Historical Theology Focus Questions

What is the relationship between piety and commerce?

In describing the relationship between piety and commerce, Weber observes a surprisingly strong correlation between representatives of strong Christian piety and commercial circles. In fact, many of the most prominent followers of Pietism are of origins of commercial circles.

What is the steps toward humility? (What do we need to give up?)

In order to reach humility, we need to surrender our heroic self-image. Humans will also be flawed, inevitably in the absence of God. To achieve humility, we must acknowledge that we can not be good or achieve love without God.

What are some basic Islamic social teachings? What is the Muslim justification for polygyny?

Islam teaches that fullness or completeness is obtained through parenthood. Men have authority over women and can marry a woman of any faith as long as the children are Muslim. Polygamy allows for a more rapid expansion of Islam.

Why are the psalms so important for prayer? How did the monks interpret the psalms?

Prayer is an expression of the relationship between us and God. Psalms joined monks and early Christians as a community being simultaneously shaped by God's word. Psalms allow us to become unified God in allowing His words to become our prayer. Monks often interpreted the psalms allegorically (88).

What psychological impact did the doctrine of predestination have on the individual, according to Weber?

Predestination produced feelings of powerlessness, loneliness, and insignificance because their life/savaltion was predetermined. It made everything pointless. Why try if your fate has already been decided?

12. The sacraments of baptism and communion recur through the narrator's reflections as pivotal moments in his life--the baptism of the cats, the baptism of his daughter, the biscuit his father gave him after the church fire, his own son's first communion. Discuss the author's presentation of these concepts and their role in everyday life.

Robinson shows the purity and comfort offered by baptism and communion by presenting them in more mundane ways. As serious components to one's life of faith, they are often done in more holy or formal settings. By writing a baptism in the form of cats, we are able to see the purity of being sanctified and how it is a grace meant to be imparted onto others. Similarly, just as we offer up and take communion with others, it is more than a ritual but an act of faith that can comfort us in times of distress. The sacraments are meant to be a part of our daily lives of faith rather than occasional occurrences to signify our faith. It is an ongoing relationship being built with Christ and a display of his love.

What is the Antiochene reaction?

The Antiochene reaction presented a more literal approach to the interpretation of scripture, contrasting with the Alexandrian emphasis on allegory. "Insight" or "the power of perceiving" is more important to them than exploring allegories, which they believed could be easily exploited. Its primary proponents were Diodore of Tarsus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, and John Chrysostom.

What is the Koran's view of Judaism and Christianity? Of the Old and New Testaments? What are the four Stages of God's revelation to humans?

The Koran views Judaism and Christianity as deviations from the truth causes by parents teaching them. They view them as mostly true revelations (Old Testament) but not complete and accurate revelations from God. Christians and Jews are to recieve lower level paradise salvation. The disregard much of the New Testament, as they don't believe Jesus is the Messiah / God in the flesh. The four stages of God's revelation are (1) revelation of Abraham, (2) Torah of Moses, (3) the Injil (Gospel) of Jesus, and (4) the Quran - from Muhammed.

What are the central precepts of the Westminster Confession?

The Westminster Confession states that men have no control over their spiritual salvation and cannot convert themselves. Some are predestined to eternal life and some are ordained to everlasting death. God is a righteous judge over all.

What advice did Puritan pastors give their congregations to help them deal with "salvation anxiety"?

2 main pieces of advice are given to congregations. The first is that it should be considered a duty to be considered chosen and to keep from allowing one's lack of self-confidence as a temptation from the devil to hinder them from living as Christ intended. Worldly activity is then recommended to attain the self-confidence necessary.

Distinguish between love as a disposition and love as a temperament?

A disposition is a long-term, crafted, intentional attitude of the heart. It is not fleeing and does not change based on circumstance. Temperament, on the other hand, is a natural characteristic that one feels that does not require intentionality.

How did Martin Luther change the concept of "calling"?

A person's "calling" or vocation was transformed by (and is perhaps even a product of) the protestant reformation. Prior to the reformation, people's callings were not attached to their worldly jobs or economic responsibly, but Luther introduced the idea that the work we do is meaningful before God and that we have relgious duty in our physical vocations. The Catholic idea of a "calling" was exclusively tied to spiritual/relgious tasks set by God (79). Luther gave calling it's modern secular meaning. Labor and worldly duties became an act of love before God and with "exactly the same worth in the sight of God" (81.)

What debate went on in the early church regarding the extent of the Hebrew Bible?

A primary debate of the early church was the question: "What should be the canon of scripture?" More specifically, people disagreed over the legitimacy of the Apocrypha. St. Augustine made no distinction between Apocrypha and traditional Old Testament books. Athanasius also valued the apocryphal, allowing catechumens to use them as teaching material. Contrarily, Cyril said the Apocrypha should not be taught in public nor studied in private.

What should the wealthy Puritan do with his money?

A wealthy puritan should invest in things which would practically build people and the community up to the greater good, not contribute to things which would "mortify the flesh" (192). For protestants, the desire and condition of comfort is not something that should be desired or sought. Weber says "asceticism was opposed to injustice and purely instinctive greed" (193).

What scriptures does Arius use to support his views that the "Son of God" is just a courtesy title? Give at least three examples and explain.

According to Arius, the title "Son of God" is granted to Jesus through his participation in the grace of God. Proverbs 8:22 says "The Lord created me [Jesus]." This, Arius claims, shows that Jesus is a created being and cannot fulfill the consistency nor the everlasting requirement to be God. Acts 2:36 says that "God has made him Lord and Christ" showing that God imbued him with the title of honor, but it was not in his nature as God. Colossians 1:15 says that he was the "first-born of all creation," which shows his importance but also supports that he was a created being.

What bible characters do you recognize? What do the prophets preach? How are they received? What is the fate of those who reject their messages?

Adam, Eve, Cain, Abel, Noah, Pharaoh, Moses, Aaron, Mary, Jesus etc are all familiar characters. The prophets preach word from God about living righteously and how to avoid judgment. They explained scripture on the basis of true knowledge—as mercy for believers. Their aim is to prepare people for the day prophecy is fulfilled.Those who reject revelation are subject to punishment for being unrighteous. The guilty are punished by rotting/resting in hell.

Explain the history behind and build-up to Jerome's statement, "The whole world groaned and marveled to find itself Arian."

After the Council of Nicea, Arianism was shut down theologically, but in the aftermath, the reality was that the consistency of the Trinity debate depended on who was the leading politician of the time. Also, the anti-Nicean coalition, led by Eusebius, was still at work. I think that regardless of what people's opinions of the trinity were, they were satisfied to have a consistency in belief and peace for a time (238).

Who were Aisha and Fatima? Describe their relationship, as explained in "The Prophet's Women." (Brooks)

Aisha was given in marriage to Mohammed the Prophet at the young age of 9 years old. There is much controversy around her as some believe that she was a distraction to Muhammed and helped plot against their daughter, Fatima; others regarded her as war hero and believe she was the love of muhammed's life and aided him in his work.

What does Allah not forgive (sura 4:116)?

Allah does not forgive because he does not forgive those who are already gone astray and because he is a jealous God that does not tolerate the false worship of other gods.

Describe Augustine's friendship with Alypius. What does Alypius reveal about the human condition?

Alypius is Augustine's student/mentee from Carthage. Alypius reveals that without God, the sinful will of human nature cannot be quelled—especially not by education. Human temptation is particularly revealed in his inability to disengage from the gladiator fight. They push each other toward Christ after converting and struggling to overcome sin together.

How does Augustine respond to Ambrose? How does Ambrose "correct" Augustine's misconceptions about Catholicism?

Ambrose, who is kind to Augustine, helps him understand that sinners are far from salvation, and cannot be saved unless there is some kind of repentance. Ambrose corrects Augustine's misconception about Christianity that it is a simple and dumb faith, but rather showing Augustine that it is intellectually respectable. He especially realized the intricacies of the old testament, which provoked knowledge.

3. What happened to cause such a deep chasm between the narrator's father and grandfather? Why was it so important for the narrator's father to find the grandfather's grave? What other chasms of misunderstanding and confusion between people can you find in the book? How does God's grace bridge the chasms between people?

Ames' father and grandfather have a complex divide that stems from their disagreements about theology and the war. They are both Reverends but preach different messages. Ames' father was a pacifist who strongly hated war and spent his time with Quakers upon returning from the army. His grandfather, on the other hand, was passionate about fighting in the war and saw violence stemming from fighting as a righteous form of justice. Even though their preaching styles were vastly different and they disagreed on the war, they still loved and revered each other. This is why Ames' father was so devoted to traveling to Kansas to visit his father's grave. The restoration that occurred when he found his father's grave was both literal and symbolic. He needed to restore his relationship and did so by restoring his grave. There is a misunderstanding between Ames and Jack Boughton that is the underlying thread of most of the book. Jack is a dynamic character that Ames dislikes off the bat because he resents Jack's life choices. Jack has left a son and child to come to Gilead, which frustrates Ames. He wants Jack to live up to the name he was given and doesn't feel like he has, but understanding is what bridges the gap between people.

What is allegory? Typology? Describe Augustine's allegorical interpretation of the Story of the Good Samaritan.

An allegory is used in the ancient texts to refer to a symbol of spiritual truths, which are usually meant more to appeal to moral, mystical meanings of passages, as opposed to the literal meanings. According to Augustine, the traveler in the parable of the Good Samaritan represents Adam, Jerusalem represents Eden, Jericho represents his mortality, and the thieves represent the devil. Further, the priest and the Levite represent the weak administrations of the old covenant, the Samaritan represents Christ, and the inn is the Church (70). Typology, on the other hand, connects the two Testaments in the sense that themes in the Old Testament are 'types' of those of the New Testament. It takes more of a historical view of the Bible, using the two Testaments as building blocks of each other (71).

What is Arianism? Why did Arius believe that the Son was not 'begotten' in the full sense of the word? What would this imply if he was?

Arianism is built on the premise that God is fully transcendent, unique, and the source of all creation. Arianism says that the Son must be a creature, the son must be within the order God created, , the son can have no communion or direct communication with the father, and the son is liable to sin and change. Further, the three beings are totally separate and do not share the same mind, nature, or essence. God is self-existent, self-sustaining, eternal, and sovereign, and all these things are present in him exclusively. Because God is perfect in himself, he cannot be fractured into parts of any kind. If the God-head was split, according to Arian, they would no longer be perfect because He would be divisible, and therefore, changing. He could not be "begotten" because a primary nature of God is that he was the first existence.

What are the differences between Arius and Athanasius regarding the Trinity?

Arius believes that because God the Father was an unoriginate source and was solely sovereign and eternal, the Son must have been created by the Father. This implies three propositions about the Trinity. Firstly, he believes that the Son "must be a creature" (227) that was formed by God out of nothing. Secondly, since He was created, the Son has a beginning. Thirdly, He is not able to comprehend God. Ultimately, Arius believed that the Trinity composed of three completely separate entities that don't share the same nature. Athanasius, on the other hand, strongly disagreed with Arianism. He argued that Arianism contradicted Christian doctrine because it claimed the Trinity was not eternal. It also contradicted traditions that one is baptized in the name of the Father and Son and one addresses prayers to the Son. Most importantly though, Arianism contradicted the core principle of redemption through Christ, since the Son was not considered divine. Athanasius believed that the members of the Trinity comprised of the same nature and substance.

How did the early church argue that the Old Testament should be included in the Bible?

As a foundation for unifying the Old and New Testaments, the early church first argued that if viewed with unclouded eyes, the Old Testament was undeniably Christian. The early church often pointed to the fact that Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies of an incarnate Christ redeeming Israel (65). The framework of the Old Testament is embedded throughout the New Testament. Not only do the apostles reference the Old Testament frequently, but Jesus's redemption and fulfillment of the law is also an expression of His authorization. Despite Marcion's criticism, many argued that the angry view of God in the Old Testament was a product of literal interpretation. Irenaeus and Origen would argue that the Old and New Testaments are a symphony in which one precedes and the other follows (69).

What did Athanasius think about eternal generation? How does Athanasius's vision of God's offspring repudiate the Arians' claim that the Son was created by the Father?

Athanasius supported eternal generation because the relationship between Father and begotten Son must be eternal. Also, if the Son was created by the Father he would be no different from any other human He created. The fact that the Son is His "only begotten Son" implies that the creation of His Son is distinguished from the creation of any other being (John 3:16). Athanasius had a classical Nicean standpoint, which was in contrast tot Arius (243). Similar to Arius, Athanisius ackowledged that the son must be distinct as the Father's offspring (244). However, Athanasius argues that the Father and Son are still one in nature since the Son was derived from the Fathe

What is Augustine's objection to Paganism? Particularly worship of Jupiter?

Augustine believes that Paganism is used as a method of corrupting men by educating them about sin and temptation. He uses Jupiter as an example, as Jupiter "tricked a woman by sending a golden shower into Danae's lap" (29). Examples like Jupiter excuse obscene actions of lust by impressionable young men when Paganism is used to distort heavenly instruction.

How does Augustine describe his mother? his father?

Augustine describes his mother as wise and respects her for constantly warning him against sexual sin in his youth. She is faithful to God. He criticizes his father for his earthly ambitions. His father is uncovered with sexual frivolaty and moreso wants Augustine to have earthly success and many grandchildren. His mother and father are like the spiritual and physical halves.

What is Augustine's view of Virgil? Of the Greek language?

Augustine disliked (perhaps even hated) Virgil and Greek language/culture. He viewed most of the stories as being vain and teaching "immoral fictions." Secular knowledge that humans are taught distracts them from their sin and God. As a result, humans have developed morals skewed from God. We see this when Augustine complains "What is more pitiable than a wretch without pity for himself who weeps over the death of Dido dying for love of Aeneas, but not weeping over himself dying for his lack of love for you, my God, light of my heart, bread of the inner mouth of my soul" (). In short, the Greeks are "missing the point."

How does Augustine dramatize the theme of inordinate love?

Augustine dramatizes the theme of inordinate love by questioning how it could ever be possible to weigh the different desires. For instance, how does one choose between being hated and being loved, and if he would have to choose he claims that he would choose hate. He says that humans are too complex to organize their loves.

What motives does Augustine give for sealing the pears?

Augustine explains that the only real purpose for stealing the pears was the feeling of committing the sin for its own sake. He and his friends would not enjoy the pears themselves and would even feed them to the pigs after stealing them, they only found pleasure in the act of stealing.

4. Why is Augustine so fascinated by this particular crime?

Augustine is so fascinated by this crime because of the motives behind it. He did not commit the sin because he wanted the pears, but because he craved the act of sin itself. He loved the acts of malice and wrongdoing. He also asks why we would want the lowest enjoyment like sinning when we can partake in God's greatest goodness to us.

What physical move does Augustine make in this book?

Augustine moves from Carthage to Rome, despite the grief of his mother who did not support the voyage. Augustine then confessed that he told his mother a lie to avoid difficulty getting on the boat to Rome.

How does Augustine relate to the Manichees (chapter 1)?

Augustine relates to the Manichees initially because they respect his love for the rhetorical arts, and they bond over this. Further, through philosophy and rhetoric they both became skeptical of religiosity, reducing it to theatrics.

How did Augustine respond to Cicero's Hortentius? (chapter 4)

Augustine responds to Cicero's Hortensius by saying that rather than its pure focus on philosophy and wisdom in different schools, we ought to pursue wisdom for its own sake. Further, the name of Christ is not mentioned. Christ breaks the barrier between the physical and spiritual dichotomy because he bridged the gap as fully God and fully man.

What lesson does Augustine learn from the beggar?

Augustine sees that the drunken beggar is carefree, but not in a way that he is experiencing true joy. Augustine learns from this that he would rather be laden with anxieties and the ability to feel true joy than to simply be carefree. The beggar may be enjoying temporal happiness, but does not know what it feels like to harbor true joy for the long haul.

As an adolescent, why did Augustine sometimes pretend to commit sins that he didn't commit?

Augustine sometimes pretended to commit sins that he didn't commit in order to compete with other kids his age for who was the biggest sinner. As he writes "the more disgraceful the deeds, the more credit they claimed" (36). He was afraid to be perceived as less courageous and as wimpy for being chaste.

How does Augustine dramatize the theme of original sin in Book I?

Augustine uses the example of a baby, who is born with a sinful nature. He says that even as an infant he sinned crying for his mother's milk (19), provoking derision and needing rebuke. As we grow, we are rebuked for sin to get rid of it, but we sin ever since we are a baby.

Why isn't Augustine baptized as a boy?

Augustine's baptism was postponed by his mother on the pretense that consequences of his sins after baptism would be far more perilous than if he were to wait. His mother was cautious because she knew that he would 'inevitably soil" himself and wanted to wait until he had matured before becoming baptized (24).

What is Augustine's philosophy of education? How is his philosophy of education "Platonic"?

Augustine's philosophy of education was very focused on the rhetoric skills and study of philosophy. His philosophy merged with the manicheans, which focused on the virtues and spiritual world, lacking emphasis on the physical world. For them, as the philosophy of Plato, physical things were less than that of the philosophical realm. However, Augustine realizes at the time he writes this book that his education was far too heavy on skills rather than the study of virtue.

What do the monks mean by "When you see someone in sin say, 'He today, I tomorrow.'"

Because we are all sinners, we should be slow to judge others and slow to self-righteousness. We know that we are not better than those around us who sin, and we should not see ourselves as greater than them. This draws us to humility and to have a less critical spirit.

Contrast brands of Christianity that instruct its followers to become "vessel of divine grace" with those which instruct their followers to become "tools of the divine will". How do these different brands of religion affect culture and economics?

Being a "vessel for divine" grace means God uses humans to show others grace. It largely caters to mysticism and emotionalism. It is less focused on individual works done by humans but rather on how God fills humans with grace to give. On the contrary, being a "tool of the divine will" focuses on good works, which eliminate the risk of losing salvation. It prolongs a culture of fear of damnation, which in terms prompts an economic culture of constant work in order to produce fruit. Being a vessel for the divine leaves more room for forgiveness and grace when lacking works.

How are Alypius and Augustine similar/different?

Both Alypius and Augustine struggle with sin and temptation, finding it difficult to overcome their respective temptations. They also both follow Manachean belief, but they differ in the sense that Augustine is not capable of changing his habits like Alypius is.

Why does Weber describe the Calvinist as an "individual" who is "alone" in "deep spiritual isolation"?

Calvinism emphasized that a man's salvation was between him and God and no one else because of this it created a divide between other men. Their salvation was a matter of their own relationship to God, no longer dictated by a community or church. To follow this, a person's calling was very individual and was a mission they had to pursue alone.

What was the motive for monastic withdrawal from society?

Due to the legalization of Christianity in the fourth century and the growing popularity of Christianity in Roman society, the line was quickly being blurred between living a good life as a Christian and a good life as a citizen. They were concerned that their values were not aligned with those of their society and feared that they would not be able to pursue perfection in their society.

What is economic rationalism?

Economic rationalism is the result of the Reformation, which decreased the influence of the Catholic church and created "new" morals for society that spread economic rationalism. Economic rationalism proposes morality as a tool to further business and economic growth. Morality exists for the sake of individual and societal level economic wealth.

4. Describe the narrator's brother Edward. Who is Edward named after?

Edward is the narrator's deceased brother. Despite his family expecting him to become a great pastor, he came home atheist after studying in Germany. He is a bit facetious at times; for example, he calls religion foolish while referencing 1 Corinthians. He is a wisdom-promoting figure for the narrator, as the narrator reflects on his own faith in their relationship. He's someone the narrator looks up to and is prompted to grow in spiritual maturity by. He's named after Jonathan Edwards because his father thought he'd become a preacher.

What are false views of humility?'

False views of humility suggest that it is a form of self-deprecation. It has often been confused with cultivating low self-esteem, taking perverse pleasure in being forgotten, and devaluing ourselves (18). Instead, it should be a way to see others and ourselves as being just as valuable in God's eyes.

What two different meanings did the word "inspiration" have in the early church? What did Philo mean by inspiration? Augustine?

For Philo, divine inspiration was that the authors of scripture lost consciousness and use of faculties, and God spoke through them (62). This kind of divine inspiration was a form of ecstasy. On the other hand, Augustine shows that the evangelists used "their own personal reminiscences in compiling the gospels" (63); the divine inspiration's role was to "stimulate their memories and preserve them from error" (63). In the first meaning of the word inspiration, God does most, if not all of the work, but for the second view, God guides the author in the process.

What was the medieval attitude toward work? How did it differ from Luther's attitude?

For the medieval people, work was a means to getting material goods; whereas, in the time of the reformation and with Luther, the attitude towards work began to see it as a good in and of itself, or rather a "calling" on one's life.

What were the major criteria that the church used to decide which books make up the New Testament?

Formal recognition of the New Testament Canon began in the mid-second century after being developed by Marcion (57). After considerable tension between the church and various movements, the church set three primary criteria when deciding what books should make up the New Testament—apostolicity (authority due to being written by an apostle), universality (holding universal recognition), and Catholicity (acceptance from the Catholic church) (60). Several books, including 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude, struggled to meet the third criteria for centuries. Athanasius's Easter Letter officially described all twenty-seven books of the New Testament as Canonical-which led to their complete Canonicity about a hundred and fifty years later.

13. How is Gilead a microcosm of America? What American pastime brings people of different races and religions together? Who is Bud Fowler?

Gilead is a microcosm of America in the sense that it is comprised of people that share different opinions about justice and what role the church plays in social justice issues. Many historical events drive the story, from the Civil War and Abolitionism to World War I to the Spanish Influenza. These are integral moments in American history and all shape the way Ames views his role as pastor and follower of Christ. For instance, he follows his father in his idea that violence is unjust and contradicts the peace that the Bible calls for, but still cares for those around him that have been affected by such things. Sports have always been a bridge between people of different races and religions, as they can lay down their differences and come together in a community to play or support their teams. Bud Fowler was the earliest known African American baseball player in an organized team. He was playing with Keokuk and Ames' grandfather thought very highly of him.

What does it mean to say that God is without passion?

God loves humbly, and without passion, because he is able to see us exactly as we are (106). He is able to see us with absolute clarity and reason because of His absolute love for us. He is not filled with anger, pride, or fear of the future. He is not overwhelmed with an uncontrollable longing that would cloud His vision. His is unblinded and faithful until the end (106).

5. How did each of the three Reverends Ames fulfill their roles as minister to their congregations? How were they similar? How did they differ?

Grandfather John Ames had great passion, so much so to the point where he would ride his horse up to the church just before the service was going to start and fire his gun in the air. He was passionate about abolition and anti-slavery and allowed this to lead most of his sermons, so much to the point where he had encouraged his congregation to fight in the war and they all left. The only ones that remained were widows, orphans, and mothers of those fighting, whom he would look after. Father John Ames was much more focused on preserving peace and preached with more pacifistic influences. He hated the war and preached against violence as well. Reverend Ames himself was a loving, thoughtful man who preached with wisdom, as the congregation praised him for this attribute, though he did not think he deserved it. He wrote down each sermon word for word, intricately planning what he would talk about each week. All three preachers were well respected in regards to their congregation, but each differed in the way they preached.

How does Augustine respond to his study of Holy Scriptures? (chapters 5 and 7).

He believes it's too simple and lacking in elegance, making it difficult to understand the Bible fundamentally. He viewed scripture as having been written in childish language compared to philosophy.

Describe Augustine's friendship in chapter 4. How did Augustine lead his friend astray? Why is Augustine critical of his feelings toward his friend?

He has a childhood friend in which he led to Manichaeism. Augustine led his friend away from Christ to astrology in mocking baptism. He is critical in his feelings toward his friendship because it caused him to be more attached to a human rather than God. He valued his friend's life more than God, making him feel incomplete at his friend's death.

What theological lessons did Augustine learn from Ambrose?

He learns that certain passages in Scripture are not taken literally, particularly in the Old Testament. He learned that most Catholics do not take the passage in Genesis literally when God says that He makes man in His own image. He learns about the distinction between text or script and spirit.

Why are humans unhappy without God?

Humans have a natural longing for God and to be united with His Will. Humans are unhappy without God because of their failure to acknowledge sin and be redeemed by God. Sin naturally brings unhappiness.Without God, they can only exist in this state of anguish caused by sin.

18. Is John Ames a dogmatist? What sermon did Ames burn? (41) What are Ames' reflections on predestination? For John Ames, what will heaven be like? (149). What do you think is Robinson's view of Calvinism

I do not think Ames is a dogmatist because he carries no arrogance. Throughout the book, he marvels at how little he knows about anything and allows those around them to express their opinions how they desire. He has theological debates with Broughton but acknowledges that neither of them knows who's right and their conversations do not have any malice or arrogance. He also explains that he thinks his congregation gives him too much credit for his wisdom, as he does not know as much as those around him think he does. He wrote a sermon regarding his thoughts on the Spanish influenza and the Great War, which killed thousands of soldiers. The deaths of those who fought and got sick were rescuing the young men from acting foolish and committing murder in the war. Ames also describes how much he dislikes talking about predestination, as it is one of his least favorite topics of conversation. He believes it is a complicated issue and a person cannot be good and be destined for perdition, nor can a person who is sinful be consigned to it either. One's behavior aligns with their nature, but their behavior can change. All in all, he acknowledges that no one can know for sure one way or the other and that is left up to God. he is also not positive as to what heaven will be like, but he thinks that it is not what one would view in old paintings. I think Robinson believes to a certain extent in a milder, more modern view of predestination. Based on how Ames describes it, I think she believes in the divine will of God and his control over our lives, but focuses less on the metaphysical aspects of predestination because ultimately we do not know.

19. Why do you think this book won the Pulitzer Prize?

I think this book won the Pulitzer Prize because of the way it addresses heavy, difficult topics with care and respect. John Ames is well crafted and intentionally written, and the way he views theology, life, family, and forgiveness is so powerful and personal. He acknowledges that though he is a pastor, he does not know all the answers and wants to leave his son with the same humility and comfort in the unknown. He learns and grows in his understanding of forgiveness, which is extremely relatable and inspires the audience to attempt to understand and empathize with others before they cast judgments or nurse grudges.

What is the Puritan attitude toward wealth and toward acquisitiveness?

In explaining the relationship between wealth and acquisitiveness, Weber summarizes the thoughts of Richard Baxter, a prominent writer on Puritan ethics. Baxter places a heavy emphasis on the Ebionitic elements in the New Testament and the belief that wealth is a great danger and is an easy temptation. He believes this in the sense that it results in idleness and leisure, which is time wasted that could be committed to performing God's will.

16. The narrator spent 45 years alone between the death of his first wife and marriage to his second wife. How would you characterize those 45 years? Why did the narrator feel less alone when he was by himself than when he was with other people? "I don't know why solitude would be a balm for loneliness, but that is how it always was for me in those days."?

In his 45 years of solitude, the narrator studied the Word. The years were extremely introspective and a period of reconciling his own faith—particularly as he grieved his wife and daughter. Studying the word of God became a mode of grieving and grappling with the fact that his wife and child had died. It was a period of lamentation. Perhaps, he felt less alone because he was able to focus only on God. When he was surrounded by people, he was constantly reminded of how broken the world is. As a minister, he carries the "burden" of other people's spiritual health. In some ways, he might even consider himself responsible for their personal salvation-especially in his inability to save his own wife and child. In being alone, he was able to sit with his grief and experience the peace of God.

What does the Qur'an teach about conduct in war? (2:191; 9:5; 5:32; 9:29)?

In terms of their defense of land, they are told to kill those who fight against him, but not for any unnecessary causes. Killing is only necessary within limits, especially if they attempt to fight at the Sacred Mosque.

How did the Hebrew Bible of the Palestinians differ from the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures)?

In the Hebrew Bible of the Palestinians, the limits of the Scriptures were "rigidly fixed" and outlined strong boundaries between the books that were sacred and those that were just religious writings (53). The perspective for Jewish communities outside of Palestine was much more flexible, as they regarded the Pentateuch with sacred respect but altered later books with more freedom.

How does the story of Mary the mother of Jesus in the Qur'an (sura19) differ from that of Mary the mother of Jesus in the Bible?

In the Sura, Mary shows to be skeptical of the plan, which the angel messenger gives to her; she is also questioning in the Bible. However, in the Bible, her ultimate response to carrying who is in Christianity, the son of God, is praise and pondering. On the other hand, the Surah shows her wishing to be dead in childbirth and swearing a vow of silence (19).

What happened to Muhammad in the Cave?

In the cave, Muhammed meditated and began to receive words and visions. The voice came from Allah, who claimed to be the one true God. Allah told Muhammed that he was the true prophet, and as such, he should go proclaim the news to other people.

What are the passions, and how do they keep us from loving?

In today's culture, passion is considered a good and healthy thing, but to the ancient monks passion carried a negative connotation and meant anything that prohibited real love. The passions fueled self-interest, but true love produces more love rather than being destructive. True love is drawn by reason to the good, but the passions are opposed to true love and reason.

What is the role of introspection and prayer in defeating the passions?

Introspection is when we look "inside ourselves to see what it is that makes us tick in order that we may love" (78). Introspection is how we see in ourselves the image of God without the lens of passions. One way to combat the passions is to observe circumstances that give you trouble and cause passion. When we pray we relate to the image of God and see the image of God within us. Prayer requires humility, which draws us closer to God and to a clearer image of ourselves.

Why, according to Eusebius, was it impossible for the essence of the Godhead to be shared with the Son?

It is impossible for the essence of the Godhead to be shared with the Son because the Godhead pre-exists the Son. Eusebius acknowledges that the Son "exists before all ages," but is not necessarily co-eternal with the Godhead, who is self-existent without any beginning (236). Also, the Son would have to derive from the Father to share in His essence, which would require another unoriginate party.

What do the fathers and mothers of the Church mean by humility? Perfection? What did they not mean by these terms? Why do modern readers have trouble with the words perfection and humility?

It is often the case that perfection is interpreted as a legalistic term. However, the mothers and fathers of the early Church would argue that perfection is the constant pursuit of God's love and things good—without placing limits on perfection (23). There is no state of arrival when pursuing perfection. Perfection is not reaching a set standard of piety nor a reason to criticize people in its absence (21). Rather, perfect love moves us to be compassionate towards human frailty—to be less critical of others and ourselves. Perfection is found in humility. Humility is the acknowledgment that no one is or does good without the help of God (42). Romans 5:8 expresses that "while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us." Because of our flawed nature, we are inevitably limited. The aim of the Christian is to love God and others, but this cannot be done without first acknowledging that our strength only comes from God (43). We are weak and perpetually changing. God is perfect and Constant. Humility is to give up the heroic self-image (46). Early Christians view it as less of a specific virtue and as more of an attitude of the heart (18).

11. How is the narrator like Jack Boughton? Do you agree with Jack's assessment of the narrator's marriage: "You have made a somewhat unconventional marriage yourself. You know a bit about being the object of scandal. Unequally yoked and so on. Of course, Della is an educated woman." (230) Who Lila? Where did she come from? Why did she marry the narrator?

Jack is similar to Ames in the sense that they both have lost wives and children and that has shaped the way they view current relationships. Though Ames' wife is not the conventional pastor's wife, I do not agree that this was considered to be an object of scandal in the way Jack presents it. Ames describes Lila as sad and innocent, which is an innocence that the congregation cannot see. Because of this, her age, and her lack of acquaintance in the church, the congregation is not openly welcoming to her but is not exclusive or judgemental either. Her past is unknown to Ames, but he can tell by her sadness that she has experienced pain and hardship that has hardened her. This can make her appear cold to other women in the church. Ames is sure, though, that the church will be there to support her and her child after he passes. She does not have formal education, but she loves to learn and likes the secure, settled life that Ames provides her.

What does Weber mean, "Every (Calvinist) Christian had to be a monk"?

Just as Luther was a monk, the Calvisnist, reformed Christians were encouraged to pursue independent study of scripture and a personal prayer life with God. They took quiet time for themselves and dedicated themselves holy to religious motives, even at the cost of investing in relationships.

Describe the literal and figurative interpretations of the Last Judgement.

Literal interpretations of the Last Judgement describe heaven and hell with concrete imagery, describing heaven as having extravagant fountains and cool shades, as well as carpets and vast amounts of food. Hell is comprised of fire, iron, and molten drinks. Figurative interpretations focus more on the large contrast between the two than the actual vivid descriptions of the two.

Why are "little" sins so lethal? Why can't Augustine adopt a "boys will be boys" attitude?

Little sins are the beginning of the passions that lead us to eternal death. They may seem small, but when we don't deal with them, we carry them with us into our adulthood.

How does Luther help form the spirit of capitalism? How is Lutheranism an impediment to the formation of the spirit of Capitalism? In other words, how is Luther "backwards" from a modern capitalistic point of view?

Luther was a large contributor to the development of the idea of one's "calling" in the world, as we have an obligation to fulfill our roles in the world. Luther drove this idea in a more traditionalist view, as he promoted a traditionalistic interpretation of Providence. He interpreted it as obedience to God's will and acceptance of the situations God places someone in. Luther rejects the social segregation embedded in capitalism depending on economic class. Weber concludes that since capitalist ideas preexisted Lutheranism, many ideas were not directly contributed to it.

What did Malcolm X learn during his trip to Mecca? (Pilgrimage to Mecca)

Malcolm X learned that religion can be a way to unite people and to evoke love for one's neighbor, despite looking differently than them. This realization directly contrasts his former philosophy that people who are different from each other have a divisive wedge of hate toward one another and thus must be separated.

Who was Marcion? What did he believe? What was Marcion's "Bible" like?

Marcion was a heretic who separated himself from the Catholic Church. Unable to reconcile the Old Testament with the gospel of Christ, but believing the former to be true, he concluded that there must be two Gods. However, his dualism ultimately led to him rejecting the Old Testament and seeking to canonize an alternative set of scripture consisting of St. Luke's Gospel (all Judaizing passages excluded) and ten Pauline epistles (except the Pastorals).

What does the Qur'an teach about the relationship between men and women (4:1-4; 4:34; 9:71)?

Men and women are to remain mindful of God in all they do. Guardians may marry the orphans they care for. If they can be equitable, men may marry up to four women. Husbands are obligated to take care of their wives. Righteous wives are also faithful to their husbands. If they disobey, husbands have the right to ignore and hit their wives. Women obey their husbands.

What two definitions of love do moderns often confuse?

Moderns often confuse love as an emotion and love as an attitude. Love as an emotion is spontaneous and has a wide range of capability. It could be extremely intense or extremely light. It could also last a few minutes or a long time. It is based on a feeling that comes on us, but does not require action from us to be real. The other kind of love, though, requires more commitment. This influences who we are. It also differs in the sense that it does require an appropriate expression through action.

What did the monks mean by the word passion? How does it differ from our understanding of passion?

Monks view passion as corruption and destruction of love. It is oftentimes an emotion but can also be a mentality or an action. Any emotions that lead to love are not passions. Their view of passion is much more negative and damaging than ours. Nowadays, we use "passion" to describe any strong emotion, good or bad. It could have either a positive or negative connotation, depending on the context.

What is Muhammad's Christology? What is his view of Christians? (suras 19:88-98; 2:62; 3:113-116; 3:119; 4:171; 4:156-158; 5:82-83; 5:72; 5:116; 5:110; 9:30; 2:256).

Muhammad expresses his disbelief in the Christian belief that Jesus is the Son of God, as he explains in sura 19:88-92 that it is terrible for anyone to assert that God has offspring. God created and numbered each follower, and each one serves Him. He believes that Jesus is just a messenger of God and the Trinity does not exist. He also believes though, that any followers of the Lord will have their rewards with Him if they believe in Him and their actions reflect that. God knows their hearts and will judge them accordingly. Muhammad also explains that they are most affectionate towards Christians but align least with Jews.

What is the meaning of the saying "either eat well or sleep well."

Often wealth was garnered by immoral qualities or having a lot of wealth made you prone to immorality, more than if you did not have money. This formed the contradiction that either you had money and ate well or you were immoral and therefore stayed up pondering all the wrong deeds you must answer to.

7. The narrator tells of his grandfather's fiery sermons urging his congregation to take up arms in the fight to free the slaves. "He did preach those young men into the war. And his church was hit hard." The narrator's father, on the other hand, preached pacifism. Which one was right? What is the appropriate role of the clergy in times of war and crisis?

Oftentimes in literature, the author will distinguish between two extremes, which I believed the author did in this case. I do not think either is inherently right and can understand the viewpoints of both sides. On one hand, the church should stand up for what is morally right and be a breeding ground for change in society. They should preach justice, as that is a common theme in the Bible and Jesus himself was the symbol of justice. This is what Ames' grandfather advocated for, though he may have taken it too far in certain circumstances, going so far as to completely justify violence and shoot a man while aiding Abolitionists. This is where the views of Ames' father are justifiable, as he believes that violence is wrong and causes corruption of human morals. He believes peace is the only thing that will bring true justice, which is an understandable viewpoint.

What does the Qur'an teach about judgment (sura 56, 76-114).

On Judgment day, people will be separated into categories of the humiliated and of the richly rewarded. Judgment is inevitable. It will be a day of anguish for disbelievers, those who refuse worship of Allah. But the good believers will be rewarded. Those who disbelieve judgment day are the ones who push aside common kindness.

How does the biblical account of Adam and Eve differ from the Qur'an's account of Adam and Eve? (7:10-27; 2: 30-39)

One angel, Iblis, does not bow down to Adam as God commands all the angels to do. God rebukes him for this, and he vows revenge on Adam and Eve (7:18). God gives garments to Adam and Eve before they are tempted by the devil as a preventative measure to not show their nakedness to the devil (7:26). The Garden of Eden is also within Heaven in Islam versus the earthly dwelling place of Adam and Eve in Christianity.

Which passions are most relevant to modern New Yorkers? Why is depression a "passion"? What is acedia? Why are "little" sins so lethal?

One of the most relevant passions now is vainglory, which is a desire to be liked so much that our actions are dictated by our passion. Depression is a passion in the sense that it deprives us of feeling like beloved children of God. Our perceptions of ourselves are distorted and we do not have the energy to fight it. Acedia is defined as a "restless boredom that makes our ordinary tasks seem too dull to bear" (74). This sense of restlessness makes us discontented with aspects of our lives. It stems typically from exhaustion or trying to find meaning in our lives from a source that isn't sustainable. Little sins are lethal because they commonly turn into large and uncontrollable passions. They begin as thoughtless actions that build up to be serious issues.

What contribution did Puritans make to the formation of modern economic culture?

Puritans believed hard work was a means to prove themselves. They saw it as their calling toward salvation. Puritans made the Ascetic lifestyle of monks common place for the public. Aspects of this lifestyle made common include frugality, time management, productivity, punctuality, and hard work. Puritans propelled the concepts of ascetic protestantism and one's job as their calling.

What is the ancient monastic understanding of reason and how does it differ from our own understanding of reason?

Reason allows humans to see the world consciously and morally and respond to it, beyond our physical needs. The modern understanding of reason is that it is equal to logic (60). However, Christian monastics defined reason as seeing and knowing God—seeing and loving people from God's point of view. Compassion, forgiveness, and worship all stemmed from reason (59). This is different from the modern belief that reason is simply knowledge or calculation of outcomes.

What miracle did Muhammad perform?

Receiving "God's word" from the Qu'ran was the miracle. Muhammad was illiterate, and yet, he was able to write down scriptures. It is beleived that these words were direct revelation from God.

1. The narrator writes, "I am writing this in part to tell you that if you ever wonder what you've done in your life, and everyone does wonder sooner or later, you have been God's grace to me, a miracle, something more than a miracle." How is the narrator's son a miracle? Is the epistolary format of this book effective? How does the author use the format to tell the story and to reveal her characters?

Reverend John Ames has his son in his old age, which is why his son is considered a miracle to him. After the death of his first wife, Louisa, Ames did not think he would marry again and waited until he met his son's mother, Lila, who is significantly younger than him. The epistolary format of the book serves to fully encompass the message that the Reverend wants to convey. He is writing a letter to his son because he is soon to pass away and wants his son to remember him, which makes the format of his message more personal. Though it can be confusing to follow at times because of how frequently Ames jumps from story to story, he uses his letter to reflect on his life and what has influenced him. The people closest to him, namely his wife, father, grandfather, old friend Boughton and his son Jack, are introduced one by one through stories to explain the development of his life and how events with those around him have shaped him.

How did rich feudal people live? How did rich Puritans live?

Rich feudal people believed that the acquisition of money was just fine, so long as it was attained honestly and morally. A good conscience was the requirement for living a comfortable life. Rich Puritans, on the other hand, were against living a comfortable life and even the rich would work hard at something to carry out God's will. They were forced to work.

17. One of the most complex questions for John to address is the notion of salvation. How is it defined, and how does God determine who receives it? How do the novel's characters convey assorted possibilities about this topic? What answers would you have given to the questions John faces regarding the fate of souls and the nature of pain in the world?

Salvation is defined as a grace only given by God when we accept Jesus Christ as our Lord and savior. It is something unachievable by works but granted by God. One of the biggest qualms surrounding it is the question of predestination and whether or not some people are just destined for hell. It's a difficult question for John because he struggles to grapple with the idea of unbelievers being predestined for hell, especially if they are "good" people. He figures that good people are at least not destined to suffer. Salvation is a primary concern of Jack, as he walked away from his father, Gilead, and his faith. Although, Lila probably gives the most concrete answer. She says that people can change. If I were to address John, I would remind him that humans are given free will and that God is merciful. Throughout the Bible, God says He rewards people according to their deeds. Surely, those who chose to believe in Him are to receive salvation (John 3:16). As a fair God, it would be uncharacteristic of God to simply punish those who have been good or believed in Him despite their sinful nature. I would even go as far as to reference the people who died in Noah's flood. When Jesus came, he went and preached to them in spiritual prison so that they might have a chance at eternal life before being eternally damned because they didn't believe Noah (1 Peter 3:19). Suffering is only temporary but a product of the fall and human physical nature going against God. Even though our flesh is weak, our spirit is willing, so there's always hope.

What problem arises with Eusebius's view of the Son sharing in the identical glory of the Lord?

Some problems with Eusebious's view were that if the son were to share in identical glory of the Lord then it would fracture the power between persons, and therefore not be the most holy of power and being. Further, the son's full divinity and full humanly nature would be problematic within a fully divine God. Finite beings cannot be of the same substance as infinite beings.

What is the relationship between passions and freedom? How do the monks understand freedom?

Some today see freedom as the ability to express and act on passions and emotions, but the monks saw that passions have a grip on our emotions, choice, and actions. When we are binded by passion, we can no longer see things freely or clearly and so take away our freedom. The passions disable us from seeing people as they are because our view of them is obscured by our emotions. Real freedom means freedom to love truly (67).

What are some Christian resources for sustaining us in love?

Sometimes ways that we can foster love is through patience and listening to others (36). We also have a practice that inhibits our abilities to love others well like holding grudges or gossiping (36). Three ways that Bondi points out that help us sustain grace and love are: the sacraments, prayer, and the advice of others (37-38).

What is Sufism?

Sufism was a split between the mystics of Islam and the rest of the faith, which were the majority. The meaning of the root word "sufi" is wool, as the Sufis wore wool garments to protest the lavishness of the silk and satins that the sultans wore. Weary of the worldiness that was taking over Islam, they sought to cleanse themselves spiritually from within.

How is sura 1 an introduction to the major themes in the Qur'an?

Sura 1 is a summary of the Qur'anic message, as it discusses the Mercy of God and His power to guide His believers. It emphasizes the Qur'anic reverence of God and our worship of Him and Him only. These themes are referenced throughout the Qur'an and are key to understanding it.

How does sura 2:2-4 instruct the reader in Muslim ethics?

Sura 2 establishes the Qur'an as the undoubtable word of Allah and guidance for the righteous. The Muslim is to be mindful of God, to keep Him in your thoughts, feelings, and actions. A common misconception rendering is for muslims to fear God. It calls muslims to do this by keeping up in prayer and sharing what is received. It also emphasized that the revelation was sent down from God to Muhammed directly.

What is synergism? Explain Origin's analogy of sailing a ship.

Synergism is the process of God's grace collaborating with our efforts. We can't just receive his grace, but we need it over and over to refine us and our efforts. Our efforts bring us deeper into God's love and his grace sustains our efforts in a cycle. Origin explains grace and human effort through the example of sailing. A ship sails through a person's skills and by the wind. When conflicting, strong winds will outdo the skills of any sailor. The sailor is us with our skill and attention, and the wind is God's grace and help. In order to love, there must be both human action and God's grace.

Explain the meaning of "Seal of the Prophets

The "Seal of the Prophets" is a reference to Muhammad, who is a culmination of all the prophets before him. Because no valid prophets followed him, he is regarded as the one in which Islam reached its definitive form.

Who convened the Council of Nicea? For what purposes? What was the outcome?

The Council was convened by Constintine due to the issue of arianism involving Trinitarian doctrine. Christians at the time debated over whether Christ was a divine or created being—over the Son's full divinity and equality with the Father (236). The status of the Word and His relation to the Godhead would decide whether or not Jesus is fully divine (223). The council did not close the Nicene crisis, but it did drive Arianism underground for a while (237). The favored doctrine depending on the reigning emperor due to the new relationship between church and state. The Nicene faith was reaffirmed at the council of Constanitnope (381) after the overthrow of Arianism (238).

How did the Koran come into existence?

The Koran came into existence as a record of the words that Allah gave to Muhammed through the angel Gabriel. It is divided into 114 surahs. Muslims take the Koran very literally because it is God "inliberate." The Koran is said to be a created miracle of the uncreated Koran, and it is to be considered as a facsimile of the uncreated koran, the word of Allah. The Koran was first exclusive to an oral tradition.

What did the Manichees believe?

The Manichees did not believe that God was omnipotent and believed that he was fallible to evil temptations. They also believed that the human soul and God were created out of the same substance.

9. How does the author use language effectively to convey elusive or difficult concepts? What is your favorite passage in the book?

The author addresses multiple difficult concepts in this book, one being forgiveness. He develops the character of Jack throughout the story, but introduces him with harsh language, calling him undeservingly preacherly and casting judgments on his character. He makes it clear that he does not trust Jack, which stems from his resentment towards Jack because of Jack's past neglect of his child and their mother. This is an ongoing conflict throughout the story, as Jack begins spending more time with his son and Lila, which upsets Ames. Throughout the story, though, Ames begins to learn more and more about Jack, understanding why he is the way that he is and seeing him for what he is. He is a lost, confused boy that has lost the woman he loves and their child because he cannot financially support them in the way they need. Once Ames begins to empathize with Jack, the forgiveness process can begin. In the end, before Jack leaves, Ames asks to bless him, which is a beautiful gesture that highlights the drastic change in the relationship. After Jack is blessed by Ames, he thanks him and "his tone made [Ames] think that to him it might have seemed [he] names everything [he] thought he no longer was, when that was the absolute furthest from [his] meaning" (241). This scene is the epitome of the restoration that comes out of forgiveness, as it is Ames' way of showing Jack how wonderful and blessed he is in the eyes of his community and the Lord. He does not do it to show what Jack is not, but to highlight all that Jack is.

14. What is the balm in Iowa's Gilead? Does the narrator find it?

The balm in Iowa's Gilead is perhaps love and mercy. There is no physical-tangible thing that is the balm, but in the midst of grief, poverty, sin, and the internal turmoil of salvation, John and those around him are able to come together through love—the love of God primarily. God's love is primarily seen in the mercy is shows all of us in the grace of salvation. For John, he is forced to show himself and his son mercy. He must forgive himself for the ways in which he failed to display absolute love, and he must show his son mercy for his own transgressions. The more John and everyone release that they can change for the better—as Lila mentioned—the more they can move forward and be at peace.

What is the "cycle of desire," and how is it remedied?

The cycle of desire at its core stems from a life of assuming that "If I just have X, then I will be happy." When we define meaning in our life by the amount of food we eat, sex we have, or things we can own, we can never be satisfied (60). These lustful desires are filled, replaced, and repeated as we seek to satisfy our passions.

What did the first Christians mean when they said "Holy Scripture"?

The early church almost exclusively viewed the Old Testament as Holy Scripture. Despite the New Testament having been written for most of the first hundred years of Christianity, it was not elevated to the status of inspired scripture until the second century (52). The Holy Scriptures specifically consisted of the Greek translation of the Old Testament. Given its historical precedence, it only made sense that the ratified Hebrew text would be appropriated by the early Christian church.

What are the Five Pillars of Islam?

The first pillar is the confession of faith, or "shahadah." They must affirm that "There is no God but Allah and Muhammed is His Prophet" with full understanding and heartfelt conviction (244). The second pillar is the "canonical prayer," which means constant state of prayer, which helps to keep their lives in perspective and submit to God's will as sovereign. The third pillar is almsgiving, or generosity. The fourth pillar is ramadan, which is the time on the Muslim calandar in which Muhammed recieved his first vision; it is a time of fasting. The fifth pillar is pilgrimage. Everyone who is able physically and financially must make a trip to Mecca to receive a new set of garments

The real battle of the second century centered round the position of the Old Testament. Explain.

The fundamental issue was determining the position of the Old Testament in relation to the New Testament. Not all Christians accepted the Orthodox assumption of the underlying unity between the two books. Many came to believe that if the Old Testament seems less perfect than the new, it was not because a good God came to destroy the product of a blind Demiurge, but rather, because mankind had to undergo a progressive development (68). However, Christian writers continued to advocate the two's continuity, stating that both the prophets and evangelists were inspired by one and the same divine spirit and "if there is a difference, it does not spring from any contrariety of the Old Testament to the New, but from the fact that the latter is a drawing out what is contained in the former, as the mature fruit is a development of the seed." (69).

What is the goal of the Christian life?

The goal of the Christian life is Love, and humility pulls us to deeper love of God and neighbor.. Living like this disarms "reasonable" and hostile society. It looks different to be a humble servant of others in a society that is self-serving. Humility and love go hand in hand because humility is "a way of seeing other people as being as valuable in God's eyes as ourselves" (18).

6. "There have been heroes here, and saints and martyrs, and I want you to know that. Because that is the truth, even if no one remembers it." Was the grandfather a hero? The father? Why or why not?

The grandfather and father could be described as heroes in their own distinct ways. They both stood firm in their beliefs, even though they contradicted each other, and did what they believed was just in the eyes of God. The grandfather fought for Abolition and encouraged the church to support the war and volunteer to fight if eligible. He was fiery and passionate and allowed his convictions to lead him to sacrifice his life for justice. Ames' father had a different form of courage, in the sense that he stood strongly against the war and preached on peace being the ultimate form of justice, which was a controversial topic at the time. He diverged from the beliefs of his father to form his own thoughts and refused to compromise them.

2. What is the significance of the narrator's trip to the grandfather's grave at the beginning of the book? What is the significance of "a full moon rising just as the sun was going down" when father and son were at the grandfather's grave (14)?

The moon rising just as the sun was going down symbolizes the moving from one generation to the next. In that moment, it was as the father, son, and grandfather were all one. Even though the grandfather has passed away in body, he is still alive in spirit. This moment seems significant because of the heavy emphasis on genealogy and origin within the Bible. Three generations of men used by God in different ways are unified. The narrator's trip to the grave also seems to foreshadow what's to come when Jack returns. During his first trip to the grave, John says that he felt his father being pardoned and that he too was in need of pardon. This same theme resurfaces later in the book when he is forced to reconcile with his friend and namesake, Jack.

15. Discuss the narrator's relationships with the women in his life--his mother, his wife Louisa, and his second wife, as well as the women of his congregation.

The narrator expresses deep love and respect for all the women in his life, as he describes them with high reverence and will not say anything negative about them, making sure that his love for them is consistent in his words when mentioning them. Though he does not talk about his mother a lot, he remembers how she loved her kitchen and took care of his family. She was a careful woman and viewed Ames as her only child in a sense, as she was not in contact with her other son. This made Ames very dear to her. He also talks about his deceased wife, Louisa, with love and fondness. He describes how they knew each other from childhood and how she was lovely and energetic, but died in childbirth. He thinks about her and their child frequently, wondering if they would be proud of who he has become. His second wife Lila is most important to him, as he understands the meaning of love when he meets her and is very gentle with her. They have a very sweet relationship, as they are very kind to each other and live to serve one another. She reads all the books she can and asks him questions about theology so that she can pass it on to his son once he is gone. The women in his congregation also love and respect him and would frequently bring him food when he lived alone. He explains that they think he is too wise and knows more than he really does

8. The grandfather claimed to have visions, direct encounters with the Lord. The narrator's father says this was simply typical of the times. How does the narrator reflect on visions? (92)

The narrator views visions as a guiding force that both precedes and forms the person affected. It's God's guiding hand in a person's life. The visions relate to the past and the future, something to understand God and one's self from. They act as both a practical guide to living and as a moral compass for navigating life. Because his father and grandfather differed grateful in values and moral mission, the narrator found a sort of middle ground between the two by using visions as a guiding force while still being grounded in reality and responding to how God worked practically in his relationships. Visions are also a way of passing down the story of generations.

10. Why was it so difficult for the narrator to forgive or accept Jack Boughton? What is the significance of the narrator and Jack having a shared name? Do you see parallels in this relationship with the relationship between the narrator's grandfather and father?

The narrator's father and grandfather have starkly different characteristics. His grandfather was a very passionate abolitionist while his father was focused on peace and nonresistant efforts. Due to this stark contrast in personality, they struggled to build a substantial relationship. In some ways, Jack is like a son to the narrator. The narrator sees Jack as a nuisance to the world and his family initially—just as his grandfather viewed his father. It is a pattern of generational dysfunction in need of mercy/forgiveness.

Why does Weber say that, from the reformers point of view, the development of capitalism was an "unforeseen and even unwished for result?"

The reformers desired purely religious motives for the cause of action, but a desire for money conflicted with those motives. They may have gone as far to say that the spirit of capitalism conflicted with the salvation of souls. They did not see their vision of capitalism would conflict with the hearts of those they wished to be saved.

What was the response of Muhammad's contemporaries to his teachings?

The response was violent and hostile, as the monotheism presented in his teachings threatened the polytheistic norm at the time and the revenue that the 360 shrines in Mecca brought in. The implications of the teaching also disproved of the licentious lifestyle that many followed and did not want to give up. Lastly, his teachings challenged the unjust order that was so prominent at the time

Why do the saying of the Fathers sometimes contradict each other?

The sayings of the Fathers at times contradict each other because they believe that loving God looks different for everyone and there is no one ideal way to follow God. they believed in a common goal but thought there were multiple routes to get there. For instance, one father, Arsenius believed that silence was the basic Christian discipline, while Moses, his best friend, believed in hospitality. They both loved and respected the others' views because they had different methods but the same goal (11).

Describe the subverters? What was Augustine's relationship with them?

The subverters were a group of students who would terrorize the freshman and taunt them for no reason other than their own amusement. Though he did not completely avoid them and would associate and talk with them, he never joined them in their actions.

What were the three main views held on the nature of Christ?

The three primary views on the nature of Christ were (1) Jesus was fully God and part of a three hypostasis, (2) Jesus was a mortal human being, and (3) Christ is the offspring of God, eternal in nature yet separate from God. The Catholic and apostolic traditions affirms Christ's absolute divinity in that the Three have one identical hypostasis or substance—The Father, The Son who is His Word, and the Spirit. There unity is not based on mutual hamroney but on hypostasis (242). Athansius affirmed that Christ is not divine but mortal as the Father's offspring and, therefore, must be distinct (245). The Son is the Father's image and one by nature not hypostasis. The Eastern theolgians believed the Father and Son are two hypostases-one and the same (250).

What are the three stages of relating to God, according to Gregory of Nyssa?

The three stages of relating to God are (1) initial darkness of ignorance, (2) spiritual illumination, (3) and the darkness of the mind in the contemplation of a God who cannot be comprehended. In the life of a monk, this can be seen as (1) serving God out of fear like a slave, (2) serving God out of a desire for reward, and (3) finally pursuing God in sincere love (27).

What is the "way of unknowing"?

The way of unknowing is how we recover the truth of how God created us as His image-bearers rather than absorbing the false identities that culture and men give. Through apophatic prayer, we unknow lies about God and uncover true knowledge if God.

What does Islam mean?

The word "Islam" means to surrender, particularly to God. The root of "Ism" means peace, while the secondary means surrender. The full meaning of Islam is the "peace that comes from surrendering to God" (Smith 222).

What is theoria (insight) and how does it differ from allegory?

Theoria is different from allegory in that it provides historical basis and deeper insight, rather than just symbolism. For theoria to operate the literal sense of the sacred text must remain, there should be a real correspondence between the historical fact and further spiritual object discerned. These two things should be understood together though in different ways (76).

Why do the demons have power over us?

They have no supernatural powers or read our thoughts to tempt us. In reality, they just watch our actions and use our body language as a method of attack. The only power they have over us is power that we allow them to have.

Why shouldn't we judge other people's sins?

We should not judge the sins of others because we ourselves are sinners. A major aspect of humility is recognizing that one is not any better than another and God is the only one who is flawless enough to judge our actions. This puts all humans on the same level, as one is required to recognize that sin is inevitable for us too.

What are the Cultural differences Weber notices between German Protestants and Catholics?

Weber notices that the smaller Catholic participation in modern business life in Germany goes against other observations from other places. In fact, unlike the Protestants, he observed no tendency for German Catholics to develop economically when they were persecuted. He explains that there must be characteristics in their religious beliefs that withstand historic political instances.

According to Weber, what is the Bible's attitude toward organized worldly labor?

Webster argues that worldly labor is a calling-similar to Luther and other Protestant reformers. The Bible views worldly labor as holding both moral and religious grounds.

What are Augustine's reflections on Aristotle?

While Aristotle's work was understood by Augustine, he found that Aristotle only resulted in understanding God in human forms only—being physically applicable to earth but not heaven. It neglected the spiritual, which ultimately made it a falsehood. Augustine believed Aristotle caused people to misconceive God.

What does the title of this chapter mean?

With the increasing Protestant criticism of the Catholic church, there began a split in affiliations, even amongst families. This divided society into different sectors, but inevitably caught up in this division was economic status. Because the Chatolic church held such institutional power and money; this did not change with the radical split, and the protestants were characterized as the poor social strata.

What role does work play in the life of a believer? What religious or spiritual uses does it have?

Work plays a role in the salvation of the believer. Living for Christ means working for Christ. While only God imparts salvation based on one's faith, asceticism and capitalism introduced the idea that your faith could be seen through your work. The more you work, the more faithful you are. Labor is sacred, and the duty to serve God through constant labor is a spiritual vocation or "calling". Subsequently, wealth from work indicates high levels of faith.

Which Origenistic view did Arius reject? Why?

Arius rejected Origens view in eternal generation, in which Origen believed that the Son, though secondary to the Father, was begotten by His Father by an eternal act, in which they are eternally united. Arius believed that since the Son was created by the Father, it is impossible for the Son to have been eternal.

Which New Testament books had the most difficulty making it into the canon?

As the early church decided what would be included in the Canon, they focused primarily on the apostolicity of the books, so books like Hebrews and Revelation were on the fringe for a long period of time. The Western Church was hesitant to include James as well. 4 smaller Catholic epistles, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude, were also considered doubtful as to their canonicity and were absent in most early churches (60).

How does Augustine define friendship?

Augustine defines friendship as a bond between two people that are devoted to pursuing truth and wisdom. This bond comes from the pursuit of the Holy Spirit.

How does Augustine respond to Faustus?

Augustine tells Faustus that he [Faustus] has no real knowledge and that philosophy is useless. This is largely out of disappointment. Due to Faustus' inability to explain science and Manichaeism, Augustine draws closer to God.