History Exam 2

Battle of Verdun

(1916) the longest battle of World War I; it ended in stalemate, with both sides suffering hundreds of thousands of casualties - when it was over, there was nothing to show for it

Schlieffen Plan

(Germany's Plan) - war is inevitable - Germans: "if we go quick, we can knock out France"(let the Austrians deal with fighting Russia) - Invade through Belgium, where no one was expecting it (able to catch France with their pants down) - when the Germans enter France, they push very hard to get to Paris and take them out of the war - everyone is caught off guard - getting to Paris isn't good enough; have to get your men from Paris to the battlefield

Economic Motivations of European Imperialism

*Europeans establishing colonies in distant lands* - part of the urge to colonize is to find new markets; they want more money and need more customers - paying locals is very expensive Example: rubber (can't get in Europe) --> used for factory belts in Europe - it seemed cheaper to colonize, take over the government, and dictate the terms of extraction of the raw materials than to have to deal with foreign governments - it was too expensive to have to pay them directly - wanted new markets and cheaper raw materials - need a military presence to protect products and people

Treaty of Versailles

- Woodrow Wilson shows up and the Europeans are like "who is this guy??" --> he was acting like the hero but showed up at the very end of the war lol 1. Honor nationalistic ambitions of a lot of European countries (finally) - multinational groups finally get independence; the map changes - Germany and Austria lose tremendous land, forced to give up their colonies (British and French take control of them) The French are pissed because the war was in France; areas of the war are absolutely ruined; devastated French Demands: a. War Guilt Clause b. Reparations Bill: c. Restrictions on German Military - the Rhine Land (area between France and Germany); French say the Germans are now allowed to have defense on this boarder - their army is only allowed to be 100,000 men - can't have an air force - the Germans were pissed; felt like they did the honorable thing and are now being emasculated (not allowed to defend themselves)

Causes of WWI

- people born in the 1900s have seen the development of flight, indoor plumbing, mass produced goods, electric lights, access to consumer goods, etc. - basically the optimism of the Enlightenment - expecting a utopian future; all good things - a sense that we can solve our problems - optimism comes crashing to a halt with WWI (a massive scale war with massive destruction) 1. Nationalism - Multinational Empire: when one nation rules over a diverse group of people (Germans and the Austro-Hungarian Empire) - the Slavic groups felt pushed around by the Russians, Ottomans, Austrians; they wanted independence - Balkans: were ruled over by the Turks (The Great Byzantine Empire) - Serbs: there was the creation of a new Serbian State, a new nation --> Problem: there were serbs in other regions beyond this nation's boarders under the rule of others (they felt that their territory should be part of the new Serbian nation) - simmering tension creates surface level instability 2. Diplomacy Germany is finally united in the 1870s - they want to present themselves as good neighbors and peacemakers; ensures for the greater stability of Europe; really trying to isolate France because they hate the French --> France was forced to give up Alsace and Lorraine; they lost territories - Germans understand that the French have bad feelings towards them - make alliances Germans first alliance is with Austria-Hungary - Italy is culturally similar to France; this cuts off France from a natural ally - France makes an alliance with Russia - The British and French have always hated each other; they had been squabbling with hostility for centuries --> BUT...with a new political reality, they realize that if they can just settle their differences with their colonies, they can actually become allies (and they do) - an attack on one of these countries is an attack on all 3! --> Triple Alliance vs Triple Entente --> also created nationalism (countries proving themselves) - Alliances legally obligate the countries to fight 3. Arms Race and War Plans - a part of nationalism - when one side builds up their navy/military, the other side builds more - if war comes, you want to be ready! (competition, you don't want to look weak) --> strong military = strong country - various countries of Europe start coming up with war plans - the Germans understood that they sat in a precarious situation (nervous with the French on one side and Russia on the other) --> need a strategy to deal with the possibility of a 2 front war - they know from Napoleon that if they are going to fight Russia, it's going to be a long, hard fight - the French are much less of a long term threat; they didn't find the French intimidating because they'e beaten them before - Strategy: knock out the French first and then spend prime resources defeating Russia

Suez Canal

- you no longer have to sail around Africa or South America to get to India - the British can now get to India much quicker; a year's voyage is cut down to just 2 weeks! - getting men and materials to India was much easier now

Breaking the Stalemate in WWI

1. New Allies: "if we can find more men, maybe we can break the stalemate" - Indians, Africans, Vietnamese, all of the colonial places were recruited to fight in the trenches - Germans and Austrians recruit the Ottoman Empire (for more industrial capability) - British and French were trying to recruit the US (a VERY industrialized country) --> Pres. Woodrow Wilson wanted nothing to do with the war; he wanted them to win, but he didn't want to send his men to fight it --> Anglo Americans --> plenty of Americans support the British and French --> plenty of Americans also support the Germans (largest immigrant country); the Irish Americans actively rooted against the British 2. New Technology a. Tanks - ineffective because they would get stuck, not be able to do what they were supposed to do - not effective enough to make a real difference - neither side perfected the technology enough b. Planes - pilots can look down and can see where the men in the trenches are --> can find their weak spot - BUT both sides have planes lol (creates air warfare) - neither side can use them to break the stalemate c. Poison Gas/chemical warfare (lol if the wind changes course, you're literally attacking yourself) - Tear Gas: not going to kill you, but will hurt you a little - Chlorine Gas: much more deadly --> will burn the inside of your lungs; a miserable death - Mustard Gas: causes terrible burns to anything it touches; causes horrible blisters that can pop and cause infection --> if you inhale it, you're lungs are literally on fire --> an agonizing, excruciating death - both sides used poison gas; no decisive advantage due to the introduction of gas masks Crushing of optimism - the Enlightenment is FOR SURE over - technology used to murder on a massive scale 3. American entry - Germany was desperate with the British starving them out; a 2 front war - they can destroy the British if they can use U-boats (but they can't because they don't want the US coming into the war) - they want to preoccupy the US so that they can get away with using U-boats without the US coming in - Russians pull out of the war (there was a communist revolution; untold human suffering in Russia) - the Germans know that the time to act is now (no longer a 2 front war) - Zimmerman Telegram: Germany sends a telegram to Mexico asking them to invade the US (so that that US will go to Texas and fight the Mexicans) --> promise Mexico that they will get their land back if they tie down the US --> Germans begin bombing American ships and the US declares war Race for Germany to do as much as they can before the US comes over - drafting men, training men, learning to use gas masks, etc. --> war preparation takes time) Goal: America to lead the final push to get Germany out of France - the hardest, most brutal fighting was at the end of the war when the US joined - high American casualty rate; they were leading the charge - Gradually, the Germans are being pushed back --> they know that they can either fight to the bloody death, retreat to Berlin, or agree to stop fighting and acknowledge what is abundantly clear - there is a revolution in Germany to kick the monarch out; new leadership - the Germans agreed to stop fighting (their capital didn't fall, their cities weren't burned to the ground) - from the German perspective, they did the honorable thing: "we can't win, but we can save lives) - a clear Allie victory

Civilizing Mission

Absolute bullshit - there was a common idea all over Europe that whites were the superior race - White Man's Burden - overly racist - Scientific Racism

Klemens von Metternich

Austrian foreign minister - dedicated to crushing revolutionary ideas - argued that human nature is prone to error - believed we need harsh punishments and a strong, interfering government that will regulate the economy - does not want a unified Germany (it was against tradition because it disempowered the king)

Edmund Burke

Condemned the French Revolution as madness - natural rights don't make sense - the elites of society are elites for a reason (we are not born equal) - believed there is no such thing as natural rights - the special privileges of the elites are natural rights that are earned (the warrior group, held offices, served the king) - believed the elites earned their status, and everyone else hasn't done shit to deserve rights - he said you have 2 choices: accept tradition or accept anarchy

Iron Law of Wages

David Ricardo formulated the iron law of wages, which said that because of the pressure of population growth, wages would be just high enough to keep workers from starving.

David Richardo

Focused on wages Iron Law of Wages: don't interfere in the economy; wages will find that sweet spot on their own --> will allow the poor to "subsist and perpetuate;" you can't artificially raise wages - it may not be pretty, but the poor will survive and get by; don't worry about them NO minimum wage laws!

War Guilt Clause

Germans are forced to say that they caused the war; it's their moral responsibility - people in Germany are like "what the hell?? We didn't even kill Ferdinand!"

Proletariat

Marx's term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production

Congress of Vienna

Meeting of representatives of European monarchs called to reestablish the old order after the defeat of Napoleon

Cartel and Monopoly

Monopoly: one firm that controls everything Cartel: several firms that get together and collude to fix prices; anticompetitive behavior) --> subvert natural law according to Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill

Luddites

Semi-organized groups of people who would bust open the factory and destroy the new machines; this was a matter of life and death for them (they needed to be paid to feed their families) - shows their dissatisfaction with Industrialization; often artisans who had been stripped of their status Gradually, labor unions form to fight for the rights of the working class - they advocate for better pay, fewer hours, and better working conditions (vital for what we now know as standards for fair treatment) - a deadly struggle between unions and bosses - governments fought the existence of these unions tooth and nail

Thesis/Antithesis

Thesis: the dominant culture that shapes civilization Antithesis: the counterculture resulting from people being dissatisfied with the status quo The thesis and antithesis clash to form an entirely new synthesis

Edmund Morel

notices all of the shipments coming from the Congo loaded with rubber - shines a light on Leopold's terrorist regime

Nationalism

*Europeans establishing colonies in distant lands* --> people begin to feel that they should have a common heritage - a certain genetic connection to people is felt; "we should be one national family; one government" - a powerful force, a sense of community; an "imagined" community - inspires Italy and Germany to unify - inspires pride and competition among the various countries of Europe - colonies were something that important countries should have or were expected to have --> a matter of pride and self respect - Europe wants colonies because of their pride, to show that they are worthy - want to prove to others that they are a great nation

Henry Morton Stanley

- Born in Britain; comes to the United States, captured by the Union, and joins their army (was on both sides of the war; a sneaky personality) - goes to Zanzibar to be "the great hero" to find Livingston - writes letters back to Europe; interest could not have been higher (Livingston has been missing for 6 years) - there is lots of flowery language and graphic descriptions of Africa, even though the Europeans knew NOTHING about Africa November 1871: Stanley comes upon a white man in the middle of Africa - Stanley approaches the man and says "Livingston I presume?" (a joke lol they were the only 2 white men) - media sensation drove interest all over Europe - Stanley was determined as the world's leading expert on Africa

Capitalism as Theft

- Marx accepts a lot of liberal economic theory Labor Theory of Value (Smith, Ricardo, etc.): labor is the value in all economic transactions - Marx argues that there is a certain amount of labor necessary for workers to have food and shelter; just to function and to survive (anything beyond this is Surplus Labor) - Marx's problem: capitalists could afford to pay a worker less than the value of their work to their employers (the value of their labor is worth more to their employer than what they are actually getting paid) - Capitalism as Theft: if you pay the workers just enough to get by and take all of their surplus labor --> employers are taking surplus labor and keeping it for themselves - the value produced by their labor is great, but their pay is not (theft) - can't enjoy the fruit of their labor because of capitalism - Marx says that this system is inherently unstable, creating a bitter dialect - once the dialect kicks in, you can't stop it (according to natural law); there IS going to be a revolution - the workers would cease control of the means of production; this is inevitable - this can only happen in a society of a well-developed industry

Revolution by Proletariat

- Marx saw this as hard science; same as Newton and Galileo - many people argued that he was incorrect - Marx says that other people had failed because they were not fully industrialized; you can't jump start or force the dialect, it just has to happen on its own (you can't force natural law)

Serbia

- Serbs: there was the creation of a new Serbian State, a new nation --> Problem: there were serbs in other regions beyond this nation's boarders under the rule of others (they felt that their territory should be part of the new Serbian nation) - simmering tension creates surface level instability

Arms Race

- a part of nationalism - when one side builds up their navy/military, the other side builds more - if war comes, you want to be ready! (competition, you don't want to look weak) --> strong military = strong country

Karl Marx

- born right after the French Revolution in Germany; middle class Jewish family - educated in Bonn, Berlin - had a really good education, fulfilling the middle class ambition - becomes a journalist when he gets out of school (has left-leaning) ideas in his journalism --> he's not too popular - working in the Rhineland - promotes socialism in the newspaper, and is pushed out of Germany for this --> goes to Paris, becoming more and more radical Friedrich Engels - had a partnership with Marx - came from an industrial family; his father ran a factory - Marx grew up in school; theory, ideas, abstract concepts - Engels on the other hand had insider knowledge of Industrialism (he knew how everything worked) - between Engels and Marx, they had good knowledge on how things worked and academic knowledge to develop a theory --> they complimented each other, allowing their ideas to have power - the two of them meet in Paris, where they are also run out of town Marx's Career: - 1848: Revolution is in the air; him and Engels publish the Communist Manifesto (urges the working class people to unite, rise against their oppressors, and start a revolution) - the revolution is not related to the manifesto; it would have happened anywhere, but there are people who are receptive to their ideas now - Revolutions of 1848: socialist, radical, scared the hell out of the middle class (Marx and Engels are not welcomed in Brussels for very long either after this) - Marx moves to London for the remainder of his life Das Kapital: a big, weighty book--> where Marx lays out his grand theory of history

Strategies and Tactics of WWI

- everyone thought WWI would be a quick war with powerful weapons and technology - a lot of young men eagerly joined the military due to romanticized stories from Napoleon (heroic notions) - people think "this is going to be the greatest adventure of our lives" a. Schlieffen Plan (Germany's Plan) - war is inevitable - Germans: "if we go quick, we can knock out France"(let the Austrians deal with fighting Russia) - Invade through Belgium, where no one was expecting it (able to catch France with their pants down) - when the Germans enter France, they push very hard to get to Paris and take them out of the war - everyone is caught off guard - getting to Paris isn't good enough; have to get your men from Paris to the battlefield b. The First Battle of the Marne - trying to get men out to the front (very high stakes) - taxi cabs of Paris bring men out to the front in a desperate way to protect the city - the French successfully defeat Germany (Germans now have a 2 front war) c. Trench Warfare - a defensive war - all good if you have low range muskets, but now we have machine guns! (can fire 1600 shots per minute; need 2 people (one to aim and shoot and one to feed the bullets into the gun) - neither side has an advantage

Marx's Theory of History

- he believed there were patterns to the past that led to the present, and that will ultimately lead to the future - believed that a socialist revolution would take place according to natural law (communism is inevitable)

Balkans

- known as a troublesome part of Europe - where "the spark" comes for WWI a. Bosnia and Herzegovina - Serbian minority - want these 2 places to become part of the Serbian state - Austrians were depicted as evil, terrible rulers (don't want to be ruled by foreigners) - there are various revolutionary groups in Bosnia willing to use violence to get what they want (to achieve national unity) Black Hand: their ultimate goal was to unite the South Slavs (willing to use tactics we would consider terroristic today) "unity other death" is their motto? b. Assassination of Franz Ferdinand - it was the Austrian's idea to send Ferdinand (emperor's son) down to Bosnia and Herzegovina to make the promises that they wanted to be better; shake the hands, kiss the babies, let the Serbians know that they cared - to improve relations with the Serbians (a highly publicized event) - people know where he's coming from, where he's going, and the route he's taking (open car, waving at the people) - members of the Black Hand see this as an opportunity Gavrilo Princip: one of the conspirers - after the grenade when off and it didn't kill Franz, it looks like the Black Hand had lost their shot - Princip is devastated that they lost their shot; didn't get it done - Princip goes to a deli to get something to eat - the open car has to come back this route to get to the hospital; the turn is right in front of the deli - the car's driver doesn't know where he's going and almost misses the turn; the car stalls - Princip takes out a gun, shoots Ferdinand in the neck (and his wife) Austria is LIVID that the crowned prince was murdered by a terrorist group in their own territory --> they demand an apology, the taking of responsibility Austrian Reaction: - Austria wants their cops and military to conduct a full investigation - Serbians felt like they were giving up their freedom; "don't bring your cops and military into our territory" - Austria declares war on Serbia (not in the alliance) - Serbs and Russians are both Slavic - Russia saw it as their responsibility to protect other Slavs (they had nothing to do with the fight, but they see the slavs as family) - Russia declares war on Austria - Germany declares war on France - Germany invades Belgium in hopes to sneak attack France - Belgium was neutral, so when Germany invades them, Britain declares war)

Leopold II

- not a very nice man; arrogant, rash, his wife couldn't stand him because of an ongoing affair (a French prostitute) - the powers in Europe didn't like him either because of his smugness and arrogance - when he becomes King of Belgium, he believes that the quickest way for him to make Belgium great is to make colonies (sets his sites on Africa to do this) The Congo: - he hires Stanley because he's considered the world's leading expert on Africa - Stanley goes up the Congo River and signs "Protection Agreements" --> basically signs sovereignty to King Leopold...NOT to Belgium - one of the largest countries in Africa with many different tribes; lots of conflict between these tribes (helps explain the lack of cultural unity) - the King has absolute control; his own wealth - Leopold's personal colony; absolute control (says he wants to spread Christianity and civilize it) - he misled the rest of Europe in doing this; people don't like him or trust him

British Raj

- the beginning of British rule and the end of Mughal rule - Queen Victoria of England was declared empress of India - the British would tell people what to do and the Indians would just have to do it Trade: opening of the Suez Canal--> they made a lot of money through coffee and tea - British established plantations - Indian cotton will take over the international market; the south was far behind

Proletariat

- the industrial working class; unskilled workers - different from the pre-industrial working class - they would get to see the products from beginning to end; lots of pride came from that - start to feel like they are apart of the machine - don't feel like people are looking out for you - paid very little - low status, but start to have a political force in England; certain politicians can use their anger to give themselves a voice Threat of Audimation: if you are working at a job, tending to this machine, what if the boss gets a machine that can do it on its own? Didn't need as many workers; good for the boss because he's have to pay less people

Battle of the Marne

- trying to get men out to the front (very high stakes) - taxi cabs of Paris bring men out to the front in a desperate way to protect the city - the French successfully defeat Germany (Germans now have a 2 front war) the Schlieffen Plan became impossible and Germany would have to fight on two fronts

War Plans

- various countries of Europe start coming up with war plans - the Germans understood that they sat in a precarious situation (nervous with the French on one side and Russia on the other) --> need a strategy to deal with the possibility of a 2 front war - they know from Napoleon that if they are going to fight Russia, it's going to be a long, hard fight - the French are much less of a long term threat; they didn't find the French intimidating because they'e beaten them before - Strategy: knock out the French first and then spend prime resources defeating Russia

John Stuart Mill

- wrote a classic text called "On Liberty" --> wrote about individual freedom unencumbered by the government as a young man - said that democracy was bad because people will vote for things that subvert natural law; the tyranny of the masses will impinge on our personal liberty SHIFT AS HE GETS OLDER - believes monopolies and cartels themselves are subverting natural law - believes that maybe we should rethink the whole basis of laissez-faire economics; maybe we need the government to intervene and regulate - we can't just wait on natural law because nothing is changing

Reasons for the Evolution of Liberalism

1. Cartels and monopolies accept that the government must make sure the economic playing field functions normally; companies have to be regulated or they will subvert natural law 2. Liberals in the middle class were eager supporters of the project of colonization in the 18th and 19th century (purpose = to get cheap, raw materials; more profitability for them) - many support their government setting up colonies - expectation for government to guarantee cheap, raw materials --> active role in how the economy operates 3. There is general growing interest in the plight of the poor; clear that poverty and suffering aren't going anywhere - it's hard for liberals to look at them and believe that natural law will just fix things (their suffering wasn't decreasing, the wages weren't increasing, high death and birth rates, etc.) - middle class people are generally concerned about the poor 4. Liberals see that a lack of regulation is the primary culprit - the middle class are not socialists, but they're scared to death of the working class people - "if we don't try to fix things, they're going to rise up and there will be a full-scale revolt; Regulate before it's too late!" - lack of regulation is seen as a threat

Technological Edges in England Due to Industrialization

1. Steamboats and Railroads - steamboats are vital for communicating with people back home - shortens the voyage to get raw materials make to Europe - a reliable system of supply and communication - able to control the coastal areas and inland regions - Railroads allow you to connect areas over great distances (can oversee the colonies in a more direct way) - easy to move troops around so things don't get out of control (tighter control) 2. Telegraph makes communication easier 3. Suez Canal - you no longer have to sail around Africa or South America to get to India - the British can now get to India much quicker; a year's voyage is cut down to just 2 weeks! - getting men and materials to India was much easier now 4. Military Technology - guns - 19th century: their guns weren't all that great (smooth inside barrels and balls that fire inaccurately and at short range (maybe 100 yards); they weren't riffles, so there was no controlling the ball-->not a decisive military advantage - over the course of the century, they were able to make it so that balls in the gun spin through the barrel, firing accurately at long distances; - trained soldiers could only fire 2 shots a minute before - new breech loading bullets (able to shoot very quickly) - by 1890, there were full on machine guns; definitely a decisive advantage over your enemy --> could fire thousands of shots over the course of a minute

Industrialization

1700s England: - production and manufacturing became more recognized - bureaucracies and corporate offices take over; large businesses take over agricultures - small family farms cannot compete with the prices of the big corporations - gradually, no one is really farming anymore - very few people now actually produce food (more of an Industrial setting) - unfolds slowly; takes generations for people to be pulled off of their farms - doesn't really spread to Europe (they're pretty occupied with Napoleon and the French Revolution) --> England is insulted from that war, so they keep industrializing - After the Congress of Vienna, industrialization starts spreading to Europe - also spread to the United States (Massachusetts and New England, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, and then to the American South) - by 1850, half of England's population lived in the city (industrialized)

Lusitania

A British passenger ship that was sunk by a German U-Boat on May 7, 1915. 128 Americans died. The sinking greatly turned American opinion against the Germans, helping them move towards entering the war. NOT why the Americans entered the war - 130 Americans on the ship - military guns and cargo on board - Germans advertised for the Americans not to go on the ship; they did warn them - the Germans torpedo the ship and they all died - Pres. Woodrow Wilson was outraged Wilson: "we are not going to war over this, but you must cease the policy of unrestricted submarine warfare" --> the Germans were furious; they were racing against the clock to defeat the British before the British starve them out (can't use U-boats)

David Livingston

A Scottish Christian missionary who wanted to go to Africa to explore and spread Christianity - goal is to end slavery - believes that if he can find the source of the Nile River, he would become so famous that he could end the slave trade (a cookey idea) - goes looking for the source of the Nile with a group of people - while he's searching, people in his travel party say they've had enough - word gets back to Europe that Livingston is lost - rumors spread and Europeans become obsessed with what happened to Livingston (a great mystery with media coverage) --> Africa was in the news because of Livingston Media Coverage: - the news was known for colorful, sensational stories, and for stretching the truth to sell more newspapers; wanted to send someone to Africa to find Livingston and maybe he'd write letter that they could publish and they'd be rich! - they chose Henry Morton Stanley to look for him (New York Harold)

Dialectical Materialism

A fancy term for Marxism/socialism - sought to address the conditions of the working class - the working class themselves embraced this system 2 Types: Marxism (scientific socialism) and Utopian Socialism - Marx had a belief in natural law and saw what he was doing as putting forth a grand theory of history that functioned on natural law - his theory explained how history unfolded generally - socialism is inevitable; it will happen based on natural law

Trench Warfare

A form of warfare in which opposing armies fight each other from trenches dug in the battlefield. No Man's Land: - between the trenches - trying to get over or under the barbed wire was very hazardous with machine guns pointed at you - neither side can get an advantage - a brutal stalemate

Thomas Malthus

A liberal theorist - essay on population: warned that human population can outgrow food supply; result will be war, famine, disease. - lived through the dramatic changes of Industrialization - a demographer Argument in population essay: Anything we do to address a crisis is just a bandaid with no substantial change; gives the poor the ability to remarry; population increases; wages will decrease as the population increases; more people you can't feed; if you help people (subverting natural law) you will just hurt people in the future

Berlin Conference

A meeting from 1884-1885 at which representatives of European nations agreed on rules colonization of Africa 1. no one European country will dominate all of Africa (they divided up the country) --> "game on" for Africa 2. Recognized 2 specific countries: Ethiopia and Liberia (founded by formerly enslaved African Americans)

Agricultural Revolution

A time when new inventions such as the seed drill and the steel plow made farming easier and faster. The production of food rose dramatically. Most people worked on land and had to farm, but there was a limit to how many people the land could support

Classical Liberal Economics

Adam Smith is the intellectual forefather of classical economics (liberalism) 1. Individualism: the individual should be able to do with their property whatever he sees fit without government intervention 2. Laissez-faire: hands-off; the economy regulates itself 3. Natural Law: market forces operate like a clock; if you try to intervene, it throws off the gears; everything will work itself out according to natural law; no labor unions 4. Free of Contract: individuals should negotiate with their employers and employers can negotiate without impediments 5. Free competition is healthy and vital for the economy - encourages the quality of products - only the strong firms will survive (good prices AND good products) - this leads firms to specialization (every firm will have something that they do better than anyone else)

East India Company

An English company formed in 1600 to develop trade with the new British colonies in India and southeastern Asia. - founded in the 1600s as a joint stock company - the crown had nothing to do with its day to day operations - the elites of society were Muslim, but Islam is not the majority religion in India (they were Hindu); polar opposite religions Islam: monotheistic religion; had a good disposition towards Christians and Jews (people of the Book); were less patient towards Paganism and Polytheism (considered evil) - a lowkey resentment towards Muslim elites from Hindu minorities - when the British show up, the Mughals were more concerned with the tension between Hindus and Muslims than anything the British were doing - the British want to trade, so the Mughals let them in, allowing the EIC to establish trading posts (overtime, this is pretty profitable) - the British trade tea, spices, luxury goods etc. - China thought they were the best country on earth (Europeans didn't have anything that China wanted to trade with; they were shut out of the Chinese market...but India wasn't --> now, the EIC finally had access to consumer goods from China and could bring it back to Europe - shareholders and Mughals making a lot of money; everyone's happy 1700s: the Mughal empire started to weaken; emperors started to lose their grip and there were multiple invasions --> there were fights about who would be emperor; threat of a Hindu taking over (minority) --> local nobles and warlords carving out territories that are able to act independently of the emperor Now, the emperor doesn't actually control anything - many Indians start seeking refuge with the British in their forts; British growing in political power - EIC could use their private army to run India - the army protects their economic investments and now political stability in the country - EIC was fairly confident; they partnered with local nobles (emperor still sits on the throne, but is pretty much out of the picture) - while the Indians did feel a little imposed upon, it was generally a stable system that lasted 100 years

Triple Entente

An alliance between Britain, France and Russia in the years before WWI.

Triple Alliance

An alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy in the years before WWI.

Franz Ferdinand

Assassination of Franz Ferdinand - it was the Austrian's idea to send Ferdinand (emperor's son) down to Bosnia and Herzegovina to make the promises that they wanted to be better; shake the hands, kiss the babies, let the Serbians know that they cared - to improve relations with the Serbians (a highly publicized event) - people know where he's coming from, where he's going, and the route he's taking (open car, waving at the people) - members of the Black Hand see this as an opportunity

Life in the Trenches

Daily life for the average soldier really defined the war - trenches were 5-7 feet deep - when you were in the trenches for months; people start to break down a little (solution = rotation of men on the front to preserve their sanity...a 3 day break) - difficult conditions to endure Winter (the preferred season): the ground is hard and firm under your feet Spring: it rains and there's lots of mud in the trenches - men weighted down with weapons and packs, difficult to get your feet out of the mud - stagnant water with all kinds of bacteria - smells horrible - blood in the trenches - bodies floating from bomb explosions - human waste - not uncommon for horses and mules to be shots and found floating in the trenches - humid; flies love moisture - nasty; alarmingly unhealthy - would usually eat canned meat or crackers - rat problem!! - infamous rat infestation (HUGE rats); they bite and were there all year long - Trench foot: if your feet are submerged in the mud, eventually your leather boots and feet become water logged (literally your feet beginning to erode and rot off of your body); can easily kill you --> the remedy before the introduction of antibiotics = amputation

Tradition vs Anarchy

Edmund Burke's 2 choices Tradition: - Monarchy/Aristocracy - vital because they had served the test of time - effective; it works - provides stability and order Anarchy: - the middle class (bourgeois) is given power - this is untested; we don't know if it'll work - chaotic - crazy people take over when the king loses power (the guillotine proved his idea right)

Urbanization and Consequences of Industrialization

Factories emerge in the cities after people are pushed off of their land in the countryside - intense human toll because of Industrialization a. Environmental Consequences: - no one was really ready for urbanization; caught people off guard - farm life is hard, but it's predictable (task oriented, very seasonal, and goes in rhythms) - Factory life: cut off from your community, your support system, standing all day (a jarring transition) - no city planning, no zoning, no environmental regulations - environmental conditions in the cities were HORRIFIC Smoke Stacks: - factories burning coal (not a clean-burning fuel) - coal dust on people's clothes, in the air, everywhere (gross) - a general dust in the air; gloomy and nasty --> people are breathing in this dust which is really unhealthy (people constantly coughing) Factories would dump human and industrial waste right into the river: - there was no clean water - feces floating in the river - no plumbing in the cities - cities smell horrible; 1858 London: The Great Stink-->the city smelled so bad that during the day, people actually got lightheaded and fainted from crossing the rivers, so they had to cross at night - lots of flies b. Housing Crisis: - people generally living up in an attic or cellar, no personal privacy (entire families living in an attic) - water seeping; a dark, dank situation - mold from the moisture - very unhealthy Tenement Homes: packed together, not a lot to get away from each other (6-8 floors with multiple families on each floor) --> cheaply and quickly constructed --> very poorly ventilated --> leaky everywhere --> no privacy --> 2.5 people per bed --> hot in the summer, cold and damp in the winter --> animals shouldn't even live like this, let alone human beings --> buildings have no plumbing so there were no bathrooms (there was an open pit "earth closet" to squat over and go to the bathroom in..."don't slip!") - fire was a constant threat c. Diet and Health: - high calorie poor diets - little access to good vegetables, fruits, etc. - more susceptible to disease - conditions in the towns don't lend themselves to good health either - lice are everywhere (people living in extremely close proximity) - cold and flu season...like a bomb going off, just horrible (the flu can kill you) - life expectancy was low, infant mortality was high - women often opted for back alley abortions; many women died from this as well

Gavrilo Princip

Gavrilo Princip: one of the conspirers - after the grenade when off and it didn't kill Franz, it looks like the Black Hand had lost their shot - Princip is devastated that they lost their shot; didn't get it done - Princip goes to a deli to get something to eat - the open car has to come back this route to get to the hospital; the turn is right in front of the deli - the car's driver doesn't know where he's going and almost misses the turn; the car stalls - Princip takes out a gun, shoots Ferdinand in the neck (and his wife) Austria is LIVID that the crowned prince was murdered by a terrorist group in their own territory --> they demand an apology, the taking of responsibility

G.W.F. Hegel

German scholar - his writing is really difficult for people to understand; lofty and abstract Basic Theory of Historical Change --> the dialect occurs when you have two things that clash, and after they clash, something new is produced The Hegelian Dialect: constant struggle between opposites - in any society, there is a dominant culture that shapes the civilization (thesis) - a counterculture is naturally created; people dissatisfied with the status quo (creates a clash) - Synthesis: the new kind of culture that emerges from a clash: new gender roles, new politics; brought about by fundamental conflict between opposites (the synthesis eventually becomes the dominant culture, and will eventually face an antithesis or counterculture) - History never repeats itself, but always produces new outcomes; always moving forward

Zimmerman Telegram

Germany sends a telegram to Mexico asking them to invade the US (so that that US will go to Texas and fight the Mexicans) --> promise Mexico that they will get their land back if they tie down the US --> Germans begin bombing American ships and the US declares war Race for Germany to do as much as they can before the US comes over - drafting men, training men, learning to use gas masks, etc. --> war preparation takes time)

White Man's Burden

Kipling: whites have a responsibility to bring civilization to the rest of the world to "help out" the lesser people of the world - Whites had a moral obligation to Africa, India, etc. to put them on a better evolutionary trajectory; maybe one day they will evolve and have bigger brains as well --> it's their Christian duty

Jeremy Bentham

Liberal Utilitarian --> useful, meaningful appraoch; a hands on realistic approach to liberalism in the 19th century - in terms of the economy, we need to be realistic; we can't just stand behind natural law - if government doesn't step in and keep the peace, there WILL be a revolt - generally skeptical of government intervention, but believes that it is sometimes necessary as a temporary measure - concerned about the conduct of business; 19th century capitalism tended towards monopolies (one firm that controls everything) and cartels (several firms get together and collude to fix prices; anticompetitive behavior) - the businesses themselves subvert freaking natural law!! (maybe we do need government intervention to stop this...temporarily)

Substructure vs. Superstructure

Marx wanted to add depth and nuance to G.W.F Hegel's theory; wanted to see how it played out in economics - Marx views all societies as having 2 large components Substructure: the foundation of the house below ground; most important --> determines what the house looks like and what it can be 1. Means of Production - all of the things you can produce 2. Relations of Production - Bourgeoise exploits the labor of the working class (Proletariats) The fundamental basis of society Superstructure: everything not having to do with production in society - the part of the house you can see; dependent on the foundation (substructure) - media, education, family structure, religion, politics etc. Everything in the superstructure reflects and legitimates the substructure; the nature of the foundation determines the nature of the house - Marx believes that the Dialect always occurs at the base; when the substructure changes, it determines everything else - Marx's theory of change; this is how all of history unfolds

Dictatorship of the Proletariat

Marx's theory of a proletariat controlled world following the taking from the wealthy; eventually it will wither away into a classless society. - educate people and prepare them for a communist future - the state would then whither away - if everyone has an equal piece of production, we will have a classless society; the dialect will end --> this is the ultimate goal for Marx; how he saw history unfolding

Multinational Empires

Multinational Empire: when one nation rules over a diverse group of people (Germans and the Austro-Hungarian Empire) - struggles to keep different nationalities from revolting and demanding sovereignty

Mughal Empire

Muslim empire (1526-1857) exercising dominion over most of India in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (famous for building the Taj Mahal) - the British showed up in the 1600s and the Mughals let them in; completely take over India

Natural Law

Newton = natural law of inertia - the principle of natural law was applied to non-scientific areas too-->the law of supply and demand in the economy - if we let natural law take its course, eventually things in the economy will get better - enlightenment belief of the inevitability of progress (working conditions will ultimately put these ideas to the test)

Congo Free State

Not the most perfect example of European colonization in Africa - Leopold wants to subdue the locals and use their labor to extract natural resources - sends in the Force Publique --> a fearsome army of African foot soldiers led by European officers (Leopold said that they were there to protect traders and missionaries) - to force compliance, the Force Publique would go to various towns in the Congo; anyone who did not comply was mutilated, murdered, raped - everyone in the Congo became enslaved to Leopold - he wanted to extract ivory and rubber (for bicycles and machine belt in factories) --> rubber comes from trees that had to be processed immediately; difficult, labor intensive work - they would paint the rubber on the backs of workers and when it dried, would rip it off; extremely painful; people with guns forcing you to work fast and hard - this goes on for decades - Labor Quotas on the workers: if you didn't meet the quota of how much rubber you had to process per day, they could kill you Policy to prevent wasting ammunition: if you fire your gun, you have to kill someone and prove that you did (bring back a severed human hand to prove that you killed the person) - Labor Quotas were not realistic; creates a market in human hands in order to pay off quotas (if you don't meet the quota, begging to have your hand removed rather than being shot to death) --> the leaders accept this because it allows them to go hunting Estimate of around 10 million people killed by Leopold's men

Sepoy Mutiny

Officers of the EIC army were British, but the foot soldiers (sepoys) were Indian - one of the bloodiest rebellions in the history of India - started for mundane reasons --> in India, if your powder gets wet from the monsoon, it is useless; want to make a more efficient system --> to waterproof the gun powder, they will use animal fat or grease (now each soldier can carry around a satchel full of these and it's more efficient) Tragic Miscalculation: pork fat used to coat the paper goes against Islamic dietary restrictions (they would have to put it in their mouths and pull) - the EIC officers were basically telling Muslim soldiers to openly violate their religion; they found this abhorrent and immoral Cow fat: against Hindu religion; shows cultural misunderstanding - when ruling over people different from you, you really need to understand their culture! A revolt starts - they felt insulted in India - a lot of pent up resentment against the British (foreign rulers) - sepoys would kill men, women, and children - the British found out about this and they retaliate (a back and forth) - British would torture Indian, forcing them to eat meat before they killed them - a bloody turning point in India - official end of the Mughal empire; the British decide to take it from the company

Opium in China

Opium: an addictive substance grown from the poppy seed - in high demand - China had a terrible addiction problem with opium (imported directly by the British from India into China) - Opium was illegal in Britain because it goes against Victorian sensibility - Opium was also illegal in China, so they blocked the British Opium Wars: - the purpose was so the British could sell opium to China even though it was illegal - a genuine public health crisis in China - British = glorified drug dealers, but the profitability was great for them

Conservatism

Opposition to the Enlightenment - composed of royalists and aristocrats at the time of the revolution and enlightenment - they had all of the land; opposed to the french revolution; what is happening?? who is taking over?? the middle class is :)

Life on British Plantations in India

The British enjoy wealth and leisure at plantations while the Indians wait on them hand and foot - likely a much more lavish lifestyle than they would have had back in London; they would brag to the people back in England - a perceived weakness of Indian servants; they just sit around and lay; the British didn't have a great perception of them (lots of racism and negative perceptions of Indian people) - Indian people were doing all of the work, but were not reflected in a flattering light

Reparations

The French and British demand financial responsibility from the Germans - consumes all money in the German budget - hard to recover from; impacts them for years to come

Puddling and Rolling

The iron made from charcoal production was NOT industrial-grade iron - it was too flexible - England has cut down so many of their trees and was not replacing them (running out of wood) - England began looking for a new energy source...Answer = coal!! (coal is much more reliable for power than humans, wind, and water) Problem: coal is not a clean-burning fuel. It produces a lot of carbon and impurities when it's burned (these impurities get into the iron) Henry Cort's method: - stir the molten iron so the carbon rises to the top - used to release and remove impurities - left with rot iron (the good stuff; industrial-grade iron) --> can be used to make a steam engine

Utilitarianism

The theory, proposed by Jeremy Bentham in the late 1700s, that government actions are useful only if they promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Effects of World War I

a. Casualties - the death of 10 million people (Americans lost 100,000) (20 million casualties; "my jaw was blown off...I lost a leg from trench foot) --> a lot of stigma from physical mutilation; pretty much home bound - the flu epidemic of 1919: kills about 20-50 million people - a period of death - the population dipped because a lot of men died before they could have children (impacted the French during WWII) b. Colonies - lots of colonial troops came to fight in the war ("Don't we deserve independence too?...European powers said no) - the Europeans owe them for their service, but it's not forthcoming (sets the stage for decolonization) c. Status of Women - before the war, certain industries were deemed the work of a man - during WWI, women were brought to work in the factories while the men were off fighting - empowerment: "we can do a man's job just as well as men;" empowering to have a job and income - patriotic significance - political awakening of women - when the men come back from war, the women are fired from their jobs - women believe that they are owed for doing all of that work (19th amendment) - WWI is the final push for women's rights; sets the stage for years of activism d. Psychological Impact - the Lost Generation: used to describe people who fought in WWI --> the men in the trenches who survived had trauma (PTSD); at the time, people just called it shell shock (stigma attached to it) - some men kill themselves, some drink, and some take it out on their own wives and children because they can't deal with it (can't handle the transition); don't have therapy and resources available today - the enlightenment is for sure dead --> this was reflected in abstract art (nothing seems to make sense anymore; what was it all for) --> abstract art becomes huge in reflecting the chaos and confusion of social undoing - sad, drained, a huge sense of loss - the sense of inevitable progress largely shifted to much more negative emotions (anxiety, angst, anger, confusion, resentment)

Social Changes Following Industrialization

a. Decline of Aristocracy - now that the ability to supply industrial output is so important, the aristocracy takes a decline - they no longer run the economy - a slow decline that lingers into the 20th century - some were willing to invest in factories and mines, but most were really stubborn and stuck to their old ways, and their position in English society was lost (they were surpassed by the middle class) b. Rise of the Middle Class - merchants, bankers, lawyers, doctors, factory owners; the ones often making their livelihood off of the industrial economy - harness industrial output - economically, politically, and socially very important and dominant (The Victorian Era) Middle Class Values = family (this is when women start staying at home while the men go to work; women take care of the house, nurture children, etc.) --> a new, CLASS SPECIFIC, direct response to the chaos of industrialization - it showed status and privilege if you didn't need the income of your wife; want to protect their children from the immorality and grossness of the Industrial world (away from the perceived dangers of poverty, alcohol, and theft) - doing this in opposition to their disdain of the working class - they wanted a safe circle around their children - a way of differentiating themselves from the working class - general fear of the working class --> new idea of household decor: reflects status, wealth, and good taste; a nurturing, warm environment (heavy, custom-made drapes to shield your family from the unpleasant reality of industrialization) Unblemished Sexual Purity: - a extra demand for the sexual purity of women; an aspiration, not a reality - women given the idea that the expectation was absolute purity (protection from the glances of working class men) - this was reflected in their clothes; FULLY covered Example = doily on table legs (any kind of legs are covered up because even those legs needed to be covered) - transition from "chicken leg" to "drumstick;" nibbling on a leg is too sexual Queen Victoria's values and image reflected those of the middle class (this is why it's called the Victorian era)

Working Conditions/Child Labor

a. Hours: - expected to work 16 hours a day, 6 days a week (leaves you very few hours to eat and do your chores) - 80 to 85 hour work weeks - wages were horrible; not paid much, but working long hard hours - felt like you became part of the machine yourself; a loss of individuality - lack of interaction between bosses and their workers b. Inside the Factory in Textile Mills - conditions were no better than housing - factories were loud and very dangerous (not uncommon for people to lose fingers and limbs from these machines; no protection for people) - people working in fairly close quarters c. Women and Children: - paid less --> highly desirable to factory companies because they didn't have to pay them as much - many children lost fingers, hands, etc. (if you complained, you were out!) - rapes and sexual assaults by supervisors in the "dark corners;" supervisors had a lot of leverage over them Below Ground: - bad conditions to dig coal out of the dirt - employers wanted young children because of their small bodies (can easily get into cramped spaces) --> young boys were responsible for hauling out coal; detrimental to their development - wet conditions in the mines led to infection; water-logged conditions led to heinous, hideous foot diseases - threat of coal dust in the air (Black Lung Disease) - it was legal and acceptable to pay women and children less than a man; ethical; families allowed their children to work because they needed the money a humanitarian catastrophe; a ton of exploitation of humans!

Drawbacks of English Colonization in India

a. Landholdings - Pre Raj: there was private ownership of land in India, but there was also the idea that even if you didn't own land, you still had access to it to grow crops - Post Raj: because of the profitability for tea and coffee, the British commons goes away; poor peasants no longer have access to land (they're pushed off), so they stream into the sea and live in densely packed urban slums (famous Indian slums today) b. Textile Industries - Pre Raj: textile industry was very important; actual art; high end level stuff in India - Post Raj: textile industry collapses after the British come in with their textile industry; a largely lost form of art, a great tragedy (textile industry evaporates in the face of the British) c. Caste System (deeply rooted in Hindu belief) - Pre Raj: lots of movement and flexibility within the system(subcastes); upper mobility is possible; you can make something of yourself in India - Post Raj: the British use the caste system to their advantage; they select certain people for certain jobs based on caste status; based on a very surface level understanding of the system (the British botch local customs); you now have to impress the British to move status; now a very rigid, stratified system; makes the system much more intense (they didn't respect the nuances of the system) d. Poverty the British got really rich, and a very small number of Indians benefit - there was a gradual descent into extreme, widespread poverty amongst most Indians

Reasons for English Industrialization

a. Natural Resources: - England already has iron ore and coal as a native resource; they didn't have to import it b. Banking - the bank of England was the most advanced bank in the world at the time - sole purpose = bonds issued by the state; steady and reliable --> provides loans for entrepreneurs, providing much of the necessary capital --> makes industrialization possible --> a trendsetter in providing capital to entrepreneurs c. Constitutional Factors - Parliament has more power than the king - most kings in Europe have no interest in industrialization (a whole new group of economic elites that doesn't share their values; a threat to their livelihood; monarchs and nobles in Europe are not interested - In England, the bourgeois had a seat at the table, the people who were the entrepreneurs themselves and built their capital actually sat on parliament (they can create laws and policy conducive to industrialization) d. Transportation - heavy cargo of iron ore and coal are pretty difficult to transport - roads are often bumpy and uneven to carry the heavy loads The building of canals: easy to transport products over water; horses on either side of the stream to haul the barges - canals connect various waterways to get them to all of these places Trains: connect England in a remarkably short period of time; a created railroad system

Benefits of English Colonization in India

a. Western Education - the British need schools in India to educate Indian children to read/write (the Indians and their own children) - now, English is the main language spoken in India - now, the Indian elites who send their children into the civil service benefit - allowed for professionals; Indians got training as doctors/lawyers (ex: Gandhi takes his law education from India and brings it to Africa) - education in India is pretty westernized, even today b. Infrastructure and Economics - things the government controls, allowing the economy to function: railroads and bridges - integrates the country - more trade across India; cultural unity across India that had never existed before - modern banking is established (provides credit and capital) - mines to extract metals and precious materials

Laissez-faire

advocates for a hands off government - no regulating wages and working conditions in the economy - to subvert natural law is how suffering starts

Jethro Tull

introduced the plow seed drill -cuts straight lines and plants seeds deeper into the earth - protects from predators and winds - gets down into the deeper layer of soil where there are more nutrients - fertilizes the soil as it plows --> many more seeds are able to germinate and get a better yield of product

James Watt

perfects the steam engine to make it viable in an industrial setting with a condenser - he isn't the inventor, he just perfects it

Subsist and Perpetuate

the market price of labor will always tend toward the minimum required for subsistence

Technological Improvements Before Industrialization

the seed drill and the steel plow made farming easier and faster

Scientific Racism

the theory that Whites are biologically superior to the rest of the world; a racist science, but no one questions science - top universities were hiring anthropologists and biologists, obsessed with the issue of race; trying to figure out exactly why whites were superior Darwin's Natural Selection: scientists pervert this idea and apply it to the concept of race; only the strongest and "fittest" of the races will survive - scientists obsessed with classifying traits and physical attributes; thought they were doing the scientific method - this filtered into the culture: the idea of physical characteristics and moral qualities was definitely something people accepted as a cultural aspect and in their writing - particularly obsessed with the cranial capacity of people: blacks had a smaller cranial capacity; this had the "check mark" from science --> argued that Whites were smarter, more motivated, and had more advanced religion because they had bigger brains - Whites had a moral obligation to Africa, India, etc. to put them on a better evolutionary trajectory; maybe one day they will evolve and have bigger brains as well --> it's their Christian duty

Why was India Important?

they were strong, powerful, economically important, celebrated the textile industry, had spices, and were politically important - rarely united by one government; would have certain empires emerge