serosa or an adventitia: a) duodenum b) jejunum c) ileum d) colon e) rectum
a) *duodenum* - adventitia b) *jejunum* - serosa c) *ileum* - serosa d) *colon* - serosa e) *rectum* - adventitia
State the function of each of the following layers of the GIT mucosae: a) epithelium b) lamina propria c) muscularis mucosae
a) *epithelium* - absorption, secretion, protection b) *lamina propria* - physical attachment - terminal blood vessels, nerves - protection (immune system) - secretion (portions of "mucosal" glands located here) c) *muscularis mucosae* - small movements of the mucosa
Briefly describe the structure & functions following components of the pancreas: a) exocrine component b) endocrine component
a) *exocrine component* -> (acini) compound tubuloacinar serous gland; synthesizes & secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine b) *endocrine component* -> (islets) diffuse endocrine organ; synthesizes & secretes hormones into blood
State which layer of the villus each of the following structures is housed in: a) fenestrated capillaries b) lacteals c) smooth muscle
a) *fenestrated capillaries* - lamina propria b) *lacteals* - lamina propria c) *smooth muscle* - lamina propria
State how many of each of the following urinary system components there are, per animal: a) kidneys b) ureters c) urinary bladders d) urethras
a) *kidneys* - 2 b) *ureters* - 2 c) *urinary bladders* - 1 d) *urethras* - 1
Describe the structure of each of the following layers of the bladder: a) mucosa & submucosa b) muscularis externa c) adventitia/ serosa
a) *mucosa & submucosa* -> the mucosa is thrown into folds in the bladder lumen; it has extensive lamina propria, but some species lack a muscularis mucosa (in that case, the lamina propria would be continuous with the submucosa => collectively called the lamina propria-submucosa) b) *muscularis externa* -> the DETRUSOR M.; smooth muscle bundles in a ~random fibre direction arrangement; extensive circular muscle (internal urethral sphincter) at opening to urethra. c) *adventitia/ serosa* -> most of the bladder is retroperitoneal ∴ the outer layer is an adventitia. HOWEVER the part of the bladder that protrudes into the pelvic cavity floor is covered by serosa.
What type of muscle makes up each of the following components of the urinary system? a) muscle of bladder wall (detrusor m.) b) internal urethral sphincter c) external urethral sphincter
a) *muscle of bladder wall (detrusor m.)* - smooth m. b) *internal urethral sphincter* - smooth m. c) *external urethral sphincter* - skeletal m.
State which type of epithelium lines each of the following: a) nasal vestibule b) nasopharynx c) orophaynx d) larynx
a) *nasal vestibule* - keratinized stratified squamous epithelium b) *nasopharynx* - respiratory epithelium c) *orophaynx* - stratified squamous epithelium d) *larynx* - respiratory epithelium
Which glands are found in: a) nasal vestibule b) the dorsal areas of the nasal cavity c) most areas of the nasal cavity d) nasopharynx & posterior oropharynx e) larynx f) trachea
a) *nasal vestibule* - sebaceous & sweat glands b) *the dorsal areas of the nasal cavity* - serous (Bowman's) glands c) *most areas of the nasal cavity* - seromucous glands d) *nasopharynx & posterior oropharynx* - seromucous glands e) *larynx* - mucous glands + smaller seromucous glands f) *trachea* - mainly mucous glands + some serous or mixed
What type of epithelium lines: a) nasal vestibule b) the dorsal areas of the nasal cavity c) most areas of the nasal cavity d) nasopharynx & posterior oropharynx e) larynx f) trachea
a) *nasal vestibule* keratinized to non-keratinized stratified squamous b) *the dorsal areas of the nasal cavity* - olfactory epithelium w bipolar neurons c) *most areas of the nasal cavity* - respiratory epithelium d) *nasopharynx & posterior oropharynx* - respiratory epithelium & stratified squamous e) *larynx* - respiratory epithelium & stratified squamous f) *trachea* - respiratory epithelium
State what type of cell makes up each of the following layers of the renal corpuscule: a) parietal layer b) visceral layer
a) *parietal layer* - simple squamous epithelium (but becomes simple cuboidal at the junction with the PCT) b) *visceral layer* - formed by capillary endothelial cells + podocytes
State the structure of each of the following glands, and the type of secretions they secrete: a) parotid salivary gland b) sublingual salivary gland c) mandibular (submandibular) gland
a) *parotid salivary gland* compound acinar; serous b) *sublingual salivary gland* - compound tubuloacinar; seromucous w serous demilunes c) *mandibular (submandibular) gland* - compound tubuloacinar; seromucous w serous demilunes
State the function of each of the following cell types (of the collecting ducts): a) principal cells b) intercalated cells
a) *principal cells* -> respond to aldosterone & ADH; recover Na+ & H2O b) *intercalated cells* -> modify pH of blood
State how each of the following classes of hormone is produced: a) proteins & polypeptides b) steroids c) amino acid derivatives
a) *proteins & polypeptides* - produced via standard protein synthesis; stored in cytoplasmic vesicles until release b) *steroids* - synthesized by the SER, mitochondria, and Golgi; generated from cholesterol or fatty acids stored in lipid droplets; not stored in the cell c) *amino acid derivatives* - modified by biochemical pathways in the cell; most but not all can be stored
Give an example of each of the following enzymes released by the pancreatic acinar cells: a) proteolytic endopeptidases b) proteolytic exopeptidases c) amylolytic enzymes d) nucleolytic enzymes
a) *proteolytic endopeptidases* - trypsinogen b) *proteolytic exopeptidases* - pro-aminopeptidase c) *amylolytic enzymes* - α-amylase d) *nucleolytic enzymes* - deoxyribonuclease
State how you can identify each of the following structures: a) respiratory bronchioles b) terminal bronchioles
a) *respiratory bronchioles* -> identified by their cuboidal epithelium and by the alveoli opening into their walls b) *terminal bronchioles* -> the segment of bronchiole immediately preceding the respiratory bronchiole; identified in relation to the respiratory bronchiole
Describe the difference between the surface projections in each of the following parts of the ruminant forestomach: a) rumen b) reticulum c) omasum
a) *rumen* - b) *reticulum* c) *omasum*
Describe the muscularis mucosae in each of the following parts of the ruminant forestomach: a) rumen b) reticulum c) omasum
a) *rumen* - doesn't have one b) *reticulum* - only found at tips of large papillae c) *omasum* - forms a distinct layer on each side of the lamellae (2 layers per lamellae)
State the effect of each of the following hormones: a) somatostatin b) glucagon c) insulin
a) *somatostatin* -> inhibition of insulin & glucagon secretion b) *glucagon* -> mobilization of glucose (incr. blood sugar) c) *insulin* -> uptake/ storage of glucose (decr. blood sugar)
State the pancreatic islet cell type that produces each of the following hormones: a) somatostatin b) glucagon c) insulin
a) *somatostatin* -> 𝛿-cells b) *glucagon* -> α-cells c) *insulin* -> β-cells
State the function of each of the following layers of tubular GIT organs: a) submucosa b) muscularis externa c) serosa/ adventitia
a) *submucosa* - physical support - has larger blood vessels - contains nerve plexus & ganglia - secretion (contains secretory portion of glands) b) *muscularis externa* - churning, peristalsis, and sphincters c) *serosa/ adventitia* - location of many blood vessels & nerves - serosa: prevents adhesion & allows movement - adventitia: anchors organ in body wall
Where is each of the following plexuses found, and what do they control? a) submucosal plexus b) myenteric plexus
a) *submucosal plexus* - in the submucosa; controls glands & blood vessels b) *myenteric plexus* - b/w the circumferential & longitudinal muscle layers; controls muscularis externa
What percentage of bile acids are: a) synthesized de novo b) recirculated/ recycled
a) *synthesized de novo* - 10% b) *recirculated/ recycled* - 90%
State the arrangment of cartilage in each of the following structures: a) trachea b) primary bronchus c) smaller bronchioles
a) *trachea* - C-shaped cartilage b) *primary bronchus* - cartilage rings c) *smaller bronchioles* - plates of cartilage
In terms of the digestive system, list the: a) tubular structures b) associated glands
a) *tubular structures* - esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine b) *associated glands* - liver, pancreas, gallbladder
Describe the arrangement of cells in each of the following adrenal cortex layers: a) zona glomerulosa b) zona arcuata c) zona fasciculata d) zona reticularis
a) *zona glomerulosa* -> clusters b) *zona arcuata* -> arcs c) *zona fasciculata* -> radially, in cords (1 - 2 cells thick) d) *zona reticularis* -> irregular network of cords
State the function of each of the following cells types in the pancreatic islets: a) α-cells b) β-cells c) 𝛿-cells
a) *α-cells* -> secrete glucagon b) *β-cells* -> secrete insulin c) *𝛿-cells* -> secrete somatostatin
How many cilia are there on a columnar cell in the respiratory tract? a) 10 - 50 b) ~100 c) ~300 d) ~1100 e) >1500
a) 10 - 50 b) ~100 *c) ~300* d) ~1100 e) >1500
What is the longest part of the nephron? a) Bowman's capsule b) PCT c) loop of Henle d) DCT
a) Bowman's capsule *b) PCT* c) loop of Henle d) DCT
Which of the following leads to diabetes insipidus? a) Increased release of ADH b) Reduced release of ADH c) Increased release of insulin d) Reduced release of insulin e) 2 of the above
a) Increased release of ADH *b) Reduced release of ADH* c) Increased release of insulin d) Reduced release of insulin e) 2 of the above
The segmental arteries (of the kidney) arise from the: a) abdominal aorta b) renal arteries c) interlobar arteries d) arcuate arteries e) interlobular arteries
a) abdominal aorta *b) renal arteries* c) interlobar arteries d) arcuate arteries e) interlobular arteries
The interlobar arteries (of the kidney) arise from the: a) abdominal aorta b) renal arteries c) segmental arteries d) arcuate arteries e) interlobular arteries
a) abdominal aorta b) renal arteries *c) segmental arteries* d) arcuate arteries e) interlobular arteries
The arcuate arteries (of the kidney) arise from the: a) abdominal aorta b) renal arteries c) segmental arteries d) interlobar arteries e) interlobular arteries
a) abdominal aorta b) renal arteries c) segmental arteries *d) interlobar arteries* e) interlobular arteries
The interlobular arteries (of the kidney) arise from the: a) abdominal aorta b) renal arteries c) segmental arteries d) interlobar arteries e) arcuate arteries
a) abdominal aorta b) renal arteries c) segmental arteries d) interlobar arteries *e) arcuate arteries*
In which of the following cells of the adenohypophysis could you find ACTH? a) acidophilic cells b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
a) acidophilic cells *b) basophilic cells* c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
In which of the following cells of the adenohypophysis could you find FSH? a) acidophilic cells b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
a) acidophilic cells *b) basophilic cells* c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
In which of the following cells of the adenohypophysis could you find LH? a) acidophilic cells b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
a) acidophilic cells *b) basophilic cells* c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
In which of the following cells of the adenohypophysis could you find TSH? a) acidophilic cells b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
a) acidophilic cells *b) basophilic cells* c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
In which of the following cells of the adenohypophysis could you find ADH? a) acidophilic cells b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
a) acidophilic cells b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above *e) none of the above* ^ADH is released from the neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary)
In which of the following cells of the adenohypophysis could you find oxytocin? a) acidophilic cells b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above e) none of the above
a) acidophilic cells b) basophilic cells c) chromophobic cells d) all of the above *e) none of the above* ^Oxytocin is released from the neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary)
ADH is released from the: a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
a) adenohypophysis *b) neurohypophysis* c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
Oxytocin is released from the: a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
a) adenohypophysis *b) neurohypophysis* c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
Aldosterone is released from the: a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis *c) zona glomerulosa* d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
Mineralcorticoids are released from the: a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis *c) zona glomerulosa* d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
Corticosterone is released from the: a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa *d) zona fasciculata* e) zona reticularis
Cortisol is released from the: a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa *d) zona fasciculata* e) zona reticularis
Glucocorticoids are released from the: a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa *d) zona fasciculata* e) zona reticularis
Androgens are released from the: a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata *e) zona reticularis*
Estrogens are released from the: a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata *e) zona reticularis*
Progesterone is released from the: a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata *e) zona reticularis*
Sex hormones are released from the: a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata e) zona reticularis
a) adenohypophysis b) neurohypophysis c) zona glomerulosa d) zona fasciculata *e) zona reticularis*
The pars distalis is part of the: a) adrenal gland b) anterior pituitary gland c) posterior pituitary gland d) enteric nervous system
a) adrenal gland *b) anterior pituitary gland* c) posterior pituitary gland d) enteric nervous system
The pars intermedia is part of the: a) adrenal gland b) anterior pituitary gland c) posterior pituitary gland d) enteric nervous system
a) adrenal gland *b) anterior pituitary gland* c) posterior pituitary gland d) enteric nervous system
The pars tuberalis is part of the: a) adrenal gland b) anterior pituitary gland c) posterior pituitary gland d) enteric nervous system
a) adrenal gland *b) anterior pituitary gland* c) posterior pituitary gland d) enteric nervous system
The pars nervosa is part of the: a) adrenal gland b) anterior pituitary gland c) posterior pituitary gland d) enteric nervous system
a) adrenal gland b) anterior pituitary gland *c) posterior pituitary gland* d) enteric nervous system
a) Where are chromaffin cells found? b) What are chromaffin cells also known as? [alt. name]
a) adrenal medulla b) pheochromocytes ("pheo-" means grey/ dark coloured)
Which artery gives rise to the peritubular plexus? a) afferent arteriole b) efferent arteriole c) renal artery d) arcuate arteries e) interlobular arteries
a) afferent arteriole *b) efferent arteriole* c) renal artery d) arcuate arteries e) interlobular arteries
Which artery gives rise to the vasa recta? a) afferent arteriole b) efferent arteriole c) renal artery d) arcuate arteries e) interlobular arteries
a) afferent arteriole *b) efferent arteriole* c) renal artery d) arcuate arteries e) interlobular arteries
The gallbladder has: a) an adventitia b) a serosa c) both d) neither
a) an adventitia b) a serosa *c) both* d) neither ^surface against liver has adventitia; surface facing abdominal cavity has serosa
All of the following cell types found in the respiratory epithelium are in contact with the basement membrane EXCEPT? a) basal cells b) goblet cells c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) e) none of the above
a) basal cells b) goblet cells c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) *e) none of the above* ^all of the above cells (+ ciliated columnar epithelial cells) are in contact with the basement membrane; hence "pseudostratified")
Which of the following structures is in the TRANSITIONAL ZONE of the respiratory tract? a) bronchioles b) terminal bronchioles c) respiratory bronchioles d) alveolar ducts e) alveolar sacs
a) bronchioles b) terminal bronchioles *c) respiratory bronchioles* d) alveolar ducts e) alveolar sacs
Which of the following animals does NOT have unipyramidal kidneys? a) carnivores b) horses c) rodents d) pigs
a) carnivores b) horses c) rodents *d) pigs*
Which region of the classic liver lobule sees blood first? a) centrilobar zone b) periportal zone
a) centrilobar zone *b) periportal zone*
The function of which of the following cell types is unknown? a) chief cells b) oxyphils c) follicular cells d) parafollciular cells e) chromaffin cells
a) chief cells *b) oxyphils* c) follicular cells d) parafollciular cells e) chromaffin cells
In an H&E stained LM section of a gastric gland, which of the following cells is more eosinophilic? a) chief cells b) parietal cells
a) chief cells *b) parietal cells*
Which of the following respiratory epithelium cell types has its nuclei located on the basal side & apical domains filled with glycoprotein granules? a) ciliated columnar cells b) goblet cells c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) e) basal cells
a) ciliated columnar cells *b) goblet cells* c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) e) basal cells ^the granules contain mucin glycoprotein
Which of the following respiratory epithelium cell types is columnar in shape and has sparse, blunted microvilli, as well as chemosensory receptors? a) ciliated columnar cells b) goblet cells c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) e) basal cells
a) ciliated columnar cells b) goblet cells *c) brush cells* d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) e) basal cells
Which of the following respiratory epithelium cell types has numerous dense core granules (100 - 300 nm in diameter) and is part of the diffuse neuroendocrine system? a) ciliated columnar cells b) goblet cells c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) e) basal cells
a) ciliated columnar cells b) goblet cells c) brush cells *d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells)* e) basal cells
Which of the following respiratory epithelium cell types is a mitotically active stem & progenitor cell type, that gives rise to other epithelial cell types? a) ciliated columnar cells b) goblet cells c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) e) basal cells
a) ciliated columnar cells b) goblet cells c) brush cells d) small granule cells (Kulchitsky cells) *e) basal cells*
Which of the following is the area draining bile into one portal triad? a) classic liver lobule b) portal lobule c) hepatic acinus
a) classic liver lobule *b) portal lobule* c) hepatic acinus
Which of the following reflects flow of oxygenated/ nutrient-rich blood? a) classic liver lobule b) portal lobule c) hepatic acinus
a) classic liver lobule b) portal lobule *c) hepatic acinus*
a) What type of glands are salivary glands? [structure] b) What type of secretions come from salivary glands?
a) compound acinar/ tubuloacinar b) serous (watery), mucous (sticky), or mixed
In the duodenum a) mucosal glands are also called...? b) submucosal glands are also called...?
a) crypts of Lieberkuhn b) Brunner's glands
a) What type of tissue primarily makes up the submucosa? b) List 3 types of stuctures that can be found in the submucosa.
a) dense irregular CT b) - blood vessels - nerves - glands
Which of the following species does NOT have a gallbladder? a) dog b) cat c) rat d) cow e) sheep
a) dog b) cat *c) rat* d) cow e) sheep ^horses also do not have gallbladders
Peyer's patches are mostly found in the ____________________. a) duodenum b) jejunum c) ileum
a) duodenum b) jejunum *c) ileum* ^mostly in the ileum, but can be found anywhere in the small intestines
Cholecystokinin is released by cells in the: a) duodenum b) jejunum c) ileum d) 2 of the above e) all of the above
a) duodenum b) jejunum c) ileum *d) 2 of the above* e) all of the above ^it is released by cells in the duodenum & jejunum
Which of the following is equivalent to the visceral pleura in the lungs? a) endothelium b) mesothelium c) mesothelium + CT capsule d) endothelium + mesothelium e) parietal pleura
a) endothelium b) mesothelium *c) mesothelium + CT capsule* d) endothelium + mesothelium e) parietal pleura
The macula densa is part of which of the following nephron structures? a) glomerulus b) PCT c) loop of Henle d) DCT e) collecting duct
a) glomerulus b) PCT c) loop of Henle *d) DCT* e) collecting duct
Which of the following IS found in alveoli? a) goblet cells b) cilia c) hyaline cartilage d) elastic fibres e) glands
a) goblet cells b) cilia c) hyaline cartilage *d) elastic fibres* e) glands
Which of the following is NOT found in bronchi? a) goblet cells b) elastic fibres c) glands d) smooth muscle e) none of the above
a) goblet cells b) elastic fibres c) glands d) smooth muscle *e) none of the above* Bronchi contain goblet cells, ciliated cells, glands, hyaline cartilage, smooth muscles, and elastic fibres
Which of the following IS present in terminal bronchioles? a) goblet cells b) hyaline cartilage c) ciliated cells d) glands e) none of the above
a) goblet cells b) hyaline cartilage *c) ciliated cells* d) glands e) none of the above
Which of the following IS present in respiratory bronchioles? a) goblet cells b) hyaline cartilage c) smooth muscle d) glands e) none of the above
a) goblet cells b) hyaline cartilage *c) smooth muscle* d) glands e) none of the above
Which of the following IS present in terminal bronchioles? a) goblet cells b) hyaline cartilage c) smooth muscle d) glands e) none of the above
a) goblet cells b) hyaline cartilage *c) smooth muscle* d) glands e) none of the above
Where in the pancreas can the pancreatic duct be found? a) head b) body c) tail d) throughout
a) head b) body c) tail *d) throughout* ^the pancreatic duct extends the length of the gland
Where does blood from the liver drain? a) hepatic portal vein b) central vein c) cranial mesenteric vein d) caudal mesenteric vein
a) hepatic portal vein *b) central vein* c) cranial mesenteric vein d) caudal mesenteric vein
Portal vein blood has: a) high [O2] + low [nutrients] b) high [O2] + high [nutrients] c) low [O2] + high [nutrients] d) low [O2] + low [nutrients]
a) high [O2] + low [nutrients] b) high [O2] + high [nutrients] *c) low [O2] + high [nutrients]* d) low [O2] + low [nutrients]
Addison's disease is also known as: a) hyperadrenocorticism b) hypoadrenocorticism c) hyperthyroidism d) hypothyroidism e) pheochromocytoma
a) hyperadrenocorticism *b) hypoadrenocorticism* c) hyperthyroidism d) hypothyroidism e) pheochromocytoma
Which of the following conditions is often autoimmune, bilateral, and affects all regions of the adrenal cortex? a) hyperadrenocorticism b) hypoadrenocorticism c) pheochromocytoma
a) hyperadrenocorticism *b) hypoadrenocorticism* c) pheochromocytoma
Which of the following conditions is often due to neoplasia in the adrenal medulla? a) hyperadrenocorticism b) hypoadrenocorticism c) pheochromocytoma
a) hyperadrenocorticism b) hypoadrenocorticism *c) pheochromocytoma*
What effect does calcitonin have on blood [Ca2+]? a) increases it b) decreases it c) no effect
a) increases it *b) decreases it* c) no effect
What effect does parathyroid hormone (PTH) have on blood [K+]? a) increases it b) decreases it c) no effect
a) increases it *b) decreases it* c) no effect
What effect does calcitonin have on blood [K+]? a) increases it b) decreases it c) no effect
a) increases it b) decreases it *c) no effect*
Somatostatin inhibits the secretion of: a) insulin b) glucagon c) both d) neither
a) insulin b) glucagon *c) both* d) neither
Somatostatin stimulates the secretion of: a) insulin b) glucagon c) both d) neither
a) insulin b) glucagon c) both *d) neither* ^it INHIBITS the secretion of both
The relative number of oxyphils in the parathyroid gland: a) is higher in males b) is higher in females c) is higher in athletes d) is higher in older individuals e) is higher in younger individuals
a) is higher in males b) is higher in females c) is higher in athletes *d) is higher in older individuals* e) is higher in younger individuals
In the esophagus: a) is mucosa epithelium keratinized, or non-keratinized? b) is the lamina propria loose CT, or dense CT? c) is the muscularis mucosae smooth m., or skeletal m.? d) what type of CT is in the submucosa? e) is the muscularis externa smooth m., or striated m.? f) does it have an adventitia, or a serosa?
a) keratinized in most species; non-keratinized in dog and cat b) loose CT c) can be smooth or striated, depends on species d) dense irregular CT e) transitioned from striated -> smooth m. f) mostly adventitia
The internal anal sphincter is part of which wall layer? a) lamina propria b) muscularis mucosa c) muscularis externa d) adventitia
a) lamina propria b) muscularis mucosa *c) muscularis externa* d) adventitia
In which layer of the esophagus wall is the myenteric plexus located? a) lamina propria b) muscularis mucosae c) submucosa d) muscularis externa e) esophagus doesn't have a myenteric plexus
a) lamina propria b) muscularsi mucosae c) submucosa *d) muscularis externa* e) esophagus doesn't have a myenteric plexus ^ between the muscle layers of the muscularis externa
Which of the following does NOT include cartilage? a) larynx b) bronchi c) trachea d) nasal cavity e) none of the above
a) larynx b) bronchi c) trachea d) nasal cavity *e) none of the above*
Which direction do plicae run, in the small intestine? a) longitudinally b) circumferentially c) obliquely
a) longitudinally *b) circumferentially* c) obliquely
Which of the following is NOT found in the nasopharynx? a) medial pharyngeal tonsil b) openings of the 2 auditory tubes which connect to the middle ear cavity c) simple cuboidal epithelium d) none of the above
a) medial pharyngeal tonsil b) openings of the 2 auditory tubes which connect to the middle ear cavity *c) simple cuboidal epithelium* d) none of the above ^nasopharynx is lined with respiratory epithelium (ciliated pseudostratified columar epithelium)
Which type of embryonic tissue is the adrenal medulla derived from? a) mesoderm b) endoderm c) ectoderm/ neural crest d) each layer is derived from a different tissue
a) mesoderm b) endoderm *c) ectoderm/ neural crest* d) each layer is derived from a different tissue
Corticosterone is a: a) mineralcorticoid b) glucocorticoid c) sex hormone
a) mineralcorticoid *b) glucocorticoid* c) sex hormone
Cortisol is a: a) mineralcorticoid b) glucocorticoid c) sex hormone
a) mineralcorticoid *b) glucocorticoid* c) sex hormone
Progesterone is a: a) mineralcorticoid b) glucocorticoid c) sex hormone
a) mineralcorticoid b) glucocorticoid *c) sex hormone*
Androgens are: a) mineralcorticoids b) glucocorticoids c) sex hormones
a) mineralcorticoids b) glucocorticoids *c) sex hormones*
Estrogens are: a) mineralcorticoids b) glucocorticoids c) sex hormones
a) mineralcorticoids b) glucocorticoids *c) sex hormones*
a) What are *Ito cells*? b) What is another name for them?
a) modified pericytes found within the perisinusoidal space b) hepatic stellate cells
What sort of substance is secreted from the glands in the lamina propria-submucosa layer of the nasal cavity? a) oily substance b) watery, mucous substance c) viscous substance, rich in carbohydrates (e.g., glycoproteins)
a) oily substance *b) watery, mucous substance* c) viscous substance, rich in carbohydrates (e.g., glycoproteins)
Relative to the thyroid gland, where are the parathyroid glands located? a) outside the CT capsule, ventral aspect of thyroid b) outside the CT capsule, dorsal aspect of thyroid c) embedded in thyroid, dorsal aspect d) embedded in thyroid, ventral aspect e) separate from thyroid, found cranially
a) outside the CT capsule, ventral aspect of thyroid b) outside the CT capsule, dorsal aspect of thyroid *c) embedded in thyroid, dorsal aspect* d) embedded in thyroid, ventral aspect e) separate from thyroid, found cranially
Which of the following is NOT part of the conducting portion of the respiratory tract? a) pharynx b) nasal cavities c) terminal bronchioles d) alveolar ducts e) none of the above
a) pharynx b) nasal cavities c) terminal bronchioles *d) alveolar ducts* e) none of the above ^alveolar ducts are part of the respiratory portion of the respiratory tract (site of gas exchange)
Which of the following animals has unipyramidal kidneys? a) pigs b) humans c) carnivores d) large ruminants
a) pigs b) humans *c) carnivores* d) large ruminants
Which of the following animals has multi-pyramidal kidneys with obvious external lobular structure? a) pigs b) humans c) carnivores d) large ruminants
a) pigs b) humans c) carnivores *d) large ruminants*
The finger-like projections of small intestine mucosa are called...? a) plicae b) villi c) microvilli
a) plicae *b) villi* c) microvilli
The finger-like projections on the surface of enterocytes are called...? a) plicae b) villi c) microvilli
a) plicae b) villi *c) microvilli*
Some hormones in which of the following classes stain with chromium/ silver? a) proteins & polypeptides b) steroids c) amino acid derivatives
a) proteins & polypeptides b) steroids *c) amino acid derivatives*
Afferent arterioles that supply blood to the glomerular capillaries are branches off of: a) renal artery b) arcuate arteries c) interlobar arteries d) segmental arteries e) interlobular arteries
a) renal artery b) arcuate arteries c) interlobar arteries d) segmental arteries *e) interlobular arteries*
Which of the following is NOT a function of the urinary system? a) secertion of EPO b) secretion of aldosterone c) regulation of acid-base balance d) conversion of vitamin D3 to its active form e) participate in gluconeogensis
a) secertion of EPO *b) secretion of aldosterone* c) regulation of acid-base balance d) conversion of vitamin D3 to its active form e) participate in gluconeogensis ^aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal gland
How are the zymogen granules in the acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas released? a) simple diffusion b) facilitated diffusion c) primary active transport (pump) d) secondary active transport e) exocytosis
a) simple diffusion b) facilitated diffusion c) primary active transport (pump) d) secondary active transport *e) exocytosis*
What type of glands (structurally) are those found in the stomach? a) simple tubular b) simple coiled tubular c) compound tubuloacinar d) compound acinar e) simple branched tubular
a) simple tubular b) simple coiled tubular c) compound tubuloacinar d) compound acinar *e) simple branched tubular*
Which of the following functions correlates more strongly with the RENAL MEDULLA? a) site of blood filtration & some transport b) site of urine concentration c) site of urine excretion d) site of mineralcorticoid secretion
a) site of blood filtration & some transport *b) site of urine concentration* c) site of urine excretion d) site of mineralcorticoid secretion
What type of muscle is the vocalis muscle in the larynx? a) smooth m. b) skeletal m. c) cardiac m.
a) smooth m. *b) skeletal m.* c) cardiac m.
What type of muscle tissue is the external anal sphincter made of? a) smooth m. b) cardiac m. c) skeletal m.
a) smooth m. b) cardiac m. *c) skeletal m.*
The most complex organ in the abdominal cavity is the: a) stomach b) pancreas c) liver d) spleen e) kidney
a) stomach b) pancreas *c) liver* d) spleen e) kidney
State the organ responsible for each of the following GIT functions: a) stores & concentrates bile b) secretes digestive enzymes & hormones into the small intestine c) synthesizes bile
a) stores & concentrates bile - *Gallbladder* b) secretes digestive enzymes & hormones into the small intestine - *Pancreas* c) synthesizes bile - *Liver*
a) What are *sustentacular cells*, with respect to the nasal cavity? b) What do they look like? [structure]
a) supporting cells of the olfactory epithelium (metabolic & mechanical support) b) columnar cells w oval nucleus
a) What are *Kupffer cells*? b) What is another name for them?
a) they are macrophages found within the liver sinusoids b) stellate macrophages
A section of a parathyroid gland has a relatively high number of oxyphils, and there are adipose cells present. What does this tell you about the individual? a) they are male b) they are female c) they are old d) they are young e) they are overweight
a) they are male b) they are female *c) they are old* d) they are young e) they are overweight ^the relative number of oxyphils in the parathyroid gland increases with age, and adipose cells are present in older glands
The renal artery is a branch off the: a) thoracic aorta b) abdominal aorta c) celiac trunk d) cranial mesenteric artery e) caudal mesenteric artery
a) thoracic aorta *b) abdominal aorta* c) celiac trunk d) cranial mesenteric artery e) caudal mesenteric artery
Which of the following has the largest endocrine mass in the body? a) thyroid gland b) adrenal glands c) pituitary gland d) pancreas e) parathyroid glands
a) thyroid gland *b) adrenal glands* c) pituitary gland d) pancreas e) parathyroid glands
Which way does blood flow in a classic liver lobule? a) toward the portal triad b) toward the center of the lobule c) same direction as bile flow
a) toward the portal triad *b) toward the center of the lobule* c) same direction as bile flow
Goblet cells are found in all of the following EXCEPT? a) trachea b) bronchi c) bronchioles d) respiratory bronchioles e) none of the above
a) trachea b) bronchi c) bronchioles *d) respiratory bronchioles* e) none of the above
Ciliated cells can be found in all of the following EXCEPT? a) trachea b) bronchi c) bronchioles d) terminal bronchioles e) none of the above
a) trachea b) bronchi c) bronchioles d) terminal bronchioles *e) none of the above* ^cells are ciliated in the respiratory tract up to the respiratory bronchioles
a) What stimulates the release of cholecystokinin? b) What does it stimulate/cause?
a) undigested stomach contents b) gallbladder -> release bile pancreas -> release digestive enzymes pyloric sphincter -> closes
Olfactory receptor neurons, found in the olfactory epithelium, are: a) unipolar b) pseudounipolar c) bipolar d) multipolar e) pyramidal
a) unipolar b) pseudounipolar *c) bipolar* d) multipolar e) pyramidal
a) What is the name of the region of transition between the integument and nasal epithelium? b) What type of epithelium is present here? c) List 4 structures that can be found in this region.
a) vestibule b) keratinized stratified squamous epithelium c) vibrissae, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, tubuloacinar glands
Which of the following is NOT found in the nasal vestibule? a) vibrissae b) cuboidal epithelium c) sebaceous glands d) sweat glands e) tubuloacinar glands
a) vibrissae *b) cuboidal epithelium* c) sebaceous glands d) sweat glands e) tubuloacinar glands ^contains keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
The cells in which of the following zones of a hepatic acinus are the first to die of ischemia? a) zone 1 b) zone 2 c) zone 3
a) zone 1 b) zone 2 *c) zone 3*
The cells in which of the following zones of a hepatic acinus have more lipid accumulation? a) zone 1 b) zone 2 c) zone 3
a) zone 1 b) zone 2 *c) zone 3*
In a hepatic acinus, in which region do cells get the least O2, nutrients, and toxins (i.e., lowest concentration of stuff in the blood)? a) zone 1 b) zone 2 c) zone 3
a) zone 1 b) zone 2 *c) zone 3* ^because they're closest to the central vein/venule
What percent of the lungs do each of the following make up? a) bronchi & bronchioles b) respiratory bronchioles, alveoli & associated air sacs & ducts c) visceral pleura
a)* bronchi & bronchioles* - 5% b) *respiratory bronchioles, alveoli & associated air sacs & ducts* - 85% c) *visceral pleura* - 10%
What are *Bowman's glands*?
a.k.a. olfactory glands are glands situated in the olfactory mucosa, beneath the olfactory epithelium, in the lamina propria. They secrete mucin to protect mucosa.
What is the perisinusoidal space?
a.k.a. space of Disse; is the obvious space (in TEM) between the basal region of the sinusoid epithelium and surface of hepatocytes
Describe the branching of blood flow to the kidneys, starting with the abdominal aorta.
abdominal aorta -> renal artery -> segmental artery -> interlobular artery -> arcuate artery -> interlobular artery
What percentage of plasma entering the glomerulus gets filtered into Bowman's capsule?
about 20%
The muscularis mucosae is absent in which part of the esophagus or which species?
absent in the cranial part of the esophagus in dogs & pigs
Are goblet cells rare or abundant in the respiratory epithelium?
abundant
Does the ureter have a serosa, or an adventitia?
adventitia (bc they are retroperitoneal)
What are hepatic stellate cells?
alternate name for Ito cells
What are *stellate macrophages*?
another name for Kupffer cells
Where do interlobar arteries become arcuate arteries?
at the level of the corticomedullary junction in the kidney
Where do the segmental arteries branch into interlobar arteries?
at the renal pelvis
What are teniae coli?
bands of longitudinal smooth muscle that run the length of the large intestine (part of muscularis externae), in some species
Why is bile green?
because it contains bilirubin
Why/how does bile concentrate during storage?
because the gallbladder selectively reuptakes water
What is the name for the small channels that are created by the common edge between hepatocytes?
bile canaliculi
Describe the vessels bile flows to, starting from when it is released by the hepatocytes that produce it.
bile canaliculi -> bile canals -> bile ductules -> bile ducts -> hepatic ducts -> common bile duct
What is the main digestive function of the liver?
bile production
What are *club cells*?
bronchiolar exocrine cells with non-ciliated, dome shaped apical ends containing secretory granules. They secrete surfactant & are found lower down in the respiratory system, when there are no goblet cells
What is the *filia olfactoria*?
bundles of non-myelinated nerve fibres (axons) projecting to the olfactory bulb
What do C cells in the thyroid produce?
calcitonin
What are Paneth cells & where are they located?
cells involved in the innate immune system, located at the base of crypts
What is cardiac cirrhosis?
centrilobular necrosis of the liver caused by poor perfusion of the liver
Which type of cell lines bile canals & ductules?
cholangiocytes (cuboidal/columnar epithelial cells)
What type of epithelium (classify) is respiratory epithelium?
ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
What type of tissue is found on the nasal turbinates?
ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
What type of tissue overlies the cartilage projections in the nasal cavity?
ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
What are pancreatic islets?
clusters of endocrine cells embedded in & surrounded by acinar pancreas
Which type of CT fibres run along plates of hepatocytes & provide support for the hepatocytes and intervening sinusoids?
collagen type III (reticular fibres)
Where are principal cells & intercalated cells found?
collecting duct
What is the name of the protein-rich, amorphous substance that fills thyroid follicles?
colloid
What type of epithelium lines the inside of the gallbladder?
columnar epithelium (w microvilli)
What is the function of the extensive blood vessel network present in the lamina propria/submucosa that underlies the olfactory epithelium?
conditions inspired air (warms)
What type of muscle is usually found in the muscularis externa of the esophagus? What are two species exceptions?
cranial part: striated m. caudal part: smooth m. exceptions: dog's & goat's are striated the whole way
Are submucosal glands absent or present in the trachea?
depends on the species. note that because the presence/ absence of submucosal glands in the trachea varies with species, this is not a good feature to use to identify it
What do extramural glands secrete?
digestive enzymes & bile
What are *filtration slits*?
elongated spaces/gaps between the pedicels of podocytes
Relative to the thyroid gland, where are the parathyroid glands located? Be specific.
embedded in the dorsal area of the thyroid gland
How is trypsinogen activated?
enteropeptidase (in the duodenum) cleaves trypsinogen to trypsin
Which cell type lines thyroid follicles?
epithelial cells (principal cells)
How is the epithelium that lines the smallest bronchioles (terminal) different from that of the trachea?
epithelium of trachea is ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium; in small bronchioles is just becomes ciliated simple columnar/ cuboidal eptihelium
What causes gallstones (choleliths)?
excessive concentration of bile (mostly due to excessive production of bile salts)
What is *compensatory hyperplasia*, with respect to the liver?
excessive proliferation of hepatocytes in response to liver damage (cell & tissue damage triggers mitosis of remaining healthy hepatocytes)
What is the function of the microvilli on the epithelium lining the inside of the large intestine?
for absorption of water & ions (concentration of waste) + to absorb bile salts (recycling)
What is the *hepatopancreatic ampulla*?
formed by the union of the pancreatic duct and the common bile duct. The ampulla is specifically located at the major duodenal papilla. It is where the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum.
Describe the appearance of Paneth cells in H&E LM
found at base of intestinal crypts: contain large eosinophilic granules (w antibacterial components)
What is the glycocalyx?
found on the apical portion of microvilli within the digestive tract, especially within the small intestine. It creates a meshwork 0.3 μm thick and consists of acidic mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins that project from the apical plasma membrane of epithelial absorptive cells.
What is the renal pelvis?
funnel-shaped expansion of the ureter
What signals the gallbladder to release bile?
gallbladder contracts in response to cholecystokinin released from enteroendocrine cells in response to fatty acids in the small intestine
What are *choleliths*?
gallstones
Where in the esophagus are submucosal glands generally found? What is the exception?
generally found in pharyngeal region exception: found throughout DOG esophagus
The initial filtrate that enters the PCT from Bowman's capsule is similar to plasma EXECPT...?
has very little protein
How are hepatocytes held together? [structure]
held by desmosomes & sealed by tight junctions
What is the name for the concave medial border of the kidney where blood vessels/nerves/the ureter enter/exit?
hilum
Where does the renal artery enter the kidney?
hilum
What is in the zymogen granules in the exocrine pancreas' acinar cells? Be specific.
inactive digestive enzymes: - proteolytic endopeptidases - proteolytic exopeptidases - amylolytic enzymes - lipases - nucleolytic enzymes
What are *enteroendocrine cells*? Where are they found?
individual cells scattered throughout the epithelium of the GIT (mostly in the glands) that secrete a variety of hormones into the blood, e.g., cholecystokinin.
What is the function of alveolar macrophages?
ingestion of foreign material that reaches the alveoli
How are type I & II pneumocytes attached to each other?
junctional complexes (e.g., with desmosomes & tight junctions)
Classify the tissue that is found in the nasal vestibule
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
What are type II pneumocytes?
large cuboidal/round cells with a central nucleus, found in the lungs
What do type I pneumocytes do? [function]
line alveoli & alveolar ducts -> part of gas exchange
Which organ is responsible for detoxification of xenobiotics?
liver
What is the function of surfactant in the alveoli?
lowers alveolar surface tension -> prevents them from collapsing
What is the specialized patch of tall columnar cells in DCT where it touches arterioles of glomerulus?
macula densa
List the 2 components of the visceral pleura ("layers")
mesothelium + CT capsule
What are *podocytes*?
modified epithelial cells that extend primary processes to curve around the length of the glomerular capillary (they surround the glomerular capillaries and have foot processes that create a filtration layer)
What are *pituicytes*?
modified glial cells that surround the unmyelinated axons of neurons from the supraoptic & paraventricular nuclei
What are chromaffin cells?
modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons found in the adrenal medulla. also known as pheochromocytes. ANS stimulation causes them to release Epi & NE into the blood.
What is centrilobular necrosis, and what causes it?
necrosis of the centrilobular (zone 3) tissue of the hepatic lobule due to poor perfusion of the liver. Also known as cardiac cirrhosis (dead cells around the central vein/venule)
The posterior pituitary originates from which type of tissue?
neural origin
does the gallbladder mucosa have a muscularis mucosae?
no
Where does transduction of olfactory information occur?
olfactory epithelium
Neurons from which brain nuclei extend into the pars nervosa?
paraventricular & supraoptic nuclei
What are the smallest processes of the podocyte called? (the ones that interdigitate on top of the capillary surface to form filtration slits)
pedicels
What are *mesangial cells*?
pericyte-like cells that fill the spaces between capillaries in the glomerulus on surfaces that lack podocytes contribute to mesangium formation of the glomerulus
The network of capillaries around the PCT & DCT is called...?
peritubular plexus
The anterior pituitary originates from which type of tissue?
pharyngeal origin
List the 2 cells types that make up the collecting ducts
principal cells & intercalated cells
What is the main exocrine function of hepatocytes?
produce bile
What is the function of type II pneumocytes?
produce surfactant
What is the function of *uroplakins*?
protect urothelium from corrosive urine
Which sphincter controls the release of chyme from stomach to duodenum?
pyloric sphincter
What is the function of the loop of Henle?
recovery of water & NaCl
What separates renal pyramids?
renal columns (extensions of renal cortex)
Where does the renal artery branch into two or more segmental arteries?
renal hilum
What type of epithelium lines the nasopharynx?
respiratory epithelium (ciliated pseudostratified columar epithelium)
Describe the nucleus of a type II pneumocyte
rounded with many nucleoli
If there are no glands in the walls of the ruminant forestomach, how is the ingested food lubricated?
saliva only
What is cirrhosis?
scarring/ hardening of the liver cause by chronic damage; the replacement of normal liver tissue by scar tissue
What type of glands are found in the pyloric stomach? [structure]
simple coiled tubular
In the simple stomach of animals like humans, pigs, horses, and carnivores, what type of tissue lines the glandular regions of the stomach (cardia, stomach, pyloric)?
simple columnar epithelium
What type of tissue lines the DCT?
simple cuboidal epithelium
What type of tissue lines the PCT?
simple cuboidal epithelium
What type of tissue makes up the nephron?
simple epithelium (along its entire length; type varies)
Describe the histological structure of the visceral pleura
simple squamous mesothelium on a thin layer of CT
What do basal cells (in the respiratory epithelium) look like?
small round cells
What type of tissue makes up the tunica *muscularis* externa?
smooth m. (outer longitudinal smooth m. & inner circular smooth m.)
What is the *nasal vestibule*?
space contained within the flexible tissue of the nose; region of transition from integument to nasal epithelium
What are *medullary rays*?
straight tubules that connect collecting ducts of several sets of nephrons
What type of tissue lines the oral cavity?
stratified squamous epithelium (+/- keratin)
What type of tissue lines the anal canal? Why?
stratified squamous epithelium, to resist abrasion
What type if tissue lines the forestomach of ruminants?
stratified squamous keratinized epithelium
What type of epithelium (classify) is olfactory epithelium?
tall (thick) pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Put the following structures in order of how inspired air would reach them: alveolar sacs, alveoli, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, terminal bronchioles
terminal bronchiole respiratory bronchiole alveolar ducts alveolar sacs alveoli
Why does a section from a full bladder appear to have more cell layers than a distended (stretched) bladder?
the cells slide over each other to spread out when the bladder distends
What are *ducts of Bellini*?
the final large collecting ducts that drain out of the papilla (other collecting ducts fuse together near the papilla to form the ducts of Bellini)
Why do the lumens of PCTs appear to have "stuff" in them (i.e., not clear)?
the lumens appear filled due to long microvilli & aggregates of small plasma proteins
What is the *mesangium*? [renal]
the mesangium is a structure associated with the capillaries of the glomerulus. It is continuous with the smooth muscles of the arterioles. It is outside the capillary lumen, but surrounded by capillaries. [fills the space between glomerular capillaries]
What is the name for the tip of a renal pyramid?
the papilla
What is the *oropharynx*?
the posterior part of the oral cavity, leading to the larynx and esophagus continuous with the nasopharynx
What is *colloid* (of the thyroid)?
the protein-rich, amorphous substance that fills thyroid follicles, and acts as a storage depot for thyroid hormones (T3 & T4)
What is *olfactory epithelium*?
the sheet of neurons and supporting cells that lines approximately half of the nasal cavities. (The remaining surface is lined by respiratory epithelium, which lacks neurons and serves primarily as a protective surface.)
Where are hormones produced in the adenohypophysis released?
the sinusoidal capillaries of the pituitary portal system (& from there they would be distributed to cells of the body and/or other endocrine glands)
A section of a parathyroid gland has a relatively high number of oxyphils, and there are adipose cells present. What does this tell you about the individual?
they are older
Where do the arcuate arteries run? [location]
they run along the corticomedullary junction (from where they arise from the interlobar arteries)
What type of epithelium is olfactory epithelium?
thick pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium
What are type I pneumocytes?
thin squamous alveolar epithelial cells
Why is the lumenal surface of the gallbladder highly folded?
to accommodate volume changes
What is the general function of GIT exocrine glands?
to facilitate transport/ digestion of food within the GIT
What is the function of M-cells?
to transport proteins from the gut lumen to underlying lymphocytes for antigen exposure & IgA production
What type of cells line alveolar ducts & alveoli?
type I pneumocytes
Are the nerve fibres (axons) of bipolar olfactory neurons myelinated, or unmyelinated?
unmyelinated
Where would you expect to find *fusiform vesicles*? [cell type]
urothelium
What type of cells line the surface of most of the tubular GIT organs (i.e., the surface in contact with the digesta)?
usually simple columnar epithelium
What type of epithelium lines the urethral lumen?
varies from typical urothelium (transitional cell epithelium) to stratified squamous/cuboidal or even pseudostratified columnar epithelium
How are different sounds produced in the larynx?
varying tension in the vocal cords via the vocalis muscles produces different sounds as air is expelled across the folds
The network of capillaries aroud the loop of Henle is called...?
vasa recta
What are *lamellar bodies*?
vesicles in type II pneumocytes that contain newly synthesized pulmonary surfactant
What is *Jacobson's organ* also known as?
vomeronasal organ
Do dogs have a zona glomerulosa in the adrenal cortex, or a zona arcuata?
zona arcuata (Ruminants & humans have a zona glomerulosa, most other veterinary species have a zona arcuata)
T/F: "Oxyphils produce PTH."
~False. Their function is unknown
What do Ito cells look like in LM?
~cuboidal cells found in the space around sinusoids in the liver (perisinusoidal space); slightly eosinophilic (dark pink/magenta) cytoplasm w lipid droplets (white circles). Blue/ purple nucleus. Quite a bit smaller than RBCs, about 1/4 the size
List 3 cell types found in the pancreatic islets
α-cells β-cells 𝛿-cells + other cells making peptides for GI control
Which two types of cells are found in pancreatic serous acini? What is the function of each?
▪ *centroacinar cells* -> the initial duct cells; they appear in the middle of the lumen in an H & E specimen; they add Na+, bicarb, and water to the secretion ▪ *acinar cells* -> polarized cells with round basal nuclei; have numerous zyogen granules located apically
List 7 ways hepatocytes contribute to & process blood contents
▪ synthesis & secretion of major plasma proteins ▪ gluconeogenesis ▪ breakdown & conjugation of ingested toxins, including many drugs (detoxification) ▪ deaminates amino acids & makes urea (incl. urea cycle) ▪ storage of glycogen granules & triglycerides(in lipid droplets) ▪ storage of iron in complexes with ferritin ▪ vitamin D & vitamin K conversion
