History Finals Study Guide

The Fall of California

A few moths later after Congress declared war on Mexico, a general named Stephen Kearny, led the army of the West out of Kansas. They had orders to occupy New Mexico and then continue west to California. Meanwhile, a group of Americans launched a rebellion against Mexican rule in California. John C. Frémont, an explorer, gave his support to the Americans when he heard about the uprising. They arrested and jailed the Mexican commander, General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo. After they arrested the Mexican commander, Americans raised a crude flag showing a grizzly bear sketched in blackberry juice. They then declared California the Bear Flag Republic. Kearny joined forces with the revels when he reached California. Within weeks, all of California was under U.S. control. This was important because it showed how the Americans won their independence. They took down the commander of Mexico which showed how strong and brave they were. This led to the Americans winning over California.

"Govern or Get Out"

After Andrew Jackson invaded Spain in 1818, Monroe asked his cabinet for advice. One of its members suggested removing Jackson and make him apologize to Spain for his actions. Another member of Monroe's staff, John Quincy Adams, disagreed. Adams convinced Monroe to send Spain a blunt message- govern Florida properly or get out. Florida is owned by Spain. They lacked control over Florida and wasn't governing properly. Fearing war, Spain decided to get out. In 1819, the Spanish governor agreed to give Florida to the United States. The U.S. paid off $5 million in settlers' claims against Spain and to also honor Spain's longtime claim to Texas. Not all Americans were happy about leaving Spain in charge of Texas. Even so, the Senate satisfied the Florida treaty two days after it was signed.

Florida Territory

After the purchase of Louisiana, President Thomas Jefferson turned next to Florida. In the late 1500s, Spain had colonized Florida. By the 1800s, Florida had a diverse population of Spanish colonists, English traders, Seminole Indians, and runaway slaves. In 1804, Jefferson sent two diplomats to Spain to buy Florida, but Spain refused to sell. Many white Americans in the Southeast wanted Florida because many escaped slaves ran away there and the Seminole Indians were carrying out raids in Georgia. In 1818, President Monroe sent General Andrew Jackson, the hero of the Battle of New Orleans, to Georgia to end the Seminole raids. Jackson did not have the authority to invade the Spanish colony. He could only chase raiding Seminoles into Florida. Over the next few weeks, he had captured nearly every military post. Jackson also replaced the Spanish governor with an American. Because of Jackson's illegal invasion, Spain demanded for him to be punished.

Indian Removal Act

Andrew Jackson believed that the Indians should move west to make room for white settlers. He urged Congress to pass the Indian Removal Act of 1830. This law gave the president the power to negotiate removal treaties. Treaties in which American Indians in the East traded their lands for new territory on the Great Plains. Those wishing to remain would become citizens of their home state. In 1831, the Supreme Court held that American Indians had a right to keep their lands. Jackson disagreed so groups that refused to move west were met with military force. The Indians of Illinois fought for two years under the leadership of a chief named Black Hawk. Black Hawk was an Indian who fought for his countrymen. In 1832, Black Hawk's War ended with the slaughter of most of his warriors. The removal was supposed to be voluntary and peaceful, and it was for tribes that agreed to the conditions. Because of Jackson's hatred towards the American Indians, the removal became violent.

Andrew Jackson Presidency

Andrew Jackson was the seventh president of the United States. He served two terms in office from 1829 to 1837. Born in poverty, Jackson became a wealthy Tennessee lawyer and a rising young politician by 1812, when war broke out between the United States and Britain. After narrowly losing to John Quincy Adams, in the 1824 presidential election, Jackson returned in 1828, four years later, to win redemption. Jackson defeated Adams, becoming the nation's seventh president. The presidential election of 1828 was the dirtiest campaign in U.S. history. It was a rematch of the election of 1824. It had Andrew Jackson, a Democrat and the hero of the War of 1812's Battle of New Orleans, against John Quincy Adams, a National Republic who is running for reelection. Both sides hurled accusations at each other during the campaign. Adams was accused of using public money to purchase "gambling furniture" for the White House. Adam's supporters then called Jackson ignorant and attacked his parents and his wife. At the end, when the votes were counted, Jackson was the winner.

Growth of Democracy

During the election of 1828, the United States experienced a growth in democracy. In this election, the common people, like farmers, factory workers, and western frontiersman, could vote for the first time. Before this, only white property owners could vote. Most states begin to get rid of requirements of owning property in order for men to vote. Even with an increase in voter turnouts, the opportunity was still not open to African Americans, Native Americans, or women. Many people wildly celebrated Jackson's inauguration at the White House. They believed he was the champion of the common people. They also believed that Jackson would reduce the power of monied interests. His election reflected a shift in power to the Western states and to the farmers, shopkeepers, and small business owners. The rich and well-born were not so sure Jackson was the best person to be president. Jackson's views on government left a legacy to the modern Democratic Party.

Jackson Indian Policy

Early in the 9th century, while the rapidly-growing United States expanded into the lower South, white settles faced what they considered an obstacle. Most of the eastern Indians in the south and belonged to the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole nations. These Indian nations. in the view of the settlers and man other white Americans, were standing in the way of progress. After independence, the new national government tried to settle the conflicts between white settlers and American Indians through treaties. Despite the treaties, American Indians continued to be pushed off their land. Andrew Jackson had little sympathy for American Indians. It became a national policy to remove American Indians who remained in the East by force. By the time Jackson became president, only 125,000 American Indians still lived east of the Mississippi River. He was determined to remove the remaining American Indians to a new Indian Territory in the West. The Whites called the five groups the "Five Civilized Tribes." While the Five Civilized Tribes may have hoped to live in peace with their neighbors, man whites didn't share this goal. Eager for land to raise cotton, the settlers pressured the federal government to acquire Indian Territory.

The Treaty of Guadalupe

In 1848, Mexico and the United States signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ending war. In the treaty, Mexico agreed to give up Texas and a vast region also known as the Mexican Cession. This area included California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico, as well as parts of Colorado and Wyoming. In exchange of Mexico giving up half of its territory, the U.S. agreed to pay Mexico $15 million. The U.S. also promised to protect the 80,000 to 100,000 Mexicans living in Texas and in the Mexican Cession but not all promises were kept. In Washington, some senators spoke up to oppose the treaty. Some argued that the U.S. had no right to take Mexican territory other than Texas. The reason was that the Mexican-American War had been unjust and the treaty was even more so. The Senators said New Mexico and California together were "not worth a dollar" and should be returned to Mexico. Other senators opposed the treaty because they wanted more land. They believed the Mexican Cession should include a large part of northern Mexico as well. However, most senators saw the Mexican Cession a manifest destiny dream come true. The Senate approved the treaty by a vote of 38 to 14 in 1848.

Louisiana Purchase

Louisiana was the nation's first opportunity for expansion during the early 1800s with its vast territory to the west of the Mississippi River. For farmers to be able to move their crops freely along the Mississippi, The U.S. wanted possession of the port city of New Orleans. Louisiana's vast region stretched from Canada in the north to Texas in the south, and from the Mississippi, it reached west all the way to the Rocky Mountains. Louisiana was first claimed by France then it was given to Spain after the French and Indian war. In 1800, Napoleon Bonaparte, the French ruler, convinced Spain to return Louisiana back to France. He now had plans for Louisiana. He hoped to settle many French farmers, who would raise food for the slaves who worked on France's sugar plantations in the Caribbean. Napoleon's plans alarmed frontier farmers. If Napoleon closes the port city of New Orleans to American goods, farmers would have no way to get their crops to market. President Thomas Jefferson understood the struggles of American farmers. In 1803, he sent James Monroe to France with an offer to buy New Orleans for $7.5 million. Before Monroe got to France, Napoleon changed his plans. When France and Great Britain were on the brink of war, Napoleon knew he would lose Louisiana to the British. He then sold it to the United States for $15 million. That was the United States' opportunity to buy an area as big as itself.

Manifest Destiny

Manifest Destiny means "obvious fate." It is also the belief by many Americans that it was America's destiny to move westward. By moving westward, it will expand its borders from the Atlantic Ocean in the East to the Pacific Ocean in the West. They believed that the U.S. was destined, by God, to expand its dominion and spread democracy and capitalism across the entire North American continent. This persuaded the American people and American leaders to support numerous efforts to acquire more territory, making America a much larger country. Americans began their "great experiment" in 1776. Expanding the boundaries of the United States was in many ways a cultural war as well. The desire of southerners to find more lands suitable for cotton cultivation would eventually spread slavery to these regions. Many citizens were deeply concerned about adding any more slave states. Manifest Destiny touched on issues of religion, money, race, patriotism, and morality.

Oregon Fever

Missionaries were the first American settlers to travel through South Pass to Oregon. While they were unable to convert many Oregon Indians to Christianity, their reports of Oregon's fertile soil and abundant forests soon attracted more settlers. These early settlers wrote letters home describing Oregon as a "pioneer paradise." They also claim that the weather was always sunny, disease was unknown, trees grew thick, and farms were feee for the taking. These claims inspired many other settlers who were looking for a new beginning. In 1843, about 1,000 pioneers packed their belonging into covered wagons and headed for Oregon. A year later, the number of pioneers headed for Oregon doubled. Many people made the long journey across the plains and mountains. "The Oregon Fever has broke out," reported one observer, "and is now raging." This is important because it showed that Oregon was popular. The settlers' claims got many other settlers interested in Oregon. People wanted to go to Oregon because it was good for growing cotton with its fertile soil. If it weren't for the settlers' reports, there wouldn't be an Oregon Fever.

Texas

Much of Texas' region was well suited for growing the South's most valuable cash crop, cotton. Many southerners hoped that one day Texas would become part of the United States. Moses Austin is a banker and a business owner who dreamed of starting a U.S. colony in Spanish Texas. In 1821, Moses Austin was granted a huge tract of land in Texas by the Spanish officials. The same year, Moses Austin died. His son, Stephen Austin took over his father's dream. Stephen F. Austin was also known as the "Father of Texas." He settles in Texas soon after Mexico had gained its independence from Spain. Austin was allowed by the Mexican officials to start his colony under certain conditions. He had to choose only moral and hardworking citizens. Settlers also had to join the Catholic Church. Austin agreed to Mexico's terms. By 1827, there were 297 families settled on Austin's land soon known as the "Old Three Hundred.

The Kitchen Cabinet

One of the most important events during Andrew Jackson's presidency was his use of unofficial advisers referred to by his enemies at the "Kitchen Cabinet." He made most of his decisions with the help of trusted friends and political supporters. Since Jackson frequently met with them in the White House kitchen, it is called the "Kitchen Cabinet." He appointed some of his dedicated supporters with jobs within his cabinet, which few of them were qualified for the job. Jackson relied more on his friends than the regular cabinet. While the common men were fine with this, the upper-class men are not. Wealthy men, who had been used to influencing the government, looked at the "Kitchen Cabinet" with deep suspicion. They believed that the unofficial advisors were not the proper men to be running the country. However, Jackson ignored them and continued to turn to the advisers he trusted for advice. Amos Kendall, Jackson's closest adviser, was accused by a congressman of being "the President's lying machine." Again, Jackson ignored the charges and accusations.

Oregon Country

Oregon Country was far to the northwest of Texas. It stretched from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. In 1819, Oregon was claimed by four nations: Russia, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. Spain was the first to drop out of the scramble when it gave up its claim to Oregon as part of the treaty to purchase Florida. Russia also dropped out several years later. That left Great Britain and the United States. The two nations agreed to a peaceful "joint occupation" of Oregon for the time being. America's claim to Oregon was based on the Lewis and Clark expedition. Between 1804 and 1806, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark had led a small group of explorers to the Oregon coast. Jefferson wanted them to explore the Louisiana Territory to see exactly what the U.S. had just purchased from France. The route that Lewis and Clark had followed was far too rugged for ordinary travelers. In 1824, Jedediah Smith, a young fur trapper, found a better route called South Pass through the Rocky Mountains. South Pass was low and flat enough for wagons to use in crossing the Rockies. Unlike the high, steep passes Lewis and Clark followed, South Pass was more convenient for everyone.

The Mexican-American War

President Polk didn't think that Texas and Oregon were sufficient new territory for any president. He wanted to expand the U.S. as far as he could. He was determined to have the huge areas of California and New Mexico as well- either through purchase or war. These areas were first colonized by Spain but became Mexican territories when Mexico won its independence in 1821. California and Mexico were both thinly settled and long neglected by the Mexican government. President Polk thought they might be for sale. He sent a representative to Mexico to try and buy the territories, but Mexican officials refused to see him. Congress voted to annex Texas which caused the relations between the U.S. and Mexico turn sour. The annexation of Texas by the U.S. upset Mexico, which believed it to be an act of war. In addition, Texas and Mexico had never agreed on a border. On April 25, 1846 Mexican soldiers fired in American troops who were patrolling the Rio Grande, killing it wounding sixteen Americans. President Polk used the incident as an excuse to go to war. Two days after Polk's speech, Congress declared war on Mexico, starting the Mexican-American War.

The Alamo

San Antonio, Texas is where the first battle took place in this war. The first battle was 6,000 Mexican soldiers against 180 Texan volunteers. The town of San Antonio, Texas was defended by those 180 Texan Volunteers, including eight Tejanos, when a large part of Santa Anna's army reached the town. The Texans were outnumbered so they hid out in an old Mexican Mission names The Alamo. Among the Alamos was Davy Crockett, a frontiersman and a former congressman from Tennessee. There was also James Bowie, a well-known Texas "freedom fighter," sharing command with William Travis. General Santa Anna raised a black flag that meant "except no mercy," while the Alamo's defenders watched. The Texans were told to surrender. Travis answered with a cannon shot. Santa Anna's troops began to surround the Alamo. The Texans were outnumbered by at least ten t one, but only one man fled. William Travis bowes not to abandon the Alamo proclaiming, "Victory or death!" He sent two messengers to other towns in Texas to plead for reinforcements but they never came. For 12 days, the Mexican Army pounded the Alamo with cannonballs. The 13th day, Santa Anna ordered his troops to storm the fort and kill all the men inside. The battle only lasted 90 minutes. Those who had survived the battle were executed by Santa Anna's orders. Texans were mad and wanted revenge.

The Rising Tension

Stephen F. Austin successfully started a colony in Texas, taking over his father's dreams, Moses Austin. Due to the success, it started a rush of settlers to Texas. By 1830, there were about 25,000 Americans in Texas, compared to 4,000 Tejanos, Texans of Mexican descent. Tensions arose between the two groups. Tejanos and the Americans had many complaints. The Americans had several complaints. They resented taking orders from Mexican officials because they were used to governing themselves. Settlers were unhappy that all official documents had to be in Spanish, a language they were unwilling to learn. They were also unhappy that Mexico had outlawed slavery in 1829. Tejanos had their own complaints as well. They were unhappy that so many American settlers had come to Texas illegally. American settlers also showed little respect for Mexican culture adding on to the Tejanos' complaints. The Mexican Government responded by closing Texas to American Immigration. The government sent troops to Texas to assert its authority and to enforce the immigration laws.

Battle of the Banks

The Bank of the United States was a controversial institution during Jackson's time. It was extremely powerful and it controlled the nation's money supply. The bank was partly owned by the federal government, and it had a monopoly on federal deposits. Andrew Jackson thought that the Bank of the United States benefited wealthy people. He believed that the bank would serve only the rich, gave too much power to the government, and ignored the needs of the common man. The bank's president, Nicholas Biddle, represented everything that Jackson hated. He was wealthy, upper class, well educated, and widely traveled. Jackson distrusted Biddle and felt anger towards him. Before the 1832 election, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster planned to use Jackson's hatred towards the bank to help weaken him. They thought that if Jackson vetoed the charter application, it would anger many Americans and will lose for the reelection. Clay forgot that there were more poor farmers than there were rich bankers and business people. Jackson then vetoed the recharter bill. He called the bank an unconstitutional monopoly that only existed to make the wealthy people wealthier. Voters agreed and Jackson was elected to a second term in 1832.

The Nullification Crisis

The Nullification Crisis is led by the controversy over higher tariffs. A tariff is a tax imposed by the government on goods imported from another country. Congress passed a law raising tariffs in 1828. It was to encourage the growth of manufacturing in the United States. Higher tariffs meant higher prices for imported factory goods. American manufacturers could then outshell their foreign competitors. The Southern economy was based on agriculture and dependence on slavery and large plantations had discouraged manufacturing. Southern states would have to pay higher taxes on factory goods and they worried the higher taxes would hurt trade of cotton to foreign countries. The Northern states, on the other hand, favored the new tariff law. They had new factories and an economy of manufacturing. Many Southerners, believed that a law favoring one region was unconstitutional. John C. Calhoun, Jackson's vice president, called on the southern states to nullify the tariff. Jackson understood southerners' concerns so he signed a new law in 1832 that lowered tariffs. However, the tariffs are not low enough for South Carolina's satisfaction. They then argued that states had the right to overturn or nullify federal laws. Jackson threatened to send in federal troops, so South Carolina backed down and the nullification crisis ended.

The Spoils System

The Spoils System is a system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends. It is the system of employing and promoting civil servants who are friends and supporters of the group in power. Andrew decided to fire and replace over 200 Republican officeholders with his own loyal Democratic supporters. Jackson disagrees with civil servants who view their posts as lifetime jobs. He gave more people a chance to serve their government. This is important because Jackson's approach to governing promoted democracy. He gave opportunities to the common people. He wanted everyone to be a part of the government. Many of Jackson's critics are upset by this. A supporter of Jackson's replied to criticism of the president by stating, "To the victor belong the spoils."

The United States Invaded Mexico

The conquest of Mexico itself was far more difficult. U.S. troops were led by General Zachary Taylor, a no-nonsense general who was known fondly as "Old Rough and Ready." Taylor had pushed into Mexico, capturing the Mexican city of Monterrey with 6,000 U.S. troops. General Santa Anna, their old enemy, marched north to meet Taylor with an army of 20,000 Mexican troops. In February 1847, the two forces met near a ranch called Buena Vista to battle. The fighting was fierce but General Santa Anna was eventually forced to make a retreat. A month later, American forces led by General Winfield Scott landed at Veracruz in southern Mexico. Scott was also known as "Old Fuss and Feathers" because he was a stickler for discipline and loved fancy uniforms. Over the next six months, Scott's army would fight their way to Mexico City, the capital of Mexico. The Americans met fierce resistance at the castle of Chapultepec, outside the capital. About 1,000 Mexican soldiers and 100 young military cadets fought to defend the fortress. Only six of the cadets didn't surrender and continued to fight. Scott's army captured Mexico City in September 1847.

Jacksonian Democracy

The result of the presidential election of 1828 was a great victory for Jackson. It was also a victory for the idea that the common people should control their government. This idea eventually became known as Jacksonian Democracy. It is a policy of spreading more political power to more people especially common people. Jacksonian Democracy is named as such because it benefited this group. Jackson was extremely popular with the 'common man,' which he considered to be factory workers, farmers, and western frontiersman. However, Jackson's critics viewed his popularity as a danger sign that his presidency was coming to resemble that of a king. His opponents then called him "King Andrew,' fearing Jackson's intentions of strengthening the powers of the presidency. The Jacksonian Democracy is important because it was the birth of Modern American political culture.

A Noble Bargain

Thomas Jefferson felt sympathy for the American farmers. He then sent James Monroe to France to offer France $7.5 million for New Orleans. Before James Monroe got to France and offer, Napoleon Bonaparte, the French ruler, changed his plans for Louisiana. At the time, France was on the brink of war with Britain. It feared Napoleon it might lose the territory during the war. Napoleon then offers instead to sell the entire Louisiana Territory to the U.S. for $15 million. This purchase was an opportunity to buy an area as big as itself. On April 30, 1803, it did not take long for James Monroe to agree. He then signed a treaty giving Louisiana to the United States in exchange for $15 million. It is called "A Noble Bargain" because when the treaty was signed the French foreign minister said that it was a noble bargain for America and that we should make the most of it. The U.S. only planned to buy a small part of Louisiana, New Orleans, so it was a surprise the got the whole territory of Louisiana. They saw this is an opportunity to expand their nation.

Trail of Tears

Trail of Tears is the removal of Cherokee Indians from Georgia to Indian Territory in 1838 and 1839. In 1836, thousands of Creek Indians who refused to leave Alabama were rounded up and marched west in handcuffs. By 1838, under President Martin Van Buren, only 2,000 had migrated and more than 17,000 Cherokees were forced from their lands in Georgia and headed west by federal troops. Then began the Trail of Tears. About 4,000 of these American Indians died of cold, hunger, and disease during the long walk to Indian Territory. The American Indians weren't allowed time to gather their belongings, and as they left, whites looted their homes. The Seminoles of Florida resisted removal for ten years. Their long struggle was the most costly Indian war ever fought in the U.S. Andrew Jackson was proud of "solving" the American Indians problem for good when he left the office. What Andrew Jackson really did was move the conflict between the whites and the American Indians across the Mississippi River.

The Purchase Debate

While many Americans viewed the Louisiana Purchase as the greatest land deal in history, some disapproved. The new territory would double the country's size at a bargain price of just two to three cents an acre. People worried that a large country would be impossible to govern. Politicians in the East thought they might lose power as new states were carved out of the Louisiana Territory. Others complained that America had plenty of lands as it was and too little money to be spending it on buying more. There are still many people with different opinions about the Louisiana Purchase. Some criticized that Jefferson had no Constitutional right to make such a deal, but later that year the Senate would ratify the treaty and double the size of the United States. Frontier farmers welcomed the news. Many of the people's opinions lead to the Purchase Debate. Not everyone approved of it. In 1804, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark led an expedition to explore the newly acquired territory.