History 137AC Midterm

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)

- (highly restrictive) laws were passed at a time of undeclared war with Revolutionary France. -were a series of four laws passed by the U.S. Congress in 1798 amid widespread fear that war with France was imminent. -The four laws - which remain controversial to this day - restricted the activities of foreign residents in the country and limited freedom of speech and of the press -all natives, citizens, denizens, or subjects of the hostile nation or government, being males of the age of fourteen years and upwards, who shall be within the United States, and not actually naturalized, shall be liable to be apprehended, restrained, secured and removed, as alien enemies

Forty-Eighters

- Europeans who participated in or supported the revolutions of 1848 that swept Europe, favored unification of the German people, a more democratic government, and guarantees of human rights -Liberal German refugees who fled failed democratic revolutions and came to America -German immigration was largest group of immigration to US from europe (1820-1900) -Some left after political rebellions Forty eighters - on the losing side -> resettled in the US -Some say the reason why germans moved to the US -fleeing political persecution -Germans mainly moved to midwest and prairie states to become farmers

Aroostook War

- border with canada, who lives on which side -lumberjack dispute (both US and Britain laid claim to same timberland), was a dispute over where northern boundary of maine is (US gets ⅔ of disputed border) 1838-39 -unclear boundary

New York City Draft Riots

- draft went into effect for the union army, wealthy people could pay for a substitute to avoid military service, working class, poor (irish immigrants) revolted -Both sides have a challenge in maintaining numbers - start drafting -Enrollment act by union - draft, some people say take bounty instead of having chance of being drafted (enlistment vs. draft) -working class families could not afford -This is a rich man's war and a poor man's fight -Lincoln announced the emancipation proclamation -> goal of union to abolish slavery -Mass riot trying to overturn it and stop it -Draft riots turned into mass instances of racial violence -Rioters blamed African Americans for the draft (racism) -Why is the goal now not to just defeat the other army but to abolish slavery? -> they are angry and blame blacks for extended efforts of the war

New Netherlands

- dutch settle colonialism in north america in the early 1600s around the hudson river valley -Today what is delaware, eastern pennsylvania, new york, hudson river valley was controlled by the dutch (new amsterdam) -Wars with native american peoples over access to resources (furs) -Dutch and english are major commercial rivals -> Wars with dutch and english over commercial resources -English takes over new netherland and regains control and name it new york -17th century -wanted to capitlize on North American fur trade

Yick Wo. v. Hopkins (1886)

- fought in the supreme court for his rights to work, owned a laundry business and had his license denied and could not work, he said license restriction was a violation of his constitutional rights, he won in the supreme court, chinese used legal system as one of the few avenues to contest their rights

Michael Witgen, Chpt. 3, "The Rebirth of Native Power and Identity," in An Infinity of Nations: How the Native New World Shaped Early North America(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013)

- fur trade (mutually beneficial process) - French and native alliance -social and political relationship based on the obligations that members of an extended family owed to one another -middle ground (hybrid space bridging the Atlantic and native new worlds)

Carl Schurz

- german forty eighter, became leading republican politician and leading general in the civil war in the union army -pressed for high moral standards in government

Uprising of the 20,000 (1909-10)

- largest labor strikes in which during a very long winter that was worked by jewish garment workers brought work to a halt to ask for better conditions --Important to the massive strike - Garment workers walked off the job due to low pay, exploitative and dangerous work practices (shut down garment industry in nyc, one of the biggest industries) -- a branch of AFL, rose to protest low pay in the garment industry and the exploitative sweating system - mainly led by eastern european immigrants (jewish)

"Free Labor" Ideology

- opposed to slave driven economy, white laborers who argue that slave economy harms their own economic interests -Republican party (emerges out of this sectional crisis over slavery and immigration debates) -Ideology of free labor -> believe that slavery should be abolished immediately -oppose slavery and want to prevent its expansion - harms independent white farmers in the north and independent white wage laborers in the north -Forces people (slaves) to work without being paid, this will reduce wages for whites -Small farmers cannot compete against big plantations -German immigrants are more likely to join than irish because of free labor ideology and republicans were hostile to irish immigrants because the party came from Know Nothings that were anti immigrants and anti catholic

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)

- questions of citizenship, belonging, and legal status, about if cherokee were citizens and if not, what were they -Assimilationist agenda (w jefferson ends when jackson becomes president -> orders removal of native americans in US south and expelled to beyond mississippi river -Cherokee say they have this peace treaty with jefferson -argue that they have rights due to this treaty signed -> court said that native americans weren't citizens that could sue and neither were they a foreign power that could have this peace treaty -> argues that they are a ward of the government (a type of dependent on the government) -Trail of tears -series of expulsions where thousands died -prevent the state of Georgia from enforcing a series of laws stripping the Cherokee people of their rights and displacing them from their land, asserting that the laws violated treaties the Cherokees had negotiated with the United States

Steerage Act of 1819

- rare early federal immigration laws, one of first major tools used to document immigrants coming in US -(have records of who came in, where they're from, their age, gender, occupation) ->best we can do for this time period is estimate

"The New York Alien Labor Law," New York Times (November 19, 1914), 10.

- sought to restrict the employment rights of noncitizens within their jurisdictions. -sending employers to jail for hiring foreigners -this is unconstitutional -false patriotism to make citizenship the way to a job -false humanism to make jobs for limited classes -only citizens should be able to build subway, but then the subway would not get built at all and must give time to aliens to adjust -mr. gill wants this law

california commission of immigration and housing

- state government institution, directed at poor immigrants especially in southern california, coercive aimed at mexican women, american standard that immigrants should be adopting -made in response to mass migration to that area, created to serve as a central unit to provide resources for migrants to the city, goal is to assimilate to american race, instill in children, these goals were established by migrants themselves, many residents of california were rural, white, midwesterners -Should encourage, coerce, push immigrants to adopt english as soon as possible, which could lead to forgetting their native languages

Workingmen's Party

- third party that gained control of california government in late 1870s and changed some of california constitution, all white working men that caused a lot of racism -White laborers in CA lead by irish immigrant founded a union, which later became a party, the workingman's party, that argued in favor of a total ban on chinese immigration from US -> in 1870s, became the most popular party in the state of CA and won the election in CA

Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)

- what it meant for legal status of free and slaved, division of free and slave states - scott was trafficked by his master into free states, tried to buy his freedom, master refused, he sued him for it, supreme court rules against scott (he's not free and any african american does not have standing to sue in federal court free or slave because no african american can be a citizen) -Slaves can be trafficked into any other state no matter if states are free or not -This ramps up republican vote in north -> abraham lincoln is elected, says that we will try to confine slavery for where it is

Naturalization Act of 1790

- who could be a citizen and how, immigrants could be citizen if they were "free white persons" -Immigrants who become citizens have to be free white persons who live 2 years in the states, over the years increased to 5 years, then 14, then 13, then 5 -did not recognize native Americans/blacks as citizens -Free african americans citizenship depended on the state in which they lived -south recognized as inhabitants but not citizens, in north recognized as citizens

The "Padroni" System

- working for work in the construction industry -Italian immigrants predominantly migrated to cities -Worked in the construction industry -Not looking to move permanently (construction allowed for easy relocation) -Encouraged and recruited to work in this field -padroni system - italian labor recruiter would encourage italian men to move to certain cities under the promise of work

Bacon's Rebellion

-1667, indentured servants are forced to move further west and they don't like this because they want to be part of bigger plantation and crops, they also want berkeley to fight natives in west, berkeley refuses, indentured servants rebel and they win at first, but then berkeley comes back and hangs leaders and makes other servants serve more time -Indentured servants: "bound" to employers for term of labor in return for transportation cost -more penal convicts in response to this rebellion -more death penalty for more crimes, also used for coerced labor -The immediate cause of the rebellion was Governor Berkeley's refusal to retaliate for a series of Native American attacks on frontier settlements. In addition, many colonists wished to attack and claim Native American frontier land westward, but they were denied permission by Gov. Berkeley -1676 - Nathaniel Bacon and other western Virginia settlers were angry at Virginia Governor Berkley for trying to appease the Doeg Indians after the Doegs attacked the western settlements. The frontiersmen formed an army, with Bacon as its leader, which defeated the Indians and then marched on Jamestown and burned the city. The rebellion ended suddenly when Bacon died of an illness.

Excerpt from: Rémi Tremblay, One Came Back [Un Revenant], Translated by Margaret S. Langford (New York: IFP, 2001 [1884])

-900$ bonus was being offered to anyone serving in US Navy -Eugene went to recruiting office for army, not navy accidentally and they recognized him so he had to end his break soon and go back to war (without complaint)

Forty-Niners

->early gold miners that rushed to get to california as soon as they received word of the striking of gold in the hills (1849) - people going for initial gold rush -Within days after the mexican american war, gold is discovered within the foothills of the sierra nevada -Hundreds of thousands of would be miners flocked to CA to mine to look for gold in rivers and streams (to today what we call the central valley) -Last 1840s to mid 1850s is the gold rush era is CA -mining is done by prospectors, laborers Panning for gold in the cold weather, rivers -the magnitude of male migration to CA only compares to military mobilization (draft) -10 years after becoming a state, california has bigger population than 7 states -CA has the largest percent of immigrants compared to its overall population compared to any other states by 1860 -People from all of the world came (australia, china, peru, chile, canada, ireland, french) -> made california the most ethnoracial and diverse area in the world, there was also a lot of violence -extractive colonialism -Many women came to be prostitutes, cook food (many chinese women were trafficked into CA)

Immigration Restriction League

-A Nativist group who wanted to restrict immigration into the U.S. to certain groups they deemed desirable. Because of them congress passed a bill in 1897 requiring a literacy test for immigrants. -late 19th century, leading anti immigrant lobbying forces in the country, created by harvard educated whites, said european immigration threatening demography and democracy of the US, on the theory of eugenics -There are definable differences between peoples and study their features and determine who are superior and inferior (eugenics) -1907 - congress formed the dillingham commission - launch a massive investigation of immigrant patterns to the US and studying the effects of immigration, eugenics - issue a 41 volume report, immigration was a threat to the stability of the US

nativism

-A policy of favoring native-born individuals over foreign-born ones -Nativism tapped into fears of racial subversion, economic subversion, religious subversion, security subversion, political subversion -leads to xenophobia -Mid 1850s expression of nativism: Massive influx of foreigners to US Most farmer migrants came at this time German speaking neighborhoods and communities, german language could be the second language to english

Genet Affair

-A series of American attacks on British vessels while under the French flag organized by Edmond Genet, a French envoy. -early major diplomatic crisis in american foreign policy, a lot to do with whether the US is going to become entangled with wars allied with or against revolutionary france -debate centered around whether the United States should intervene in the French Republic's war with Great Britain and what constituted "neutrality" under young American laws -American revolution inspires/leads to many more wars of independence -> First of these are from french revolution -France supported the american revolution -Early 1790s, revolutionary forces would execute in downtown paris, monarchy is overthrown and a republic is established (arguably the most powerful monarch is overthrown) -Countries around france dont like whats going on -France asks US for help -> edmond genet was someone who worked for this (sent as a diplomat to appeal for economic and military support at Washington) -> he goes to american cities and calls upon the public to raise funds for french -US is trying to stay neutral and tells france to stop -> jefferson wants to support french (democratic republics) and hamilton wants to stay neutral (federalists) -genet resigns and asks for asylum because washington wants him to go back and expel his actions, but if he does, then he will be executed -> asylum granted -Alien and sedition acts (1798) -> trying to avoid going to war -US does not go to war with france -These acts put a dent in the image of america being an asylum for all mankind

anti-catholocisim

-Against Irish -The rival religion to protestants living in the US -This immigrants struck protestants as a threat (religious and political threat mostly) -Inner-city poverty (minority group that were associated in the minds as white native born people as the definition of the urban pauper) -Irish suffered highest rates of disease, were caught for drunkenness and other crimes more often -Original immigration laws were changed to exclude people like this that would be a burden on the society (pauper laws) -Was also a racial fear to the irish (were white by US law), but most people did not see them as white -Irish are called brutish -> their heads are too big, skin is weirdly tinted, seen as savages, seen an incapable of assimilation or participation in political -Anti catholicism was the cause of xenophobia and nativism -Anti -Catholicism was popular (protests) before irish potato famine (before immigration) -Anti catholicism flourished because it was regarded as an obstacle to progress, a threat to democracy, and incompatible with american republic (people must listen blindly to authority) -Now it is comparable to islam in america or anti-communism -1844 rioting in philadelphia over the bible -> the local bishop was born in ireland and called for the elimination of anti catholic textbooks in schools, and allowing children to read catholic version of bible -1830-1860 drinking was redefined as a problematic activity that undermined your credentials to be part of the respectable middle class -Temperance and anti-catholicism Immigrants are perceived as standing outside of middle class

Know-Nothing Party

-America for americans -Secret rituals, said they knew nothing if they were asked about their rituals (associated witht their secrecy, Didn't talk about their goals, what they were doing -1854 sent delegates to 13 states with a platform KNOW_NOTHINGS: -Wanted to extend probationary period for naturalization from 5 to 21 years -Require king james bible in public schools -Disqualify from citizenship those with allegiances to foreign prince, power, -Disqualify immigrants from holding political office -Restrict and reverse pauper immigration WHIGS (US party system 1848) -Internal improvements, communications, commercial expanish -Native born protestants / evangelical reform -Middle class DEMOCRATS -Territorial expansion -Catholic immigrants/religious pluralism -Slaveholders -Urban workers -Succeeded in keeping slavery off the table of partisan debate -After 1854, whig party dies, couldn't be a national party anymore (no longer a party that is viable in the south) -Breakdown of the parties -Nativism became a banner for reorganizing american politics -Let's talk about things that really bind us together instead of slavery (know nothing party) -Know nothings were anti slavery party -Passed personal liberty laws for slaves -Abolished imprisonment for death -Passed child labor laws -Desegregated boston public schools -Voted to deport irish paupers -Allowed women to keep their property -Know nothings did the best where they represented places towards racial justice, which is opposite of what their theory was (nativism) -1850s nativism of know nothings was mainly anti catholic

Emma Goldman

-An outspoken radical who was deported after being arrested on charges of being an anarchist, socialist, or labour agitator. -women's rights advocate, immigrant, was arrested and deported for her activism, took away her husband's citizenship to take away her citizenship -Attorney general A. Mitchell Palmer round up political radicals and arrest and detain them = palmer raids, associates these strikes and political acts of violence with immigrants -Immigrants are especially targeted in the palmer raids -Emma goldman - eastern european jewish immigrant, anarchist and women's rights political activist and organizer, targeted in the palmer raids and targeted for deportation, her husband had lost his citizenship so the government argued that if her husband lost it then she did too

New England Town Meetings

-Democratic style of government. Towns and cities grew around gathering places, and allowed mass participation in politics. - unique form of political governance that continues today and are direct democracies -voice vote of direct democracy (budget of school is set by these people), 18 and older can vote, these were created in each of these towns because they are expected to have their own school in each town to teach the bible, produced higher literacy rates

Bering Land Bridge

-Eastern siberia and western alaska were connected allowing a pathway between these continents (during ice age)->made migration possible , significantly low ocean levels -people of south and North America came from Siberia around 13000 BCE - one possibility -Native Americans came later by boat when bridge had melted -Melting of ice caps brings about mass extinction of much of food supply and warming caused possible developments in agriculture-farming squash, corn and beans became a staple of diets in new mexico, central mexico, peru

Homestead act of 1862

-Encouraged westward settlement by allowing heads of families to buy 160 acres of land for a small fee ($10-30); settlers were required to develop and remain on the land for five years. Over 400,000 families got land through this law. -passed by congress during the civil war, major agenda item for the republican party, tried to reduce power of autonomous native american power, encouraged independent farmers to move/expand, open to US citizens and those who declared intentions of becoming citizens, populations of western states grew due to this -This mass migration changed where people live in america and the size of agricultural output as well -Significant growth in agricultural production in further south and further midwest -> become major hub of agricultural production -wheat, corn (1900) -Largest german immigration to the plain states and dominant in many rural regions, many canadian, immigrants, scandinavian peoples, -> not the major group moving here, italians are the major group -In the 1880s, 1 in 10 people from norway moved to the US -> this because there was better medicine in scandinavia so more people are surviving and not enough farmland (subdividing farmland to each child), farmers do not own their own land,

King Philip's War (1675-1676)

-Engaged colonials and native people of New England, one of the bloodiest wars of history -the English started coming and brought many diseases that killed many native Americans -Jamestown - first European settlement -English and native Americans fought in a war -> English victory, banished all native Americans from Jamestown -King Philip's War (1675-76) -> all native americans band together against the english, but the english were far more numerous and they won, native leaders executed and others were sold into slavery -> their goal was to erase their tribal identity -1675 - A series of battles in New Hampshire between the colonists and the Wompanowogs, led by a chief known as King Philip. The war was started when the Massachusetts government tried to assert court jurisdiction over the local Indians. The colonists won with the help of the Mohawks, and this victory opened up additional Indian lands for expansion.

Olaudah Equiano, Chapter 2, The Interesting Narrative and Other Writings(1789)

-Equiano, a former slave, wrote this memoir and call-to-action in 1789. It soon became - and has remained - the most famous English-language abolitionist and especially anti-slave-trade text -experience of being kidnapped and being put into the boat -Why are parents to lose their children, brothers their sisters, or husbands their wives? Surely this is a new refinement in cruelty, which, while it has no advantage to atone for it, thus aggravates distress, and adds fresh horrors even to the wretchedness of slavery.

Literacy Test Act (1917)

-Fear of foreigners increased with the start of World War 1 1914-1918. Nativists called for immigration restrictions. One plan called for immigrants to take a test before they could come to the united states. Earlier attempts to pass this law were vetoed. This was not. Provisions: An immigrant to the United States had to pass a literacy test in English or his/her own language before they would get admitted. Effect: It kept very little Immigrants out. -- a time of nationalism, patriotism, and anti immigrants, can limit immigration to the US - massive propaganda campaign

"The Middle Ground"

-France control in canada and then moved into central and south north america (low french population), while french claimed this part of the country, they did not control it -> they were controlled by native american communities, but french presence and market economy increased competition for beaver skins etc. which changed native american tribes for trade and caused more conflict -> constant on and off warfare of competing native american tribes for selling beaver skins ==The Middle Ground -a "process of accommodation" (beaver trade) and "the place in between" (french claim to territory but did not maintain control)->unable to maintain power due to Native American power -In middle ground, french are extractive colonialism -White examines the "middle ground" as both a place and a process of mutual accommodation between Algonquian-speaking Indians and French, British, and Americans. The middle ground consisted of creative misunderstandings in which Indians and Europeans attempted to build a set of mutually understandable practices - Great Lakes region between 1650-1815)

Proclamation Line of 1763

-In this colonial era, settler colonies were governed under british laws of subjecthood -> literally a person who is subjected to the rule of the crown (king or queen), owes their loyalty to king/queen, enjoys the protection of that kingdom's laws and the legal system -If one were born in england, one was a british subject theoretically, -> giving up nationality/ british subjecthood was impossible, would be seen as a traitor -Stated that no colonists could settle in lands to the west of the Appalachian mountains-- made the colonists very upset - late 1750s, early 1760s, early settler colonies defeat the french in ohio and quebec, in 1763 the british crown sets a line (Proclamation Line of 1763) along the appalachian mountains (white settler colonialism cannot move and establish farms west of this land), the goal of colonialism was to expand, this creates colonial crisis and gives rise to american revolution -> citizenship emerges in place of subjecthood

"Aliens ineligible to citizenship"

-Legal category that defined immigrants from east and west Asia as ineligible to naturalize (unable to become US citizens) -exclusionary laws towards Chinese 1900s

Johnson-Reed Act of 1924

-Legislation that made passports and visas a requirement for entry to the United States and established national-origin quotas for European immigrants. The act was overtly racist in that it was designed to increase the Nordic Population in the United States and put a stop to the growth of other groups. - each country was issued a quota that dated back to what the US population used to look like a decade before, due to immigration restriction league -second of a series of national origins laws aimed at restricting immigration from asia and curtailed immigration from southern and eastern, quota based on national population in 1910 and moved it to the population in 1990 and set a 2% quota, expands quota, quota system really was about eugenics system, really affected russia and italy, china/india now only restricted to white people living in china (tiny quotas so if a white person was born in this country they could come back to the US) -Francis galton (english statistician) - invented the term eugenics to supposedly chart how genes and inheritance affect broad population outcomes, he believed that this is deterministic, that people with bad genes are more prone to crime, not limited to the sphere of immigration, states adopted mandatory sterilization laws against idiots/disabled people

Chaco Canyon

-Major site of ancestral Puebloan people, massive community (examples of first peoples) -farming requires staying put for an extended period of time -> some populations did develop permanent settlements -> chaco canyon (higher class, traded with other communities) -Climate change (1100-1200) caused them to move-> meant less water, forced ancestral puebloan communities to live in smaller groups because could not be sustained with such little water -> smaller groups led to formation of identities who adapted to this changing environment -Changing climate forced these developments - overuse in resources over declining water led to more warfare, civil war, and abandonment of larger permanent population centers

Meyer v. Nebraska (1919)

-On April 9, 1919, Nebraska enacted a statute called "An act relating to the teaching of foreign languages in the state of Nebraska," commonly known as the Siman Act. It imposed restrictions on both the use of a foreign language as a medium of instruction and on foreign languages as a subject of study. U.S. Supreme Court case that held that a 1919 Nebraska law restricting foreign-language education violated the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment -growing effort by state governments for americanization --Many states flip on the war and become intensely hostile towards germans -Bans the use of foreign language in school - -Supreme court strikes this down as a civil liberties violation -All things german were under intense scrutiny in WWI -became one of most anti german states overnight after being the most german friendly state

Barbados-plantation economies

-Plantation based slave economies expands to Caribbean islands (first and most widely) -Sugar developed as the main staple crop of these islands -Barbados was an extremely small island, 400,000 slaves were trafficked to this place, --sugar plantations (labor intensive and intensely profitable economy in 15, 16, 17oos) -It made financial sense to work these slaves to death and then continue to buy more slaves -Many more young male slaves than women 420,000 were trafficked to US -South colonies came from Barbados and established the same slave sugar plantation economy

peoples party (populist party)

-Political party formed in 1892 by the Farmers' Alliance to advance the goals of the Populist movement. Populists sought economic democracy, promoting land, electoral, banking, and monetary reform. Republican victory in the presidential election of 1896 effectively destroyed the People's Party. -western/southern driven 3rd party that challenged the system, early 1890s - said needs to be much bigger power of federal government on railroad -Power of small powers was decreasing due to the power of urban american -1892 - election, farmers alliance runs a candidate -Did pretty well in the plain states (west), south -Argued in favor of federal control of transportation rates on the railroad - establish sub treasuries that would ensure higher prices for crops, but Lost the election -helping to farmers

Settler-Colonialism

-Settler colonialism - europeans/their descendants become majority of populations, appropriation of land and resources, direct settler-colonialism' control with greater gender balance -Extractive Colonialism - indigenous peoples (usually) remain majority of the population, appropriation of land, indirect colonial control (generals or commanders) via (mostly male) "administrators" -The english in new england are settler colonialism (13 colonies) -Virginia: mostly men, anglicans (main reason for moving was not religion), some "gentry" but mostly working-class/peasants, gold seekers (no gold) and then tobacco farmers, wanted to get rich and moved here to participate in this tobacco economy, extractive colonialism -Massachusetts: family migration, puritans (religion was a major motivating factor), "middling" classes, small farmers, merchants, fishing/waling, school teachers (to teach the bible), large migration, People moving here were more literate and had savings, Most were farmers, but did not have staple crop economies

Jane Adams (1860-1935)

-She founded Hull House, America's first settlement house, (in Chicago) to help immigrants assimilate through education, counseling, and municipal reform efforts. She also advocated pacifism throughout her life, including during World War I, and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. --mainly working class immigrants coming, more settlement houses made in the nation, this model was adopted in most places in the country, sometimes immigrants see this as patronizing (telling them how to be better americans, mothers, and a way of replacing one's own culture) -inspired by the social gospel -philosophy in protestant christianity, do more to tackle social/economic problems to create a christian commonwealth (Christian and republican society), mainly women trying to put it into practice, challenges of graduating school and being told that they could not pursue their professions because they are women

second industrial revolution

-Steel, chemicals, electricity. This is the name for the new wave of more heavy industrialization starting around the 1860s. --changing forms of industrial, using steel and coal by using fuels, US becomes the world's leading industrial power because of immigration (labor force) -Increase of work in services, decrease of work in agriculture and industry in the overall labor force -This is all happening in the context of the second industrial revolution -exemplified by urbanization, growth of heavy industries (steel, oil), industrial output growing -Immigrants mainly moved to cities - italians and eastern europeans jews were the 2 largest groups because of expanding jobs in factories, industries, dominant in east coast cities (new york)

Excerpts from: Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur, Letters from An American Farmer (1782)

-The rich and the poor are not so far removed from each other as they are in Europe -each person works for himself. -Here man is free -He is an American, who leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds -Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men,

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)

-Treaty that ended the Mexican War, granting the U.S. control of Texas, New Mexico, and CA in exchange for $15 million - treaty that ended the mexican american war, how that relates to citizenship and access to property rights -Mexicans in this territory could choose mexican or american citizenship -If they remained on US side of border for more than a year, would automatically become a citizen -In order to become an american citizen had to be a free white persons -So that means that mexican are recognized as free white persons -Peace treaty recognized property rights of mexican settler colonials -Treaty citizens - people made citizens by the treaty ->These people in theory have rights, but in practice will be contested -Spanish speakers remain the majority of the population HOW War STARTED: -Settler colonialism actively promote moving into texas -> contest powers of native americans -Many white americans want to move to texas -> establish their own farms and grazing farms (anglo settler colonials from the south) -Mexican government says ok this is how we will expand texas population (however they have abolished slavery) -American immigrants to texas became the largest population there and increasingly traffic slaves across the border =Mexicans want to stop this -Mid 1830s a revolt breaks out, texas war of independence, tejanos and american immigrants about santa ana -Texas achieves its independence, but the mexican government refuses to recognize the treaty that was received from santa ana If texas wanted to become a state, would see that as an act of war -Manifest destiny -US tries to expand -mexican americann war -By 1800s US had gained control of most of mexican republic -American forces continue to invade texas, then naval attack, then march on mexico city -War ends in early 1848 after US army occupies Mexico City -US agrees to stop occupation of what is today Mexico, but keeps its occupation in CA, NV, New Mexico, Arizona and pays mexico some money

Nativism and Slavery Poltics

-We've already given the vote to racial inferiors (irish), so african americans are at least if not more deserving -> atlantic monthly -Other people say that there are a group of good immigrants (irish, racial sameness, they will eventually become us), african americans are completely different they will never become like us

The melting pot

-a place where different peoples, styles, theories, etc. are mixed together(an ideal) -Time of immigrant assimilation/coercion -Inclusive (people affect US culture as US culture also affects them) yet also exclusive (inequality within US) -Was the title of a popular play in the progressive era -> made the term popular (1908) -later on questions if all people fit into the melting pot and who is not (blacks are not included, racism does not show everyone fitting in) -Use it to analyze how people have analyzed immigration history

Tammany Hall

-a political organization within the Democratic Party in New York city (late 1800's and early 1900's) seeking political control by corruption and bossism (The domination of a political party by a single, powerful person (the boss)), -machine style politics ( system whereby local city businesses started to control city governments), -party organization, headed by a single boss or small autocratic group, that commands enough votes to maintain political and administrative control of a city, county, or state" -native born americans criticize, -exerted power over city government of new york from 1874-1933, many of their representatives are irish immigrants, controlled municipal jobs, represented corruption (natives said this is the result of immigrants participating in the system), -Leaders of machine politics saw themselves as protecting the working class and giving help to find jobs and helping them out if they were harmed -Not just native born protestants criticizing this, but also immigrants saying that this only helped irish immigrants

Ira Berlin, Chpt. 2, "The Transatlantic Passage," in The Making of African America: The Four Great Migrations(New York: Viking Press, 2010)

-africans/slaves racial mixing -change in nature of slavery (plantation slaves = inhumane) -very difficult passage -culture transformed by mixing

Excerpts from: "Irish Immigrant Letters Home"

-annah Curtis to her brother John Curtis - families struggling with food scarcity, poverty, and the challenges of everyday life -asking for money

"Articles of Agreement" (1849)

-between an Anglo migrant to California and a Chinese immigrant who signs this "labor contract" in return for paying the costs of transportation to California

Rachel F. Moran, Chpt. 2, "Antimiscegenation Laws and the Enforcement of Racial Boundaries," in Interracial Intimacy: The Regulation of Race and Romance (University of Chicago Press, 2001)

-blacks were diminished as persons marked with a. taint of slavery even if they were free -segregation in sex, marriage, and family for blacks and asians -asians were seen as unassimilable, unfit for citizenship -blacks could form same racial families, but Chinese usually remained single because there were not enough single women -japanese were successful - threatened white superiority -filipinos demanded the right to date and marry women of there choice because they were form an American colony

Hebrew immigrant aid society

-coming out of religious community (jewish orgs), offering legal and financial help when first arrived and socioeconomics -an access to legal information and key point for refugee centers, providing job information, where someone might live, how to connect family members (immigrant advocacy organization) -1880s

International Slave Trade Ban of 1808

-congress banning the entry to new slaves into the US, did not ban the slave trade in the US, not always strictly enforced -were not abolished within the borders of the nation because of the development of cotton gin which dramatically expanded the production of cotton in the deeper south

United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898)

-contested in the supreme court, a US born asian citizen had his citizenship contested his citizenship on a trip abroad because he was born to asian parents even though he was born in the US -went on a trip to china and when he re entered the US, his citizenship was contested by immigration officials, they said that as a child of asian parents he was ineligible to be a citizen even though he was born in the US, court said 14th amendment recognizes birthright citizenship -14th amendment (1868) - citizenship and civil rights (birthright citizenship, "due process" and "equal protection" clauses, representation penalty -former slaves are now recognized as american citizens

Repatriation Agent

-countries that prevented out migration to the US and some sending countries hired agents to encourage immigrants to return home -Repatriation efforts to convince people to go back -> help your family that still lives in canada, there is land for sale if you come back, -very maternal in canada vs the americanized women (gender, sexist things to try to convince people to not go and if they do go, then think about coming back -Manly man guy in canada and the guy without work in america -> say instead of going to america, just move farther north -> effect of leaving on french canadian economy -1875 -canada passed its own Repatriation acts to ask agents in new england to publish articles and to talk in church about how great it would to go back to quebec and be a settler colonial and find new towns farther north -French canadians were trying to make sure that they would maintain their social cultural norms fro quebec even if they did keep living there -Single women from quebec moving to new england would keep quebec alive -> nuns, their role as teachers could pass on language, cultural, religious values to immigrant community

Linda Kerber, Chpt. 1, "'No Political Relation to the State': Conflicting Obligations in the Revolutionary Era," in No Constitutional Right to be Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998)

-coverture -women were just residents, only men participated actively in the commonwelath -women synonymous to slaves -lived through their husbands

Nellie Grant

-daughter of president ulysses s. Grant, citizenship status of US women that married immigrant born men - married a british guy and lived in britain for a while, due to her marriage, some people presumed to have lost her citizenship as she moved abroad and lost her citizenship (she was the son of the president) -She would divorce her husband and move back to the US, passed a congressional act that clarified that she was a citizen (most women would live in legal limbo and would not have a congressional act passed) -Then it became that any american women marrying a foreign man lost her citizenship

New York Staats-Zeitung

-deep roots of german language in american society in the 1800s -Wide german immigration made possible the widespread proliferation of german language in public life, newspapers, education, business, theater performances

Loyalists

-describes settler colonialism of the british colonies that remained loyal to the crown --American revolution was also a civil war -> allegiance between the colonies and the monarch had been broken, all members of these colonies are now citizens -In practice, the citizenship status is not deployed to (loyalists), 100,000 loyalists fled or were banished, in the context of war, the loyalists abandoned their rights by fighting against americans -Many slaves could have freedom if they joined the british army and all slaves that fled their masters in america to join the british -> majority were recaptured by the end of the war but sometimes british honored their commitment -Treaty of paris in 1783 signed -> US wins the war -Nothing clearly articulates who is and is not a citizen or who can become a citizen until naturalization act

"Jacksonian Democracy"

-early to mid 1800s, voting rights are expanding from being based on property ownership to all white citizen male voting (expanding suffrage rights) -Andrew jackson (because of his brutality) becomes famous in the war of 1812 -> britain vs. united states (most people will say it was a draw, nothing changed, some people say canada won because the US invaded it) -Becomes president but before he loses his first election, supporters argue that if more people had rights to vote and less property rights, he would have won. Once these restrictions are repealed he wins -Jacksonian era -> time of expansion of voting rights, first step (but also being restricted for other peoples) -democracy ruled by the common man

Foreign Miners' Tax Act of 1852

-efforts to exclude immigrants to access to those mines , tax act designed to limit access to the mines to not citizens (targeted chinese immigrants) -Chinese immigrants were a threat to their labor -> articulate by overt racism -levying a twenty dollars per month tax on each foreigner engaged in mining to non citizens (1850) -changed to 3$ in 1852, but would increase over the years -targeted at Chinese who were only making 6$

Mary Antin, The Promised Land (1912)

-even if things in America were very poor and bad-just because they were American they were seen as superior -Mary nation came from russia -americanication -saw that all men were equal -education -patriotism -hopes of father

Page Act (1875)

-federal law that directed about gender (chinese immigrant women), federal government increases power in controlling who comes in out of US -Many chinese women that immigrated worked in the sex industry - trafficked, kidnapped, signed contracts that they could not read, comprised 70% chinese women immigrants living in california -- federal law banned the entry of contract laborers and sex workers specifically from china -One of the first immigration laws that targeted a specific race due to gender stereotypes -Created a presumption in law that a chinese immigrant women had to prove that she was not a sex worker

Knights of Columbus

-founded by immigrants as a mutual aid society, key way that working call people could join a group and contribute to its finances which could potentially be used to pay for their families (health) -formed as a mutual aid society - offered men membership that had to pay yearly dues, if a member could no longer work then this member could get direct help from this society -1880s

Family Recruitment

-french canadians crossing borders into new england that came as whole families in search of family employment (were recruited as whole families) -French canadians would want to leave and work in the factories of new england because it is so cold and it is hard to grow wheat and the pay is better in increasing number of textile mills in america -Many french canadian families were recruited to go to america to work (factory owners/ textile mill owners wanted whole families to move for child labor and reduce labor costs and the if the whole family moves, they would be more expected to stay) mid 1800s

Alice Kessler-Harris, "Organizing the Unorganizable: Three Jewish Women and their Union," Labor History Vol. 17, no. 1 (1976):

-garment worker labor organizers faced barriers of class and gender and sought to form class- and gender-based alliances -rejected traditional marriage -ethic and call conflict between women -hard to unionize women

San Patricios

-group of Irish deserters who fought for the Mexican army because of religious persecution during the Mexican/ American war -group of american immigrants that fought in the mexican american war that actually changed sides and fought with the mexican army -Rise in anti immigrant sentiment (know nothing party) -This is tied to anti catholicism -> many immigrants coming in are catholic irish immigrants fleeing the potato famine -Hostility towards them by commanding officers due to religion -Saint patrick's battalion- Rebellion - these immigrants switch sides to mexican army -New independent nation of mexico -> texas was very sparsely populated

naturalization act of 1906

-had to know English to become a citizen -federal intervention in progressive era, president roosevelt saying that the power of immigration powers in washington should be expanded - raising costs and documents necessary to become a citizen, taking control out of city and state governments and putting into hands of federal authorities --reducing the amount of people becoming citizen of so many restrictions -Transnational america - we act as if we wanted americanization to occur on our terms, without the consent of the immigrants

Irish Potato Famine

-how there was a significant rise in english immigration, how it has been remembered as the single example of causing irish immigration to the US -Potato famine -> massive agrarian catastrophe of main crop, land practices that are squeezing population in southern and western ireland -> starvation and malnutrition related diseases -Many families that could afford this passage moved to US, England, Scotland, Canada, Australia -By 1850s, workforce is increasingly led by immigrants (irish) -Most irish immigrants are not moving as families after potato famine, most are young and single, but there is gender balance -Irish encounter a lot of xenophobia when trying to enter workforce (due to anti catholicism) -However irish are doing better than other immigrant communities (like canadian) -> speak english, are immediately employable, lower rates of return migration (months long voyage back),

"The Chinese Panic," Harper's Weekly (May 20, 1882)

-hypocrisy of nativists (and even some Irish immigrants) in framing their arguments for Chinese Exclusion. -Why not suspend the Irish immigration for ten years, and imprison the honest Irishman who comes of his own free will to get higher wages and to improve his condition? Why not require all those who are already here to obtain certificates from the collectors of ports, and to produce passports if they wish to move about the country? Why not enact that Irishmen who are not laborers shall be admitted to the country only with passports, and that the words "Irish laborers" shall be construed to mean both skilled and unskilled laborers? -all of these things are necessary for the Chinese

"Imagined Communities"

-imagining membership -trying to define nationalism -1983 - "print languages laid the bases from national consciousness" --the media can perpetuate stereotypes through images. By showing certain images, the audience will choose which image they relate to the most, furthering the relationship to that imagined community. -where do national identities come from? Where does nationalism come from? -> about imagining oneself as part of a community, identity -> sees this emerging in the colonies, the basis for this was the creation of the press -socially constructed community, imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of that group -It's the experience of fighting against someone together helps to form an identity Britons (1992) -Benjamin Franklin writes about nativism -> trying to rally 13 colonies and combine their common britishness against another other (native americans and french), stop thinking about yourselves are massachusetts or new yorkness -communities that are socially constructed by those who see themselves as part of them

Anna Pegler-Gordon, "Debating the Racial Turn in U.S. Ethnic and Immigration History,"

-inclusion vs. exclusion -tried to define their whiteness

Gwendolyn Mink, Chpt. 2, "Old Labor and New Immigrants," in Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990)

-industrialization needed expanded labor force = immigrants -immigration created and hardened divisions within the working class, separating old from new immigrants -irish and old immigrants united to get rid of new -received low wages but also would not assimilate into the union -low wages = low intelligence of new

Carol Wilson, "'From Their Free Homes into Bondage': The Abduction of Free Blacks into Slavery," Freedom at Risk: The Kidnapping of Free Blacks in America, 1780-1865 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2015),

-kidnapping most common due to age, poverty, geography -done out of greed/need for money -nobody would help- outright discrimination -cannon-johnson gang, even police afraid to confront -pennsylvania abolition society tried to help

Rock Springs Massacre (1885)

-largest episode of overt white riders attacking a chinese community in the broader rocky mountain west --wyoming, chinese immigrants were massacred by white rioters, others fled the town, biggest episode of violence in smaller towns, but it was not unique -Chinese immigrants concentrated in larger cities where they formed larger communities (SF (china town), seattle, etc) -largest amount in san Francisco -merchant escaped poverty only

International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union

-largest labor strikes -Workers were directly employed by a company producing garments (large companies that paid hourly wages), but many others were not paid in an hourly wage but paid on the sweating system (worked in a much smaller shop and was paid on the basis of how much they produced) = a lot of child labor (family wage) - a branch of AFL, rose to protest low pay in the garment industry and the exploitative sweating system - mainly led by eastern european immigrants (jewish)

"Arizona's Law on Aliens is Protested," San Francisco Chronicle (December 6, 1914), 31

-late-1914 as state governments in Arizona and New York sought to restrict the employment rights of noncitizens within their jurisdictions. -prostests that it violates the 14th amendment

"Anti-Miscegenation" Laws

-laws that banned interracial marriage -late 1880s. 28 states adopted laws banning interracial marriage (in the south, midwest, and north) -Anti-miscegenation laws - banned interracial marriage (white and african american/asian american) -Warned that if slavery was abolished, republicans would encourage interracial marriage -African american politicians in the south stayed away from repealing interracial marriage -Racist rhetoric of black men as threats to white women -Laws became more enforced in the west into 1939 (predominantly in the west) -These laws did not prevent from couples going to significant lengths to get married to the people who they loved -> could travel to washington to get a marriage license -> states were supposed to recognize out of state contracts -Never a law passed against irish or italian immigrant marriages -All of these laws were passed against one particular race and whites (not marriage between blacks and asians for example)

Susan Lee Johnson, Chpt. 4, "Mining Gold and Making War," Roaring Camp: The Social World of the California Gold Rush (New York: W.W. Norton, 2000)

-lots of tension over everything -white opposition to black labor -ethnic and racial wars (chilean war, "French Revolution", mariposa war) -hostility towards Mexicans in mines -state backed up anglo rule in the mines -foreign miners tax -"French Revolution"-French, Mexican, chilean miners did uprising -gender equality in native americans

Hydraulic (Gold) Mining

-mass use of hydropower to get harder to get gold (labor and resource intensive), big business oriented mining which comes after -late 1850s -Takes more energy to access harder to access gold as it is harder to find now -Form of labor is also changing too: individuals (prospectors, laborers) replaced by big industry style mining -wage laborers

Erika Lee, "The Chinese Exclusion Example: Race, Immigration, and American Gatekeeping, 1882-1924," Journal of American Ethnic History Vol. 21, no. 3 (Spring 2002)

-nited States Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act on 6 May 1882. This law prohibited the immi gration of Chinese laborers for a period of ten years and barred all Chinese immigrants from naturalized citizens -threats, undesirable, unassailable, racial inferiority, the worst kind of immigrant -became gatekeeping US

Castle Garden

-the first immigrant processing station on the east coast, operating between 1855 and 1890. -immigrant processing station run by new york authorities (state authorities) before the federal immigration process begun, rise of federal immigration restriction and powers -not just state laws anymore -In May 1855, the Commissioners of Emigration leased an old fort in lower Manhattan known as Castle Garden to build an immigrant landing station where the commissioners alone could supervise the landing process. By prohibiting the entry of unauthorized persons into the depot, the officials sought to strengthen the protection of newcomers from runners at the time of arrival.48 The construction of the Castle Garden depot provoked fiery protests not only from the runners but also from residents and businessmen in lower Manhattan. New Yorkers believed that Castle Garden would become "a pest house" and draw poverty- stricken foreigners who would "certainly spread pestilential diseases of every kind among us."

Louisiana civil law

-one of first political territories which is incorporated directly into US, distinct legal system until other 49 states -Britain recognized the US western boundary as the mississippi river -On the other side of the river lay this broad territory called louisiana -> smaller settler colonial presence, trade harbors -Shortly after war of independence, louisiana is transferred to spain -Louisiana purchase 1803-> purchased without the consent of native american powers with france (which did not own that territory), purchased from french even if louisiana is claimed by Spanish because they secretly transfer their claim to french in 1800s -Settler colonial expansion -> desire for ever expanding farmland, wanted mississippi river for economic reasons and to be able to cross the appalachian mountains (makes US want louisiana) -> spain threaten that US won't have access to new orleans, so US buys it all -Spanish, french, automatically assume american citizenship that were living in louisiana territory -> most things operate in french -Louisiana becomes a state and US recognizes french and spanish civil law code/legal system (legislative) vs. english common law code (based on presidence)

Central Pacific Railroad

-part of the first transcontinental railroad that was built, laborers were largely chinese immigrants who were largely excluded in the representation of this history -(chinese formed key labor force that made it possible) -Anti chinese xenophobia and violence were on a larger scope that the prior nativist episodes -> subjects of racism, violence from white workers (chinese were being paid lower wages and they were threatening a white man's wage), chinese were not responsible for what they were being paid -Rhetoric for who was to blame for low wages was directed at chinese, "indispensable enemy "

Gold Rush-era saloons

-public life -Homosocial public culture (men hang out with men, women hang out with women) -Men went to saloons, ladies would never be seen in a saloon (would go to church meetings, reading clubs)

Quakers

-religious denomination that arose in britain, would be important in the creation of the state of pennsylvania -Pennsylvania was established by william penn junior who was a leading quaker in england -Quakers did not want ministers to wear things that would distinguish them from anyone else, more authority roles for women -Middle of the 1600s quakers faced arrest and prosecution for publicizing their beliefs -> moved to the colonies where that would not happen -Penn announced that it would be a land of Religious toleration and recognized native americans land claims to their land -> colonists would have to purchase land from them -Therefore native americans moved to central pennsylvania because in other areas their land was outright stolen from them -Greater gender balance in whos moving there and familie,, not only english were moving there (also scottish, germans moved there for the desire to own land, religious toleration) -> pennsylvania becomes the most ethnic diverse because of peoples CHOOSING to move there -In the south, human trafficking is the main type of migration and there is most migration there -late 1600s

Married Women's Property Laws

-right of a women to vote was largely depended on whether they owned property -Women are trying to be able to own land in their own name and have citizenship rights to this property, could sign contracts in regards to this land in their name -Half of northeastern states, ⅓ of southern states accepted these laws -Suffrage is not a right of citizenship for married women in this period -Voting was not always limited to citizens during this time period -> men who owned property

Domestic Worker

-single, irish women (more women immigrants irish than men) they worked as servants for middle class homes -Many women also immigrated and expanded into factory work -domestic service, domestic labor (irish mates) -young, single, irish women working in a middle class home (servants) -Domestic workers did not make a lot of money, especially compared to other people in the working class (received poverty line money) -In the south, domestic work was predominantly done by african american women (lowest paid positions within the spectrum of low paying positions) -Not pleased to see many young single irish women leaving ireland to gain independence and work -> warned that women would live in a world of sin and debauchery without their families and living in sinful america -america still paid more than a young single woman could expect to earn in a rural ireland mid 1800s

Dorothea Dahl, "The Copper Kettle [Kopper-Kjelen]," in The Multilingual Anthology of American Literature, edited by Marc Shell and Werner Sollors (New York University Press, 2000 [1930])

-situation of immigrant between 2 cultures and its impact on the life of the inidividual -culture of immigrant may have died, but its value is recognized in the value of its discarded object -value of copper kettle and elderly immigrant that hasn't learned English is recognized -are both discarded contributions from the old country to the new

oral history - Xai Phia Yang

-talks about the importance of education - I could bring my family to this country, to find success and knowledge in order for my children to learn and grow, so that my children can see more of the world and the goodness in this world. That isn't to say there weren't good things in Laos, but there were few opportunities for education. Without money, you couldn't go far in education. Our livelihood was through farming and it was just enough to eat to survive. We couldn't go very far with our studies. Arriving in this country, we have to try harder, my children have the chance to be successful, they need to follow and achieve their dreams. That's the most important. That is all. -primary source

Susannah Ural Bruce, "'Remember Your Country and Keep Up Its Credit': Irish Volunteers and the Union Army, 1861-1865," Journal of Military History Vol. 69, no. 2 (April 2005)

-their dual loyalties to Ireland and America. -When the Union cause supported their interests in Ireland and America, Irish Americans volunteered for the war and their fam- ilies supported them. After the Emancipation Proclamation, the fed- eral draft, and a staggering rise in Irish-American casualties, they began to question, and in some cases, abandon, the Union war effort because it no longer protected their interests in both countries. -A popular theory is that military service in the American Civil War accelerated the process by which Irishmen adapted to life in the United States -Civil War served as a training ground to prepare for war against England. -outright discrimination (catholic) -dart = mad and riots occurred

Rosina Lozano, Chpt. 1, "United by Land," in An American Language: The History of Spanish in the United States (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2018)

-treaty Mexicans did not receive expected treatment by becoming a citizen -first US gave so much power to people who didn't speak English or whose whiteness was questioned -some places operated in Spanish -native Americans were not citizens -language was huge barrier -land claims (land interests bound elite treaty citizens to the US)

oral history - Natasha Gomez

-was forced to assimilate to American culture after moving from Japan -Thus, I have come to realize that my identity, as my relationship with language, is fluid. Prior experiences with cultural and linguistic immersion have assured me that a language forgotten is not a language forever lost. My ethnicity is multiple and my identity as an immigrant to the United States remains flexible. -primary source

Kathleen Neils Conzen, "A Personal Account: A Farmer in Stearns County," in Germans in Minnesota (Minneapolis: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2003)

-was willing to do anything-lived in extreme poverty after coming to American -we have nothing yet, but we feel that we are farmers now -barely made it by but appreciated it -George kulzer and his wife -German immigrant George Kulzer's personal memoir about his first years in Minnesota - families struggling with food scarcity, poverty, and the challenges of everyday life

"Petticoat Electors"

-women widows who could vote, late 1700s early 1800s -Wyoming was the first state/territory to recognize women's equal suffrage rights -In new jersey in 1776, all adult inhabitants worth 50 pounds or more could vote (included women) -> most women and men couldn't vote (class separation), immigrants that owned land could even if they weren't citizens -, married women could not vote because of coverture (legal status of subsuming her identity into her husbands) -Therefore mainly widows could vote -> "Petticoat Electors"

Hidetaka Hirota, "'The Great Entrepot for Mendicants': Foreign Poverty and Immigration Control in New York State to 1882," Journal of American Ethnic History Vol. 33, no. 2 (Winter 2014)

-xamines the evolution of immigration control in the state of New York -didn't want paupers, said they couldn't enter - Immigration Act of 1882, which provided for the exclusion of destitute immigrants as federal policy. -New York regulated immigration through exclusion -chinese exclusion act -rise of know nothings

Amadeo Giannini

Started the bank of Italy in San Francisco (bank of America)

xenophobia

a fear or hatred of foreigners or strangers