History Midterm

To what extent did the Congress of Vienna restore the old order?

- A new international equilibrium to prevent war was created - Old-order rulers who had ruled by divine right now needed earthly legitimacy - Member nations spurned international competition and helped one another maintain peace

How was the Paris Commune related to earlier revolutions in France? How did it differ from them? How was it related to nation building?

- As with previous French uprisings, the situation seemed dire prior to the establishment of the Paris Commune - The Paris Commune was declared in the face of this military threat from Prussia

How did reformers try to address the social problems created by industrialization and urbanization? In which areas did they succeed, and in which did they fail?

- Concern about social problems and efforts to alleviate them were widespread - Religiously inspired reformers struggled to improve the habits of the poor and to overcome growing working-class indifference toward religion - Education was a particular focus of reforming energy - The ideal of female domesticity was emphasized, although many women were forced by economic circumstances to become domestic servants and factory workers - The anti-slavery movement spread throughout the west, and succeeded in abolishing or restricting slavery and the slave trade

What dangers did the Industrial Revolution pose to both urban and rural life?

- Factories and the jobs they provided contributed to the urban population surge - Cities attracted massive rural emigration and absorbed settlements that sprang up and expanded outside the city limits - Class tensions and rising levels of social disorder caused widespread concern, particularly among the middle class - In the countryside, rising agriculture production struggled to keep up with population increase - Small farmers struggled as subdivision became more common - The social order and the power of rural aristocratic elites persisted

Why did the revolutions of 1848 fail?

- Many voters, particularly rural ones, were frightened by urban disturbances into supporting more conservative governments - Internal conflict among revolutionaries - Revolutionaries lacked political experience or military support

In what ways did Napoleon continue the French Revolution, and in what ways did he break with it?

- Napoleon did not reject revolutionary progress or restore the monarchy - Napoleon continued revolutionary-era efforts to centralize the state and spread French political values - Napoleon continued revolutionary-era efforts to introduce "rational" government and a more egalitarian social order - Napoleon severely restricted liberty and political freedoms - Napoleon rejected or moderated revolutionary-era anti-Catholicism and emphasized public order

What were the main results of the Crimean War?

- New technologies were introduced to warfare - New civilian attitudes toward war - Russia and Austria's dominance of European politics ended - Russia was forced to reform

Why did ideologies have such a powerful appeal in the 1830s and 1840s?

- People gathered around ideologies to find solutions to questions developing about society, political theory, and change - Each ideology appealed to a specific class - Ethnic minorities living under foreign rule found a rallying cry in nationalism

How did realism in social thought break with Enlightenment values?

- Philosophies of the Enlightenment intellectualized the problems of the world - Stimulated by the thinking of Charles Darwin, positivism grew out of the attempt to understand the world outside religious constraints

Why did some nation-states tend toward secularism while the kingdoms that preceded them were based on religion?

- Religion was the legitimizing force for rulers in early-modern kingdoms

How did Europe's expanding nation-states attempt to impose social order within and beyond Europe and what resistance did they face?

- States faced challenges to public order from economically disempowered artisans and workers - The military was used to maintain order - Centralized states promoted social order by emphasizing family virtues, fortifying religion, and maintaining the boundaries between the male political sphere and the female domestic sphere - States enlisted culture in their quest for national power - States controlled and limited the place of religion in society - Social scientists advocated for mass education and widespread, sweeping, state-sponsored reform

How did the Industrial Revolution create new social and political conflicts?

- The Industrial Revolution and its accompanying urbanization disrupted existing class structures - There were growing divisions and tensions between classes - Liberal reformers fought for a range of social changes

What role did warfare play in the various nineteenth-century nation-building efforts?

- War with outsiders helped nations build nationalism and unity under one ruler - War abroad to build an overseas empire provided income and maintained peace and prosperity at home

All socialists in the 1830s and 1840s considered liberalism an inadequate response to the problems caused by industrialization and emphasized the importance of _____ and restructuring _____. Communists called for the abolition of _____ and for the institution of _____.

All socialists in the 1830s and 1840s considered liberalism an inadequate response to the problems caused by industrialization and emphasized the importance of organizing the working classes and restructuring society. Communists called for the abolition of private property and for the institution of communal ownership.

States controlled and limited the place of religion in society:

Although politicians often saw the value of religion in preserving public order, many nation-builders, notably Bismarck in Germany, worked hard to limit the influence of religion, particularly Catholicism.

How long did the Congress of Vienna prevent war?

Although this diplomatic system, or "concert of Europe," did not long work as planned, it did, however, help to prevent a major war until the 1850s.

The Paris Commune was declared in the face of this military threat from Prussia:

But, as in the past, commune leaders argued over how to proceed, which gave the provisional government time to take action. The Paris Commune was suppressed, as were those communes that had been formed in other French cities. As with earlier revolutions, a good deal of violence was involved on both sides of the conflict. And, as with the French Revolution, the worst of the atrocities committed during the commune were later blamed on women agitators.

Liberal reformers fought for a range of social changes:

But, they also supported the Industrial Revolution, became increasingly influential in places like England, where successful parliamentary reform and anti-corn-law movements demonstrated the power of the rising middle class. While middle-class, often religiously inspired, reform movements thrived, they often portrayed working-class life as fundamentally degraded and corrupt. More radical political ideologies such as socialism and communism attracted a great deal of working-class support, and a real fear of revolution grew among all classes.

Each ideology appealed to a specific class:

Conservatism appealed to established elites, monarchs, and aristocrats because it explained recent revolutions as a logical progression of events, and advocated faith, sentiment, history, and tradition as the basis for society rather than Enlightenment theories. Liberalism emphasized constitutionalism and free trade, appealing to middle-class manufacturers, merchants, and professionals. Though spread by literate authors who had traveled widely throughout Europe, socialism and communism focused on organizing the working class.

In the countryside, rising agriculture production struggled to keep up with population increase:

Cultivation was expanded, and land speculation increased the number of landholders.

During the revolutions of 1848, a series of demonstrations and uprisings toppled governments in _____, _____, _____, and _____, affording _____, _____, and _____ opportunities to put their ideas into practice. Their inability to mutually work with one another created openings through which their __________.

During the revolutions of 1848, a series of demonstrations and uprisings toppled governments in France, Italy, Germany, and Austria, affording liberals, socialists, and nationalists opportunities to put their ideas into practice. Their inability to mutually work with one another created openings through which their rulers and armies were able to retake power.

Small farmers struggled as subdivision became more common:

Emigration to colonies and the Americas as well as seasonal migration became increasingly common.

People gathered around ideologies to find solutions to questions developing about society, political theory, and change:

Events of the 1790s produced enormous differences of opinion about what constituted the ideal government, while the industrial revolution led to questions about how much the new social order differed from the old, and whether governments should moderate or accelerate the pace of change. Ideologies offered frameworks for understanding change and ordering social relations between classes.

In what ways might industrialization be considered a force for peaceful change rather than a revolution?

Factories became the object of public criticism as centers of pollution, noise, and humandegradation. Governmental investigations found that dire conditions existed both at work and in the living quarters of the factory workers. The British led the way in passing laws intended to protect women and children from extreme exploitation. The British also undertook major public works projects, such as the construction of sewers, to help improve the lives of the poor. Real, substantive changes began to be formulated by the leadership of the country, largely because industrialization, while it created new social problems, also mobilized social classes and politicians to seek solutions.

Many voters, particularly rural ones, were frightened by urban disturbances into supporting more conservative governments:

Fearing a return to a Reign of Terror after the events of 1848, voters in France elected a conservative National Assembly. The Assembly's election of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte as president, followed by his self-declaration as Emperor Napoleon III, ended France's Second Republic.

Ethnic minorities living under foreign rule found a rallying cry in nationalism:

Germans living under Prussians, Poles living under Russians or in exile, Irish living under English rule, and Italians living under the Austrian Empire found a new source of hope and pride with nationalism.

Concern about social problems and efforts to alleviate them were widespread:

Government reports, art, and novels contributed to these concerns about the "social question." Moral reform societies, Sunday schools, temperance societies, and other organizations, often led by women, aimed to make the poor "respectable."

Education was a particular focus of reforming energy:

Government-sponsored education became increasingly common, but few children went to school.

War abroad to build an overseas empire provided income and maintained peace and prosperity at home:

Great Britain used warfare to expand its empire in places such as India, as well as to maintain control of Ireland. Because the violence was beyond the view of most British people, they were able to imagine their nation as peaceful, advanced, and united.

The ideal of female domesticity was emphasized, although many women were forced by economic circumstances to become domestic servants and factory workers:

Idealized domestic roles for women were particularly influential among the upper and middle classes. Many scientists considered women to be mentally inferior to men, and female education was less formal and more centered on domestic concerns.

Revolutionaries lacked political experience or military support:

In Germany, the delegates sent to construct a unified government were educated, but had no political experience. They also had no military support with which to defend states that wanted parliamentary rule from the strongest German princes. In the eastern Austrian Empire, revolutionaries were overwhelmed by internal conflict and lacked military support.

War with outsiders helped nations build nationalism and unity under one ruler:

In Italy, the entire peninsula eventually united in victory with Piedmont-Sardinia to oust first Austria and then France. Prussia's prime minister led it into a series of wars, boosting nationalism and convincing the German states to rally around Prussia's modern army.

The military was used to maintain order:

In Paris, the army of the new government suppressed the Paris Commune. In other countries, the military remained a source of power and stability for national governments.

Napoleon rejected or moderated revolutionary-era anti-Catholicism and emphasizedpublic order:

In order to build support for his rule and to stabilize the government, Napoleon established a concordat with Pope Pius VII and ended a decade of church-state conflict in France. He did his best to restore public order and limit popular protest and violence, often atthe expense of civil liberties and freedoms.

In response to new social problems, _____________________ some governments—particularly the British —undertook massive studies, passed ameliorative _____, and began ______. Europeans began to organize _____ designed to alter the ways in which the lower classes lived and to target __________. Similar movements attempted to deal with slavery, which was made illegal in the ____________ empires. Depictions of social problems in _________ provided an important impetus for reform.

In response to new social problems, including child labor, overcrowding, inadequate sanitation, an inadequate water supply, and the consequent diseases and epidemics, some governments—particularly the British —undertook massive studies, passed ameliorative laws, and began public works. Europeans began to organize reform movements designed to alter the ways in which the lower classes lived and to target alcoholism, prostitution, and illiteracy. Similar movements attempted to deal with slavery, which was made illegal in the British and French empires. Depictions of social problems in art and literature provided an important impetus for reform.

In the 1830s and 1840s, after witnessing Great Britain's success with industrialization, and building on recent expansion of domestic forms of manufacture, European states encouraged the construction of _____ and the mechanization of _____. At the same time, and due in large part to industrialization, _____ accelerated and soon created a host of problems, some of which were unprecedented.

In the 1830s and 1840s, after witnessing Great Britain's success with industrialization, and building on recent expansion of domestic forms of manufacture, European states encouraged the 3construction of railroads and the mechanization of manufacturing. At the same time, and due in large part to industrialization, urban growth accelerated and soon created a host of problems, some of which were unprecedented.

Internal conflict among revolutionaries:

In the eastern Austrian Empire, class and ethnic conflict allowed the emperor to play groups against one another and regain control when violence escalated. In Italy, the nation remained divided because of different regions' needs, while in Germany, conflict increased as a result of the middle class refusing to meet the demands of the lower classes.

The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

It set the boundaries of European states and scheduled periodic meetings of major powers to oversee international affairs. The congress promoted domestic stability and conservative principles but could not prevent liberal and nationalistic rebellions. (Recall the "Holy Alliance)

Stimulated by the thinking of Charles Darwin, positivism grew out of the attempt to understand the world outside religious constraints:

It was believed that social scientists could construct knowledge of the political order as they would an understanding of the natural world; that is, according to informed secular investigation. This idea inspired persons to believe that they could resolve the social problems spawned by economic and social change.

Social scientists advocated for mass education and widespread, sweeping, state-sponsored reform:

John Stuart Mill, Auguste Comte, and Charles Darwin offer striking examples of systematic social reformers who influenced social development by applying reason to progress, governance, and social relationships such as the family.

Liberal reformers supported Enlightenment principles and argued in favor of limited _____, free _____, and government policies that favored ____ and other social improvements. Liberal reform movements were strongest in _____ and _____ areas of Europe.

Liberal reformers supported Enlightenment principles and argued in favor of limited constitutional governments, free marketplaces, and government policies that favored education and other social improvements. Liberal reform movements were strongest in Britain and urban, industrial areas of Europe.

Urban and factory living and working conditions were severe:

Long work days, strict systems of factory rules and regulations, pollution, and poor sanitation, housing, and water supplies made city life difficult and fueled working class discontent. These conditions also served to alienate the urban, working poor from rural laborers in many ways, and divisions between peasants and urban workers featured prominently in events such as the June Days in France's 1848 revolution.

Class tensions and rising levels of social disorder caused widespread concern, particularly among the middle class:

Middle-class proximity to urban poverty led to widespread concerns about overcrowding, rising illegitimacy rates, prostitution, and drinking.

A new international equilibrium to prevent war was created

Monarchs allied againstNapoleon hoped to nullify revolutionary and Napoleonic reforms by reinstating old regimes; the Congress restored some traditional rulers, but new kingdoms were created out of territories that belonged to monarchies before being annexed to France. This process created an international peace to protect and encourage cooperation among the great powers, thus guaranteeing the status of smaller states and allowing rulers to focus on maintaining internal stability.

States enlisted culture in their quest for national power:

Museums, scientific exhibitions, and the arts were often sponsored by the state and helped to shape national heritages, by creating shared cultural experiences.

Napoleon Bonaparte ended the _____ and created an authoritarian state. At the same time, he made many improvements in the administration of _____ and oversaw the making of a ______

Napoleon Bonaparte ended the French Revolution and created an authoritarian state. At the same time, he made many improvements in the administration of France and oversaw the making of a new civil code.

Russia and Austria's dominance of European politics ended:

Napoleon III met his goal of reducing the strength of Russia and Austria in the European political world.Afterward, the two nations were unable to contain the forces of liberalism and nationalism within the territories they controlled.

Napoleon continued revolutionary-era efforts to centralize the state and spread French political values:

Napoleon expanded state power and control over the regions and used the military to enforce obedience to the state in France and in conquered territories. He demanded loyalty to the state and punished opponents of the government. The Frenchmilitary, as it had in the revolutionary era, spread the French political system (now dominated by Napoleon) to other parts of Europe.

Napoleon continued revolutionary-era efforts to introduce "rational" government and a more egalitarian social order:

Napoleon's Civil Code attempted to reform and rationalize legal practice across France and other territories under French control. By expanding educational opportunities for some (especially the middle class) and endeavoring to create an "aristocracy of talent" dedicated to serving the state, Napoleon sought to strengthen the government by 2harnessing the loyalty and services of the best and the brightest from a variety of backgrounds. He undermined this principle, however, by making extensive use of family members in running his system.

Napoleon's strategic use of a large, enthusiastic, and highly mobile _____ enabled him to construct an impressive empire that did not, however, endure because he could not defeat _____ and _____, and because he insisted on ____________.

Napoleon's strategic use of a large, enthusiastic, and highly mobile army enabled him to construct an impressive empire that did not, however, endure because he could not defeat Britain and Russia, and because he insisted on treating conquered areas as little more than colonies.

Napoleon severely restricted liberty and political freedoms

Napoleon's system was autocratic and relied on censorship and control of information. Representative institutions were subordinated or eliminated, newspapers and publications were restricted, and liberties were restricted in a variety of other ways. He governed first as a dictator and then as an emperor, undermining the revolution's republican principles.

Religion was the legitimizing force for rulers in early-modern kingdoms:

Nation-states of the 19th century, such as Germany and Italy, were increasingly rooted in the secular concepts of nationalism and Realpolitik. National unity was based mainly on such things as language and culture, but also, as time progressed, on the rejection of "outside" influences and, frequently, violence.

Which of the ideologies of this period had the greatest impact on political events? How can you explain this?

Nationalism had by far the greatest impact on political events. Nationalism looked past the problems associated with industrialization and urbanization, issues that preoccupied liberals and socialists, toward political autonomy and self-determination for groups identified by common language and culture. Nationalism was a more inclusive and unifying force than either liberalism or socialism.

Nationalism looked past the problems associated with industrialization and urbanization and toward __________ for groups identified by common _________. It also sought state _____ that reflected these group identifications.

Nationalism looked past the problems associated with industrialization and urbanization andtoward political autonomy and self-determination for groups identified by common languages and cultures. It also sought state boundaries that reflected these group identifications.

New civilian attitudes toward war:

News from the front included reports of incompetence, poor sanitation, and the huge death toll. Civilian outrage and national pride inspired some Europeans to head for the front to help.

Cities attracted massive rural emigration and absorbed settlements that sprang up and expanded outside the city limits:

Overcrowding and disease due to poor sanitation were serious problems and reduced urban life expectancy. Cholera was a particular problem and killed hundreds of thousands.

Population growth in Britain had increased demand for textiles. Available _________ provided necessary resources. Opportunities for _________ as well as overall political stability encouraged technological advances.

Population growth in Britain had increased demand for textiles. Available capital, labor, and a ready supply of cotton provided necessary resources. Opportunities for social mobility and scientific education as well as overall political stability encouraged technological advances.

As with previous French uprisings, the situation seemed dire prior to the establishment of the Paris Commune:

Prussian forces marched on Paris and, lacking bare necessities, the citizens demanded republican reforms. The provisional government, set up after the departure of Napoleon III, reacted in a typical, traditional way: troops were dispatched to quell the unrest.

Philosophies of the Enlightenment intellectualized the problems of the world:

Realists took action and dealt with the world as they found it, whether it was the Realpolitik politician, who did what he had to do to achieve his goals (such as Bismarck and the unification); or the artist, who depicted in excruciating detail the lives of the working poor (such as Dickens in his many novels).

Revolts in the 1820s and the revolutions of 1830 sought __________. Few succeeded except the Serbs, _________

Revolts in the 1820s and the revolutions of 1830 sought autonomy, national unity, and constitutional guarantees of individual liberties. Few succeeded except the Serbs, the Belgians, the Greeks, and the Latin American colonies.

Centralized states promoted social order by emphasizing family virtues, fortifying religion, and maintaining the boundaries between the male political sphere and the female domestic sphere:

Revolutionaries often endorsed a range of social changes that dismayed many, including mutualism, anti-clericalism, feminism, socialism, and anarchy. Female revolutionaries in Paris, in particular, were blamed for the part they played in supporting the commune.

The social order and the power of rural aristocratic elites persisted:

Social and economic elites in rural areas controlled local political assemblies and institutions, and class tensions were present in rural areas as well.

Old-order rulers who had ruled by divine right now needed earthly legitimacy:

Some Congress participants wanted to impart spiritual meaning to its political settlement. A Holy Alliance proposed by the Russian tsar swore to uphold religion, peace, and justice to win divine support. Some nations signed on, but Great Britain and the papacy refused. The former felt that it was "nonsense" and the latter thought that the pope alone interpreted Christian truth. These events separated secular authority and legitimacy from religion.

Napoleon did not reject revolutionary progress or restore the monarchy:

Sometimes what matters most is what is not done. Napoleon was a product of the Revolution; he acted forcefully against reactionary ideas of restoring the Bourbon dynasty, the old aristocracy, and other aspects of the old regime. He fought back against Royalist conspirators.

The German question refers to the implications for the rest of Europe of a powerful, somewhat restless Germany. _____ was, of course, one of the great figures of the nineteenth century. The influence of his activities in the 1860s extended well into the following century, and the implications of German unification significantly impacted Europe and the world in the twentieth century.

The German question refers to the implications for the rest of Europe of a powerful, somewhat restless Germany. Bismarck was, of course, one of the great figures of the nineteenth century. The influence of his activities in the 1860s extended well into the following century, and the implications of German unification significantly impacted Europe and the world in the twentieth century.

The Industrial Revolution began in _______ in the 1770s and 1780s in _____

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the 1770s and 1780s in textile manufacturing.

Religiously inspired reformers struggled to improve the habits of the poor and to overcome growing working-class indifference toward religion:

The Sunday school movement taught many working-class children how to read, while women's religious orders and temperance and bible societies proliferated.

The anti-slavery movement spread throughout the west, and succeeded in abolishing or restricting slavery and the slave trade:

The anti-slavery movement mobilized millions of people in support of its goals and applied pressure to the political system to force reform.

Member nations spurned international competition and helped one another maintain peace:

The decisions of the Congress disappointed revolutionary Europeans, and within a few years discontent arose again. Many powers involved in the Congress intervened to help one another stop rebels, where in the past they might have used the opportunity to begin or further international conflict.

The fragmented reaction of the Russian aristocracy to reform is worth framing as well, as it contributed to the consequential radical streak in Russian political culture. Efforts to improve _____, particularly in urban areas, extended the power of the government to intervene in the lives of citizens in important ways.

The fragmented reaction of the Russian aristocracy to reform is worth framing as well, as it contributed to the consequential radical streak in Russian political culture. Efforts to improve public health, particularly in urban areas, extended the power of the government to intervene in the lives of citizens in important ways.

Russia was forced to reform:

The poor performance of conscripted serf armies indicated to educated Russians that serf labor was a liability. Tsar Alexander began the age of Great Reforms: serfs were freed from aristocrats' land, but were not given complete freedom to enter the urban workforce. The tsar created aristocratic regional councils, set up a nationwide civil judiciary system based on equality of all persons before the law, and reformed the military by shortening conscription and educating Russian troops.

New technologies were introduced to warfare:

The railroad, the shell-firing cannon, breech-loading rifles, and steam-powered ships all changed the way war was fought. The telegraph meant home audiences now received news from the front lines rapidly and in great detail.

The reorganization of Russia during this period is also of great importance. Although _____ was a reluctant reformer, he did realize the necessity of _____ the _____ and so also instituted several other reforms, which, under different circumstances, would have helped to create a Russian Empire far different from the one that eventually emerged.

The reorganization of Russia during this period is also of great importance. Although Alexander II was a reluctant reformer, he did realize the necessity of emancipating the serfs and so also instituted several other reforms, which, under different circumstances, would have helped to create a Russian Empire far different from the one that eventually emerged.

The revolutions of 1848 _____ and conservative governments _____, but the ideals and goals behind these revolutions were __________. Moreover, Britain saw its slow liberalization justified; many of the German states gained _____; France recognized the impossibility of government without ____; and revolutionaries learned the importance of __________ of the government in power.

The revolutions of 1848 failed and conservative governments returned, but the ideals and goals behind these revolutions were neither discredited nor eradicated. Moreover, Britain saw its slow liberalization justified; many of the German states gained constitutions; France recognized the impossibility of government without popular approval; and revolutionaries learned the importance of planning beyond the overthrow of the government in power.

Factories and the jobs they provided contributed to the urban population surge:

The rising birthrate fed workers into the new factory system, and the new urban workers worked closely together and developed a common culture and a common set of interests.

The unification of Germany under _____ is one of the most important examples of _____ in politics, but it also sparked the "German question." Germany quickly became the _____ powerful country in Europe in military, economic, and cultural terms, with consequences that quickly became obvious to all.

The unification of Germany under Bismarck is one of the most important examples of realism in politics, but it also sparked the "German question." Germany quickly became the most powerful country in Europe in military, economic, and cultural terms, with consequences that quickly became obvious to all.

There were growing divisions and tensions between classes:

The urban working class and the commercial and industrial managers and factory owners who comprised the middle class and the urban elite were directly opposed. Environmental, demographic, and economic changes associated with the Industrial Revolution also contributed to conflicts.

States faced challenges to public order from economically disempowered artisans and workers:

Trade unionism, anarchism, socialism, and Marxism became increasingly powerful and were determined to challenge the state. In Paris, in particular, after defeat in the war with Prussia in 1870-1871, local citizens established workers' republics and attempted to promote social revolution.

The Industrial Revolution and its accompanying urbanization disrupted existing class structures:

Urban factory workers, although representing only a small percentage of the working population, were concentrated and organized, and contributed greatly to the creation of a more unified and politically influential working-class culture.

Holy Alliance

a league of European nations formed by the leaders of Russia, Austria, and Prussia after the congress of Vienna

Regarding the spread of nationalism:

he appearance and development of nationalist movements is a major feature of this period. Poles, Greeks, Italians, Germans, Czechs, and other groups actively founded nations or attempted to found nations. Perhaps the most important theme unifying these movements is a blending of the romantic ideas about the past with nationalist ideas about the future. Another important theme is the strain and tension multinational empires experienced during this period. It is vital that students understand the emotional appeal of nationalist ideology, and the attractions that nationalism had to activists across class boundaries as a potentially unifying ideology that emphasized cross-class unity. Of course, nationalism's attempts to construct an in-group, many have argued, inevitably led to greater tensions between states, and within states as minority groups were excluded from the all-important "we" that nationalists sought to establish.

Romaticism

reflected deep interest both in nature and in the thoughts and feelings of the individual Frequently supported nationalist aspirations in the first half of the 19th century