History Final - Key Events

Khrushchev's secret speech (February 25th, 1956)

1956 - he gave this in the middle of the night to a Communist Party Congress - detailing and condemning crimes of his paranoid leader that came before him - Stalin. He blamed Stalin for imprisoning and murdering enormous number of innocent people including many loyal communists.

American combat troops leave Vietnam (August 15, 1973)

1973 - Nixon signed an agreement with North Vietnam in Paris. This suspended the conflict and lead to the full withdrawal of the US (after massive bombing of North Vietnam)

Berlin Wall is built (August 13th, 1961)

A barrier that divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989. Constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany), starting on 13 August 1961 (built overnight), the Wall completely cut off (by land) West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin until government officials opened it in November 1989. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls,[4] which circumscribed a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds" and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that the Wall was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that had marked East Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period.

Battle of Britain (July 10th, 1940 - October 31st, 1940)

A contest between British and German air forces between July and October 1940 that the British won using a new detection system called "radar" invented in Britain in 1938, to direct their fighters against incoming German raiders. Pilots performed with great efficiency and heroism -> "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few." - Churchill

Marshall Plan begins (April 8th, 1948)

A massive program of U.S. economic aid to postwar Europe created by Secretary of State George Marshall in June 1947 that was designed to prevent Communist expansion by strengthening Europe economically (although billed as a "European Recovery Program")

Nuremberg Trials begin (November 20th, 1945)

A series of military tribunals, held by the Allied forces after World War II, which were most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of Nazi Germany who planned, carried out, or otherwise participated in The Holocaust and other war crimes. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Germany.

Battle of Midway (June 4th-7th, 1942)

Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, architect of the Pearl Harbor strategy, designed another two-pronged plan to destroy the carriers. Japanese fleet splits up, some to Alaska, some to Hawaii however Admiral Chester Nimitz (US Admiral) expected it and destroyed all four Japanese carriers, ending Japan's string of victories and guaranteeing its defeat.

UN Genocide Convention passed (December 9th, 1948)

Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948 as General Assembly Resolution 260. The convention entered into force on 12 January 1951. It defines genocide in legal terms, and is the culmination of years of campaigning by lawyer Raphael Lemkin. All participating countries are required to prevent and punish actions of genocide, whether carried out in war or in peacetime. The number of states that have ratified the convention is currently 147.

Soviet Union invades Afghanistan (December 24, 1979)

After Taraki (Pro-Soviet w/ PDPA, took power after Khan killed in Saur Revolution) enacts unpopular land and economic reforms -> assassination, Soviets invade and establish Karmal as new puppet leader of USSR

United Nations established (October 24th, 1945)

After World War II, US attitude to international cooperation more favorable so Roosevelt took lead in establishing new organization in 1945. Britain, USSR, US, and China are only countries to draft UN Charter - 50 countries sign it, conference held in San Francisco.

India and Pakistan granted independence (August 15th, 1947)

After clashes between Hindus and Muslims, Britain agrees to partition India. On August 15, 1947 two separate nations emerged: the Republic of India and Pakistan, itself divided into East and West sections on opposite sides of Northern India.

Rape of Nanjing (December 13, 1937 - January 1938)

After invading Nanjing in December 1937, Japanese troops went on a rampage in Nanjing, massacring as many as 200,000 people and raping thousands of women -> energized Chinese resistance to Japanese military occupation and produced further atrocities ("comfort stations").

NATO alliance formed (April 4th, 1949)

An alliance formed in April 1949 by the US, Canada, Iceland, and nine European nations that aimed to protect Western Europe from Soviet expansion ("attack against one = "attack against all", i.e. European war -> war with US as well = potential nuclear threat)

Sharpeville massacre (March 21, 1960)

March 21, 1960 - series of small clashes between police and protestors in morning, as day went on a crowd of 5,000 gathered and after a policeman was pushed over, the police began to fire into the crowd as they ran away, killed 69 Africans and wounded 186 (including 40 women and 8 children)

bombing of Tokyo (March 9, 1945)

March 9, 1945 - raid on Tokyo by 279 B-29s destroyed 40 percent of the city in three hours, killing 89,000 civilians and demolishing 267,000 buildings (hoped aerial bombing might force Japanese into surrounding before a landing would be necessary)

Tet Offensive in Vietnam (Phase 1: January 30 - March 28, 1968, Phase 2: May 5 - June 15, 1968, Phase 3: August 17 - September 23, 1968)

North Vietnam surprise attack against South Vietnam (hope for peasant uprising) that failed, but led to American unhappiness with the war. Johnson shaken, doesn't run for reelection, Nixon runs instead

Defiance Campaign (1951-1952)

(1952) Sought to get rid of the Natives Abolition of Passes and Coordination of Documents Act (1952) that increased the amount of information (e.g. fingerprints, employment statistics) required on passbooks (documents that black South Africans had to carry). Intended to fill the courts and prisons with people arrested for not carry proper passes, thereby overloading the system (inspired by satyagraha). Over 5 months, 8,000 offenders were arrested and imprisoned for 1-3 weeks. Nonviolent nature of protestors made it difficult for the government to justify a strong show of force against them (also gained support for cause). Ended after a series of government-provoked riots killed 26 Africans and 6 whites. Failed to force a repeal of the laws however people began to see ANC as a mass movement commanding widespread popular support, anti-apartheid people began to see the value of cooperation, and additional opposition groups joined forces with ANC.

Germany reunified (officially - October 3rd, 1990)

(After tearing down of Berlin Wall due to renunciation of Brezhnev Doctrine) Elections in East Germany in March 1990 - voters choose candidates who favor German unification, Gorbachev agrees (in return for a large West German loan to Soviets), West Germany takes over whole country -> End of Cold War (Berlin Wall gone, Eastern Europe free, and Germany reunited)

Geneva Accords divide Vietnam (July 21st, 1954)

- (France in control of Vietnam (capitalist)-> Vietminh strikes against French rule, led by Ho Chi Minh -> First Indochina War) - Geneva Accords of 1954 (Resolution to First Indochina War) - Agreement between France and the Vietminh - Creation of North Vietnam and South Vietnam - North Vietnam (Communist) - Ho Chi Minh, and Vietminh - Backed by USSR and China - South Vietnam (Capitalist) - Ngo Dinh Diem (put in place by France) - Backed by France and the US

Communists take power in China (Nationalists flee to Taiwan) (1949)

- 1946 - Civil War between Communists and China's nationalist government (discredited due to corruption and poor performance in the war against Japan). - 1949 - Communists emerged victorious -> Nationalists move their regime to Taiwan - During War against Japan, Communists and Nationalists were also fighting each other - Communists headquartered in northwest, waged guerrilla war against Japanese troops in northern and eastern China - Nationalists (corrupt and incompetent) retreated from Japanese and struck out against Communists - 1945 - Communists enhanced prestige, Nationalists lost support (under Jiang Jieshi) - Surrender of Japan -> Nationalists reoccupy territory vacated by Japan (aided by US), Jiang seemed like master of China again - America tried to make a truce with Chinese Communists and Nationalists (coalition government) in order to prevent exploitation by Soviets, but it was only accepted to buy time (as Communists saw US as capitalist's world leader and main supporter of nationalists). - By mid-1946, the truce broke down -> Chinese Civil War - Initially Nationalists did well - controlled China's cities, railways, factories, and mines -> able to dominate industry and transportation, had 3 million man army ( outnumbered Communists 3:1), had modern American weapons and vehicles (Communists had bad rifles and traveled on foot) - 1947 - Nationalist had captured the Communist headquarters at Ya'nan - Communists knew guerrilla tactics from war with Japan, had won over peasants previously in Ya'nan -> aided and supplied by village peasants (who made up most of China's population) - Lin Bao retreated with "People's Liberation Army" to Soviet-occupied Manchuria (gained access to Soviet weapons left behind by Japan) - Jiang pursued Communists in Manchuria -> extended supply lines and left his forces vulnerable - 1948 - Communist counterattack (aided by peasants who disrupted the Nationalists' supply lines and dug trenches to trap their tanks) turned the tide - Communists continue to win victories, took Beijing in January 1948, and Nanjing in April - Nationalist forces in full flight by summer

Castro's revolution in Cuba (July 26th, 1953 - January 1st, 1959)

- An armed revolt conducted by Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement and its allies against the U.S.-backed authoritarian government of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista. The revolution began in July 1953,and continued sporadically until the rebels finally ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, replacing his government with a revolutionary socialist state. The 26th of July Movement later reformed along communist lines, becoming the Communist Party in October 1965. - Beginning of Communism in Cuban, he was Cuban exiled came back with brother, made a revolution and people followed him - made a communist state (took away private property) -> people fled, U.S. interest in cuba (revenue), rich cubans furious -> Florida, put pressure for U.S. to maintain sanctions on Cuba

National Party comes to power in South Africa, institutes apartheid (May 26th, 1948)

- Apartheid - System of racial discrimination designed to keep whites, blacks, coloureds, and Asians separate from each other in every way (e.g. schooling, housing, work, transportation) that existed in South Africa from 1948 to 1990. People forbidden to speak against government, blacks not allowed to vote, government could detain people for years without charging them -> most complex system of racial discrimination ever devised. - Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949) - said whites and members of other racial groups could not marry. - Population Registration Act (1950) - crated three official races in South Africa to which all residents would be assigned: white, coloured (including Asians), and African. - Both Africans and coloureds were further categorized in an attempt to "divide and conquer", preventing communication among different African groups became a major element of apartheid. - Group Areas Act (1950) - began process of designating every inch of land in South Africa for one of the three official race groups, whites held best land and 86% of total land area, despite comprising only 20% of total population. Blacks were ruled as tribal subjects under chiefs. - Further laws segregated transportation, government buildings, and places of public entertainment. - Immorality Acts - White and other groups could not have sexual relations with each other. - Suppression of Communism Act (1950) - defined communism so broadly that any resistance to apartheid policies could be equated with communism. People could be banned from speaking publicly or meeting together.

German Invasion of France (May 10th 1940 - June 25th, 1940)

Invaded France by driving armored units through the Ardennes Forest on the Franco-Belgian border in 1940, French forces were unprepared and surrendered on June 24th, 1940.

Algerian independence (July 5th, 1962)

- FLN - A secret nationalist organization formed in response to the death of 1000+ Algerians in fights between Algerian nationalists and French soldiers. - Received weapons and supplies from Soviet bloc nations. - Launched the All Saints' Day Rising on November 1, 1954 - a coordinated revolt in 45 Algerian cities signaling the beginning of Algeria's struggle for independence (that struggle - "dirty war") - Never numbered more than 20,000 -> used terrorist tactics, planting bombs in schools, post offices, and restaurants rather than conventional warfare. - FLN ruled alone in Algeria until 1988 after De Gaulle removed France from Algeria in 1962. - "dirty war" - Struggle for Algerian independence - caked so due to use of terrorist tactics e.g. planting bombs in schools, post offices, and restaurants, often near windows so that survivors would be blinded by flying glass rather than conventional warfare. French systematically tortured suspects and both sides massacred innocent people. By 1958, 750,000 soldiers were stationed in Algeria but they couldn't discover and diary every underground FLN operative. Majority of Algerian Muslims sabotaged military bases, cut throats of French sentries at night, and concealed/protected fighters during French military sweeps and searches. May, 13 1958 - French National Assembly created cabinet committed to negotiating with FLN -> French army in Algeria seized control from civilian authorities and threaten to invade France itself unless a government was formed that would keep Algeria French. de Gaulle put in power, created a new constitution, wanted to negotiate Algerian independence -> army revolts (1960 and 1961) to try to remove president and cancel negotiations, assassination attempts -> Algeria given independence in 1962.

Iwo Jima (February 19th, 1945 - March 26th, 1945)

- Invasion would place B-29s within range of Japan's home islands - Desolate volcanic island defended by 20,000 Japanese - Began in February 1945 and lasted three hellish weeks - Japanese died to the last man, 6,000 Americans killed, 25,000 wounded - Only Pacific Battle in which American casualties exceeded Japanese (31,000 vs. 21,000)

Okinawa (April 1, 1945 - June 22, 1945)

- Invasion would serve as a staging area for an amphibious assault upon Japan itself - Lasted nearly three months (April-June 1945) - 110,000 Japanese dead, 7,000 Americans - Kamikaze fighters sank 55 ships and terrified Americans who considered them evidence of unrelenting Japanese fanaticism - They were actually evidence of desperation as the best pilots were dead and fuel to train replacements was unavailable/ first-time pilots were usually killed at once by experienced Americans -> Japanese leaders decide this way might at least inflict some damage

Soviet Union breaks up (December 25, 1991)

- Late 1990 - all 15 Soviet Republics had declared some form of autonomy - January 1991 - Soviets send force into Latvia and Lithuania (had declared outright independence) to halt disintegration - Gorbachev introduces new "union treaty" to give the republics internal autonomy while preserving the overall union in foreign and military affairs (angers hard-liners) - August 19, 1991 - eight hard-liners attempt coup, anxious to avoid a bloodbath the coup fails after Yeltsin's outbreak, give in after a few days, Gorbachev resumes duties - Gorbachev devices new union treaty but no one pays attention - After several months, Russia and other republic formed a Commonwealth of Independent States, a loose coalition with no central control, and agree to dissolve the USSR - December 25, 1991 - Gorbachev resigns, USSR ends

German surrender (May 9th, 1945)

- March 7, 1945 - Americans and British enter Germany, German army cracks due to weak soldiers - April 30, 1945 - Hitler commits suicide as Soviet troops in the east take Berlin - May 8, 1945 - German surrender in the West - May 9, 1945 - German surrender in the East

Nelson Mandela becomes president of South Africa (May 10th, 1994)

- New South African president in August 1989, known as a conservative but understood apartheid's no longer a viable option -> freed Mandela - de Klerk/ Mandela/ anti-apartheid groups work together to create 1994 constitution - 1994 constitution - One of the most democratic in the world - explicitly protects members of all races, ethnic groups, religions, sexual orientations, and genders. It also granted voting rights to all -> Mandela elected.

Ghana granted independence (March 6th, 1957)

- On 6 March 1957 at 12 a.m Kwame Nkrumah declared Ghana's establishment and autonomy as the first Prime Minister of Ghana and on 1 July 1960, following the Ghanaian constitutional referendum, 1960 and Ghanaian presidential election, 1960 Nkrumah declared Ghana as a republic as the first President of Ghana. - Kwame Nkrumah - Dynamic nationalist leader who became secretary of the United Gold Coast Convention (modeled on Indian National Congress - satyagraha, created after gradual surrender of Gold Coast by Britain beginning in 1947). Led a series of strikes against Birtish rule in the late 1940s, for which he spent several years in prison, eventually becoming prime minister when the Gold Coast became independent Ghana in 1957.

Soviet Union withdraws from Afghanistan (May 15th, 1988 - February 15th, 1989)

- Soviets withdraw (after US aid Mujahideen - stinger effect, levels playing field between Mujahideen and USSR) - spent $80 million on invasion, Geneva Accords allow them to withdraw

Kenyan independence (December 12th, 1963)

- The first direct elections for native Kenyans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957. Despite British hopes of handing power to "moderate" local rivals, it was the Kenya African National Union (KANU) of Jomo Kenyatta that formed a government. The Colony of Kenya and the Protectorate of Kenya each came to an end on 12 December 1963 with independence being conferred on all of Kenya. The United Kingdom ceded sovereignty over the Colony of Kenya. The Sultan of Zanzibar agreed that simultaneous with independence for the Colony of Kenya, the Sultan would cease to have sovereignty over the Protectorate of Kenya so that all of Kenya would be one sovereign, independent state.[43][44] In this way, Kenya became an independent country under the Kenya Independence Act 1963 of the United Kingdom. Exactly 12 months later on 12 December 1964, Kenya became a republic under the name "Republic of Kenya". - Jomo Kenyatta - Nationalist leader released from prison in 1961, who led his party to victory in parliamentary elections, and Kenya became independent in 1963 (last independence movement to succeed in British East Africa)

Sputnik launched (October 4th, 1957)

World's first artificial earth satellite in 1957 launched by the Soviets (beat US into space)

Chinese Civil War (1927, Great Northern Expedition - 1950)

Before the War - After the Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911 there was a vacuum of power in China. Two major parties formed, the nationalist Kuomintang Party (Guomindang) and the Communist Party (CPC). Some areas of the country were controlled by warlords. The Kuomintang and the CPC united for a time. They wanted to unify China. They both received help from the Soviet Union. Although they were somewhat united, they continued to have an internal rivalry between the two major parties. The Civil War Begins - 1927 - Great Northern expedition - Jiang Jieshi decides to move north from his party's southern base to bring China together under Guomindang rule (under direction from Sun Yixian to unify China) -> Shanghai Massacre - In 1927 the rivalry became a war. Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi) of the Kuomintang decided to get rid of the CPC. The Kuomintang killed and arrested many of the CPC leaders in what is today called the Shanghai Massacre. Mao Zedong of the CPC led an uprising against the Kuomintang called the Autumn Harvest Uprising. The uprising failed, but the civil war had begun. Ten Years Civil War - Over the next ten years, from 1927 to 1936 the two sides fought. Mao Zedong led peasants and common people in uprisings against the Kuomintang. At the same time Chiang Kai-shek tried to put down the uprisings and eliminate Mao and the CPC Army. The Long March - In 1934, Mao and the CPC army had to retreat from the Kuomintang. They went on a series of long marches that lasted an entire year, from October of 1934 to October of 1935. They traveled around 7,000 miles. They began the Long March at Jiangxi province in south China and finally stopped at the Shaanxi province of northern China. Out of around 80,000 soldiers that began the march, only 8,000 or so made it to the end. World War II - When the Japanese invaded Japan in 1937, the two sides once again united in order to fight the Japanese. This continued throughout World War II. However, the two sides still hated each other. The Civil War Renewed - After the end of World War II in 1945, the two sides resumed their civil war. With American support, Chiang Kai-shek moved his soldiers to the major cities of China. However, the CPC was heavily funded by the Soviet Union and quickly gained support in the rural areas.

American combat troops enter Vietnam (1965)

Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962.[50] U.S. involvement escalated further following the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident, in which a U.S. destroyer clashed with North Vietnamese fast attack craft, which was followed by the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave the U.S. president authorization to increase U.S. military presence. Regular U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965.

Alexandra Bus Boycott (January 7th, 1957 - June 1957)

Bus company proposed increase in bus fares -> Alexandra residents refuse to ride buses (walk or bike 20+ miles to jobs in white-owned businesses). Worker productivity fell, strike seemed imminent -> government forced businesses to subsidize bus transport and avoid the fare increase. People learned the could win concessions if they united to act in a way that threatened the profitability of the white economy.

Ceausescu executed in Romania (December 25th, 1989)

Communist dictator who had police massacre protesters, until his forces rebelled against him and killed him on Christmas day (one of the few examples of bloodshed in changing European nations)

Yalta Conference (February 4th-11th, 1945)

Conference held in February 1945 where Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin agreed to divide Germany and Berlin into military occupation zones while Allied forces were stilling fighting the Germans however, the end of the war in Europe was very near. Unlike in Europe, the war in Pacific was still very far from over so at Yalta, Roosevelt and Churchill were willing to bargain with the Soviets in order to secure their help against Japan. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to let the USSR keep the eastern part of prewar Poland (Poland compensated with German land to the west), Stalin promised to let Poles let Poles elect their own leaders (which didn't happen) and to declare war on Japan three months after the European war ended, and to drop his earlier demands about the USSR having 16 seats in the General Assembly, thereby allowing the UN to be created. However, the Allies did resist Stalin's demand for Germany to pay reparations. Allies divided Germany into occupation zones: USSR in East, Britain, America, and France in West (NOTE: A Soviet conquest of Berlin at a time when British and American forces hadn't yet entered Germany might have embarrassed and worried the Western Allies).

Dubcek's Reforms in Czechoslovakia (January 5th, 1968 - August 21st, 1968)

Czechoslovakian Communist reformer who in 1968, introduced "socialism with a human face," lifting most restrictions on speech, press, and foreign travel. Reform movement crushed by USSR after a few months and Dubcek replaced.

Treason Trial (December 1956 - March 29th, 1961)

December 1956 - 156 people in Congress Alliance arrested on charges of high treason (including Nelson Mandela, Chief Albert Luthuli - president of ANC, and Yusuf Cajhalia and Ahmed Kathrada of the SAIC). Included people of all races, 23 whites (mostly Jewish communists), leadership of Congress Alliance enmeshed in endless legal proceedings, banned from public speaking. Government claimed that 156 arrestees were involved in countrywide conspiracy and plot to use violence to overthrow the present government and replace it with a communist government (if found guilty, could face death penalty). Lasted for 4 years, gave leaders chance to communicate unlike before -> Congress Alliance merged with greater political solidarity and sophistication. In the end, government failed to prove that the Freedom Charter was a communist document, or that the Congress Alliance was a communist organization.

Pearl Harbor (December 7th, 1941)

December 7th, 1941 - Japan's First Air Fleet sinks/disables all 8 American battleships and kills 3,000 at Pearl Harbor. Americans were unprepared -> the greatest military disaster in American history (US entry into war).

Stalingrad (August 23rd, 1942 - February 2nd, 1943)

Desire to drive toward Caucasus -> German army in house-to-house battle for Stalingrad. November 1942 - Soviet counteroffensive penetrated a weak point in the German lines, encircling the city. German forces forbidden to break out until Soviet forces withdrawn however by then the army was reduced from 220,000 to 90,000 due to freezing and starving men. Germany surrendered on February 2nd, 1943.

Berlin Wall comes down (November 9, 1989)

East Germans travel to Hungary to escape to West Germany -> after trips to Hungary banned, East Germans went to Czechoslovakia and pressured Czechs to deliver them to West Germany -> East Germany reduces restrictions on travel to West (November 9, 1989 - no Soviet support, anti-Communist rallies on the rise) -> Within hours, Berliners tore down the Berlin Wall

Bombing of Hamburg (July 24, 1943 - August 3rd, 1943)

First large scale effort to engineer a firestorm in Germany's second largest city - 5 days of "carpet bombing" (wave after wave of Allied warplanes dropping their bombs on targeted areas marked by flares) that leveled Hamburg sector by sector which quickly overwhelmed the capacity of the city's fire-fighting and communications system. Third night - high temperatures, low humidity, increased use of incendiary bombs, hurricane-like winds -> spread of firestorm over 8 miles, temperatures rose to more than 1,000 Fahrenheit -> asphalt melted which trapped civilians, bodies were charred and shrunken into tiny blackened bundles, more than 45,000 Germans (mostly civilians) died that night

Warsaw Pact established (May 14th, 1955)

Formed by Khrushchev in response to NATO admitting West Germany in 1955. It was a Soviet-led alliance of East European Communist states. It counter balanced NATO and made it reasonable to continue having Soviet Army in Eastern Europe.

Potsdam Conference (July 17th, 1945 - August 2nd, 1945)

Held in summer 1945, Roosevelt had been replaced by Truman (disliked Communists, aggressive), Germany had already surrendered (removing Allies main reason for cooperation with the USSR), and in the middle of the talks, Churchill replaced by Clement Attlee, a Socialist who promised to improve British workers' lives and decrease Britain's global commitments. At the time, Americans had great faith in capitalist democracy and scorn for Soviet socialism and had also received news that the atomic bomb test had worked - further decreasing their need to cooperate with Communists at the conference. At Potsdam, Americans stood up to Stalin and agreed to let him take reparations from some areas in Germany, demanded free elections in Eastern Europe but Stalin resisted (knew anti-Soviet regimes would spring up), and told Stalin of the atomic bomb.

Soweto Uprising (June 16th, 1976)

High school students were angered their schools lacked materials and teachers adequate to their needs, and that they had to learn in Afrikanns which was spoken nowhere else in the world. In June 1975, they staged a massive demonstrations against Afrikaans instruction -> armed force by government -> riots spread among students all over South Africa -> police begin firing at teenagers -> many arrested, tortued, and killed (600 total deaths, 2,500 injured) -> young people leave townships for Mozambique to train as guerrillas with the banned ANC.

Hungarian Revolt (October 23rd - November 10th, 1956)

Hungary wants to leave Soviet bloc, Khrushchev represses the rebellion, exposes the brutality of Soviet imperial rule

German invasion of the USSR (June 22, 1941 - December 5th, 1941)

Immensity of USSR - local roads slow German advance but moreover, not enough German soldiers to win in a country so large, Red Army substantially larger than the German, treated non-Russian ethnic groups as Slavic subhumans diminishing support for them as liberators from Communism, German failure to define a single objective - chose to drive for Leningrad, Moscow, and Kiev all at the same time, Soviet resistance more persistent than anticipated (250,000 Siberian troops -> Moscow front).

Gandhi assassinated (January 30th, 1948)

In 1948, he was killed by a militant Hindu who resented his efforts to accommodate Muslims (i.e. prediction of "rivers of blood" proved true).

Wannsee Conference (January 20th, 1942)

January 1942 - 15 top leaders of the Nazi party convened by Reinhard Heydrich (head of Nazi SS) in Wannsee, a suburb of Berlin, to create a systematic way to exterminate the Jewish Community in Europe, called the "Final Solution". As a result of this conference, most of the responsibility of the "Final Solution" was transferred from the hands of the military to the bureaucracy. Now, ordinary workers such as train conductors, secretaries, guards, and cooks were needed to make the system of mass murder function. Decision was to ship Jews to concentration camps in Poland on trains in poor conditions with little food or water, where if they hadn't died already, would die of disease, malnutrition, exposure to cold, overwork, and murder.

Tripartite Pact (September 27th, 1940)

Japanese joined Axis Powers (Germany and Italy) on 1940 as a result of attraction to French Indochina assets and awe at Nazi success.

D-Day (June 6, 1944)

June 6, 1944, the day on which the Allies invaded France led by Eisenhower to begin to liberate Western Europe from German occupation. Stalin launched a massive Eastern offensive to distract German and relieve the pressure on Allied soldiers at the beaches. Surprised German military, Allies hold ground, Stalin's invasion has surprising gains/ pressure in Poland, appeared likely European war would end in 1944 in mid-August of the invasion

Cuban Missile Crisis (October 16th-28th, 1962)

Khrushchev placed midrange nuclear missiles targeting the US in Cuba in order to protect Castro without the cost of building new ICBMs. Once they were established, he planned to reveal them and order Western forces to leave Berlin. In October 1962, American spy planes discovered them and Kennedy immediately ordered their removal and instituted a US Navy Blockade of Cuba to prevent further weapons shipments. For several days, the world watched in terror as the US and the USSR teetered on the brink of war. In the end however, Khrushchev chose not to challenge the blockade and Kennedy chose not to bomb or invade Cuba. At the conclusion, the US promised not to invade Cuba in return for the removal of Soviet missiles (Kennedy also privately promised to removal American mid-range missiles pointed at the USSR in Turkey).

Bombing of Dresden (February 13th-15th, 1945)

Known best for its beautiful medieval architecture, Dresden was of little military significance and had been spared from earlier attack. Nonetheless, to ensure Germany's unconditional surrender and to assist the Soviet advance in the east, the Allies staged one of the largest raids of the war against the city, involving nearly twenty-eight hundred aircraft (Allies had also already begun land invasion of Germany). The firestorm that resulted was visible for two hundred miles. Approximately one hundred thousand Germans, mostly civilians, were killed—the largest loss of life in a single day up to that point of the twentieth century. Three months later, on May 7, 1945, Germany surrendered unconditionally after U.S. and Soviet forces met in central Germany.

Imre Nagy executed (June 16th, 1958)

Led Hungarian Revolt against USSR (wanted to leave Soviet bloc)

Solidarity legalized in Poland (April 4th, 1989)

Legalized Solidarity union (suppressed since 1981), and created a new senate based on free elections, soon won by Solidarity (example of change in Eastern European country after renunciation of Brezhnev Doctrine)

Great Leap Forward (January 1958 - 1961)

Mao launched this in 1958 because even though the Five-Year Plan fostered economic growth, it was too urban, timid, slow and bureaucratic for him. It was a campaign of mass mobilization made to quickly reshape China into a rural socialist society. Became catastrophe because lack of industrial knowledge led to inferior goods, steel and pressure to set unrealistic goals led communes to over predict their harvests —> mass food shortage. 1960 droughts, typhoons, torrential rains —> horrible famine 20-30 million people died. Mao quietly "retired" and replaced by Deng Xiaoping.

Cultural Revolution (May 1966 - 1969, Mao declares it over/1971, active phase over with Lin Bao's death)

Mao refused to give up his power so easily for he had made the Communists come to power. In 1965 he launched this which was his most spectacular venture. He was aided by Defense Minister Lin Bao and the People's Liberation Army. It was just as catastrophic as the Great Leap Forward —> mass chaos, economy destroyed, China isolated from world.

Truman Doctrine announced (March 12th, 1947)

March 1947 - a new policy created in response to a Communist insurgency in Greece and to Soviet pressures against Turkey that stated that the US must "support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures" which clearly meant Communist minorities and pressures from Soviet Russia

Atomic bombing of Hiroshima & Nagasaki (August 6th and August 9th, 1945)

On August 6, the U.S. dropped a uranium gun-type atomic bomb (Little Boy) on the city of Hiroshima. American President Harry S. Truman called for Japan's surrender 16 hours later, warning them to "expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth". Three days later, on August 9, the U.S. dropped a plutonium implosion-type bomb (Fat Man) on the city of Nagasaki. Within the first two to four months of the bombings, the acute effects of the atomic bombings killed 90,000-146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000-80,000 in Nagasaki; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the first day. During the following months, large numbers died from the effect of burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition. In both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison.

Berlin Blockade (June 24th, 1948 - May 12th, 1949)

One of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post-World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche mark from West Berlin.

Berlin Airlift (June 28th, 1948 - September 30th 1949, after Blockade had ended)

Response to Berlin blockade - for 11 months, American and British cargo planes flew food and supplies into West Berlin, which at the end resulted in a discreet removal of the blockade in May 1949

Rivonia trial (July 11th, 1963 - 1964)

Result of police raid of ANC headquarters in Rivonia in July 1963, found documents and tried nine people (including Nelson Mandela) who admitted they were involved in sabotage and talks of guerrilla warfare. On June 12, 1964 Mandela and seven others were sentenced to life in prison -> ANC and PAC lost effectiveness -> UN Security Council urges the South African government to grant amnesty and considers use of sanctions.

Korean War (June 25th, 1950 - July 27th, 1953)

Started as a result of takeover of Communist regimes in the west - in China, North Korea, South Korea. US decided to defend South Korea which led to American-led UN coalition against Soviet-supplied Communist forces. The United States didn't want to weaken its defenses in Europe by going through will all-out Asian war so concentrated on Korea. In July 1953 both sides weren't willing to risk another world war so settled for truce in Korea.

U-2 Affair (May 1st, 1960)

The 1960 U-2 incident occurred during the Cold War on 1 May 1960, during the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower and the premiership of Nikita Khrushchev, when a United States U-2 spy plane was shot down while in Soviet airspace. The aircraft, flown by Central Intelligence Agency pilot Francis Gary Powers, was performing photographic aerial reconnaissance when it was hit by an S-75 Dvina (SA-2 Guideline) surface-to-air missile and crashed in Sverdlovsk. Powers parachuted safely and was captured. - US U-2 plane crashed in USSR, doomed Paris summit, Khrushchev blames Eisenhower for endangering peace/denounces US/refuses to negotiate

Holocaust (1941 - 1945)

The Holocaust was a genocide in which Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany and its collaborators killed about six million Jews. The victims included 1.5 million children and represented about two-thirds of the nine million Jews who had resided in Europe. Some definitions of the Holocaust include the additional five million non-Jewish victims of Nazi mass murders, bringing the total to about 11 million. Killings took place throughout Nazi Germany and German-occupied territories. The name calls attention to the use of crematoria to burn the bodies of Jews from Nazi gas chambers as well as the Nazis goal to exterminate Jews simply because of their ancestry.

Kristallnacht (November 9th, 1938)

The Night of Broken Glass - The night of November 9th 1938 where Nazis started anti-Jewish riots, burned 191 synagogues across Germany, and destroyed thousands of Jewish-owned shops. They killed over 90 Jews, and ordered 30,000 Jews to be sent to concentration camps. Led to mass Jewish emigration. The night occurred as a reaction to the shooting of Nazi official by a 17 year-old who's parents were trapped in refugee camps near the German-Polish border.

Nuremberg Laws (September 15, 1935)

The Nuremberg Laws were antisemitic laws in Nazi Germany. They were introduced on September 15, 1935 by the Reichstag at a special meeting convened at the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party. The two laws were the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour, which forbade marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans and the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households, and the Reich Citizenship Law, which declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens; the remainder were classed as state subjects, without citizenship rights. A supplementary decree outlining the definition of who was Jewish was passed on November 14th, and the Reich Citizenship Law officially came into force on that date. The laws were expanded on November 26th to include Romani people and Afro-Germans. Out of foreign policy concerns, prosecutions under the two laws did not commence until after the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin.

Gulf of Tonkin Incident (August 2nd, 1964)

US surveillance ship shot, faked by US so they could attack North Vietnam

"Bay of Pigs" invasion (April 17th-19th, 1961)

Unsuccessful American attempt to unseat Fidel Castro in Cuba in April 1961 by landing armed anti-Castro Cubans in Cuba. Led to Castro seeking Soviet protection from another US attack.

Mikhail Gorbachev comes to power, glasnost and perestroika proclaimed (March 11, 1985 - August 24th, 1991)

Young, energetic new Soviet leader who took power in 1985 and was eager to make changes. Aware of failure of Soviet system - promoted perestroika and glasnost. Also sought to ease international tensions by holding several suit meetings with Reagan (signed a 1987 treaty eliminating mid-range missiles).