History of Latin America

Caribbean Cycle

-1492-1550 -Cycle: encounter (operating as Catalonian, not Spanish, for it is developed in Latin America), conquest/war/subjugation, mobilization of subjected people for labor, very rapid demographic collapse and therefore the substitution of that labor in the mainlands with African labor.

Carlos Siguenza y Gongora

-A Mexican born elite, he was commissioned to produce a triumphal arch to welcome the new Viceroy (rep of Spain)- 1680 -Employed a very purposive iconography- all indig depictions, representing a long history of Mexico (each panel is a different emperor, with a specific political virtue of Mexica empire) -Used symbolism of the Western Phoenixes → The arch challenged the Spanish monarchy and proposed that Mexican rule, showing its roots in an indig past, would once more flourish -Just short of rebellion -Linked with a growing sentiment among elites that they were connected to a powerful pre-Hispanic past that was successful governed by indigenous power- growing feeling of autonomy

Altepetl

-A general term for polity -Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Mexica settlement, was a very important example -There were also smaller altepetls surrounding the capital- for example in 1427 the tlatoani (noble class) of Tenochtitlan voted to go to war with the smaller polities surrounding them

Encomienda

-Allocation of native labour and tribute to Spanish settlers -Later replaced by repartimientos -Labour grants as reward for military service- the encomienda, reward in the form of land and to labor drafts (receives X amount of peasants working on the militant's land) not slavery -The first tributary labour system imposed on local population; the "encomienda" and "demora" -New Laws passed in 1542: enslavement of Indians prohibited and no new encomiendas Due to opposition from the likes of Las Casas and very high mortality rate of natives, especially in places like Cuba Fiercely opposed by conquistadores → civil war in Peru until 1548 -Spanish leaders of encomiendas = encomenderos Significance: Showed Spanish ideas of complete territorial control and tribute extraction Tools of governance and taxation -Opposition from Las Casas and then the civil war in Peru (1542-48) demonstrates a continuous narrative of anti-Spanish discourse -Often thought of as frequently failing both as tools of governance and taxation Used as incentives for the first conquistadores (e.g Cortes was given huge encomiendas in Cuba, Pizarro in Panama) → were useful in the chain of conquest -Arguably show how natives were very necessary to the Spaniards, because they had knowledge of the land (as shown by Bernardo de Vargas Macuca saying "the Spaniard...inhabits and settles where he finds Indians...without Indians for tribute, one cannot enjoy the fruits of the land") → this meant there was an interdependent relationship and the natives had some agency

Tenochtitlan

-Altepetl or city-state of the Mexica, 2-300,000 people (outnumbering European cities at the time) - It was divided into wards known as calpulli It was connected to the mainland by causeways leading north, south, and west of the city that were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other traffic to pass freely. The bridges could be pulled away, if necessary, to defend the city. -The city was interlaced with a series of canals. -Areas around the city (on the outskirts of the lake) there were also irrigated "floating" human-made beds of earth called Chinampas (see below) which provided much of the food for the Altepetl. Significance: Tenochtitlan is an example of the fact that pre-colonial indigenous societies in Latin America were social and physically "advanced" and complex. This is contrary to Spanish discourse at the time, which painted Indigenous societies as primitive,underdeveloped and uninhabited. In many ways, Tenochtitlan was a city that was far superior to any city found in Europe at the time. This can be seen in not only the huge population it was able to support, but also in it's complex road way and canal systems, as well as it's supportive agricultural systems. Colonialists would argue that they did not use the land (Locke) to dispossess it.

Null of Romanus Pontifex

-Beginnings of the Atlantic Slave System: Papal Bull (1455) -Written in 1454 by Pope Nicolas v to King Alfonso V of Portugal confirming Portuguese dominion over all lands discovered or conquered during the Age of Discovery. -Permitted the enslavement and conquest of all lands in Africa, along with encouraging the seizure of the lands of pagans. -It also permitted the enslavement of such peoples: Therefore legitimizes African slavery for the first time Says it is okay to enslave Africans or other infidels as long as its in the context of a crusade and if you promised as owner to convert them to Christianity Also says its fine to re-sell the enslaved infidels as long as the obligation to Christianize them is maintained Coursepack articles on African slavery show how many owners did not do this -The bull's primary purpose was to forbid other Christian nations from infringing the King of Portugal's rights of trade and colonisation in these regions. -Vitoria argued that it was enough to legitimize colonialism and Spain's dominion -Las Casas argued that there was a limit to the Pope's power and this Papal Bull - very important in legitimizing colonialism question Believed the reason the Bull legitimized colonialism was purely for spreading the Catholic faith Argued that South America was out of Papal jurisdiction → couldn't impose power over pagans, it wasn't part of the Roman empire → Papal Bull called one of the "unjust titles" for conquest Pope's temporal power questioned

Yanaconas

-Brought on in a response to the imposition of Mitaq/ mitmaq (organized labour for the mines) -New class of Andeans who broke ties with their ayllu and affiliated themselves as "servant"s with the Inka ayllu: Voluntary position- authoritative to the people that they observe but submissive to Inka -They are used by the Inka as officials all across the Inka state - have no ties to the local alluys Use Kipu (the knots) to keep track of this work flow -Significance: you have a class of individuals who can administer all these things that went into the creation of the Inka state (mita, public works projects, terracing, maintaining the granaries). Term gets reinvented in the colonial period to refer to people who cut all ties to their alluys and communities in order to avoid paying tribute and they end up piling up in Mining centers and cities.

La Republica de los Barrios

-Case study of an urban revolt -Example of mixing people to work at mines and bringing ppl from all around Mexica Within the city there were distinct barrio identities from this mixing -Reforms were imposed in an effort to calm down on taking some silver for yourself (ore sharing), vagabond ness (i.e. masterless men) and to take over the community chest → this bred discontent -Trigger- expulsion of the Jesuits from the city People of the neighborhoods rise up and block out militias (who are trying to remove Jesuits) People rise from mines all over the area, gather together, take over city and push Spanish elites into the grainery, then they try to set up a new gov't -They lay out a new constitution and reject the power of the King of Spain- instead want a 3 part monarchy (each Casta will elect their king), each neighbourhood is conceived of as a republic, elections will be held -Hybrid system: interesting that they use the category of "King" even though they are elected- clearly influenced by Euro system

Potosi

-City in Bolivia -Significant for a massive silver mining city during Spanish colonial rule founded in 1545 Initially the indigenous population was used for a labour force (a co-option of the Inkan mita system) but when they started dying due to the work conditions African slaves were brought in (significant in terms of differences in treatment and legal statuses) mit'a used differently under Spanish rule whereas profits go back to Spain (unlike Inka where infrastructure was built etc.). Debt carried on through generations, people forced to work longer than 65 day mit'a cycle → displaced people unable to return home. -Important source of wealth for the Spanish, due to such extensive mining, mountain actually diminished in height after years of exploitation -Initially under the control of the Viceroyalty of Peru, the Bourbon Reforms put them under the authority of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata (Buenos Aires) in 1776.

Creole Proto-Nationalism

-Creoles begin to see themselves as separate from the political background- the roots of nationalism start here -In order to overthrow the current government there need to be a viable alternative -Example- The Virgin of Guadalupe→ mixed religiosity (based both off Spanish Christianity but also Indigenous Mother Earth goddess), virgin appears to an indig person IN Mexi

Mexica

-Dominant group when Spanish arrived Originally nomads, journeyed to Texacoco (inspired by a spirit to go to Tenochtitlan) -Became more sedentary and conquered surrounding polities- Highly influential, powerful and stratified society: Aggressively imperial and expansionist -No bureaucracy or direct rule: Local headmen could stay in office if they accepted Aztec sovereign rule and made tribute payments (labour, goods) -Later came to be known as Aztecs (Only in the 19th century because of an American historian) Aztec empire founded 1428 under Itzcoatl -Last emperor Moctezuma Xocotoyl -Tied their lineage to the pre-established cultures and religion to insert themselves in society (i.e. Adopted the God Tlaloc) -Capital city= Tenochtitlan

Columbian Exchange

-Spaniards coming over into the Americas and Africans coming as slaves. These groups are only a small part of a larger form of new biota coming from the old world to the new world. The result is new humans, animals, plants, and microbiota -Significance within history: the introduction of microbiota (bacteria, viruses and parasites) has the most intense impact. It transforms indigenous societies and allows for conquest and colonization. Indigenous populations drastically decreased (some by 90-95%). Examples: measles, smallpox, and malaria

Francesco de Toledo

-Following Taki Onqoy rebellion and anti-Spanish resistance (1540-1571), King of Spain sent Francisco de Toledo as the Viceroy of the king -Arrived in 1569, and opted to get rid of the Inka state right away, by organizing military campaign against Vilcabamba -He trained an Andean army using European military techniques, and was able to take over kingdom and execute Tupac Amaru Inca -He took down the Taki Onqoy rebellion through the use of judicial actions and police-like operations, complete with questioning, discerning, interrogating, questioning, etc. -Once crisis over: consolidated Spanish power over the Andes through reforms, guided by three ideas - policia (civil order), christianization, and bien comun (economic health of society). -Established over 600 reducciones -During his rule he implemented many reforms, centralizing colonial government functions and creating the foundation for future administration of the viceroyalty -Broke the power of the encomenderos to further royal authority and Spanish dominance by making labor of the mita owed to the Spanish crown not to the encomenderos -Gathered natives into reducciones -Workers in the mita now got wages -Known as the Toledo reforms

Vilcabamba

-Founded in 1539, by Manco Capac after an almost successful attempt to retake Cuzco, it was the last refuge of the Inca Empire until it fell to the Spaniards in 1572, signaling the end of Inca resistance to Spanish rule -After the Inca empire fell, the city was burned and the area swiftly became a remote, secluded spot.

Greater Caribbean

-Geographical, ethno historical area stretching from Virginia to North-eastern Brazil: common lowland tropical and subtropical landscapes, climate & people -Groups: Tupi & Tupinambas of coastal Brazil, Arawaks and Carbs from Carribean, Ngobe, Kuma and Embera peoples of the Isthmus of Panama and N Colombia -Decentralized ruling of communities, 1000 people linked by kinship and moiety: Means that when Spaniards invade they must conquer each individual piece, so did not manage to colonise interior areas of the coast semi-people -High degree of ethnic diversity and 'inter-digitation' so different languages and ethnicities occupying same territory → could contest idea that 'ethnogenesis' emerged after Spanish arrived, many different cultures/ethnicities existed pre-Columbian, contests idea of "indian homogeneity" -Used horticulture and swidden agriculture -Periodic movement: mobile villages, semi-sedentary peoples

Obrajes

-Initially, raw materials were handspun artisanally and the cloth was sold to miners and urban dwellers, increasing massively with development of techniques and rise in scale of production. -Textile manufacturers rise up in the proto-industrial manufacturers. Use conscripted or otherwise coerced labor -Work inside obrajes usually consisted of 20-200 people, each doing an individual task -Bourbons saw it as an important sector and want to funnel people into those works, but eventually see that population is coerced into working there. -Scale is similar in comparison to European manufacturing, but difference is that labour force is coerced or forced into work. Big difference in Latin America is labour, the way people are working, how they're working. The fact that they are conscripted and coerced into labour plays an important role in economic and industrial development of Latin America.

Ayllus

-Inka lineage -50-125 individuals, divided into lineage and groupings of each Ayllu lived in each zone. They are an indigenous local government model across the Andes region of South America, particularly in Bolivia and Peru. -Ayllus functioned prior to Inca conquest, during the Inca and Spanish colonial period, and continue to exist to the present day -Andeans used mixed agriculture: pastoral, quinoa grain, coca, etc. Different forms of agriculture were conducive to different altiplanos or altitudes. Every community needs a combination of these agricultural products to survive. Each zone with folks from different ayllus in it. -Significance: (got this from HIST 360...took it with Daviken when he taught it) How indigenous organized economies (food production, maintenance, etc) Strong cultural continuities that exist to the present. Comes into conflict with liberals, who espouse uninationalism (one state, one nation)

Toledean Reforms

-Introduced by Francisco de Toledo -He consolidates Spanish imperial power within institutions in the Andes in order to have a better society -Three important reforms: Civil and political -Introduce Reducciónes -Introduce local councils and administration: this is handled from within, even though they are under the tutelage of priests and officials Christianization: -Every community gets its own chapel and parish priest. He is there to look after the Christianization and religious education -People are taught to read. Jesuits take a primary role in organizing education The calendar: way time moves is marked by Christian time. Ex: these feastings are the days of these saints. These are holy days. -Welfare of the economic health of the body Economic and material welfare: Making sure that the community can grow and be prosperous. Introduces the idea of common property -Significance: They become introduced and adapted across Latin America. These reforms represent a major shift in the organization of institutions within Latin American societies and strengthen Spanish control

Miguel Hildalgo

-Jesuit priest who became a leader in the Mexican war of Independence -Issued the Cry of Dolores in 1810 (now Mexican independence day) which was "Viva México! Viva la Virgen de Guadalupe! Death to the Gachupines (Peninsular Spaniards)! (p.275 in the textbook) -It could and has been argued whether Hidalgo was fighting for independence per se or for the righting of local wrongs -Good example of religion being used in an anti-colonial movement (Reading #43 by Bolivar) as the Virgin's image was used on banners etc

Tupac Amaru II

-Leader of an indigenous uprising in 1780 against the Spanish in Peru. Although unsuccessful, he later became a mythical figure and an inspiration to myriad causes in Peru. -Received a Jesuit education but maintained a strong identification with the indigenous population. He was a mestizo who claimed to be a direct descendant of the last Inca ruler Tupac Amaru. -Execution of Tupac Amaru Inka in Cuzzo, 1571, along with the mummies and all of their symbols etc. Andean time as cyclical, for they believed Tupac Amaru would return and take over this "Spanish time"

Terras Pretas

-Means "Black Earth" or "Black Soils" -Anthropogenic soils of the Amazon built up over centuries and millennia as a result of human habitation of the area. ash, charcoal, urine, compost, ground up shellfish and bones -Much more fertile than the surrounding lands because of the buildup of better nutrients etc. that are brought by human habitation (compost, ash, etc.) Significance:

Mita

-Word from the Inka (system of communal labour) -Co-opted by colonists to ensure a workforce for labour projects (Potosi mine etc)

Degredados

-Mid century(1500s) -Early Portuguese settlement of Brazil had forced settlement, degredados or penal exiles -A traditional Portuguese legal term used to refer to anyone who was subject to legal restrictions on their movement, speech or labor. A lot of new Christians - Jews who had converted to Catholicism, "pool" of criminals - reasons for criminality varied. -Most were common criminals but many were political or religious prisoners who had been sentenced to be exiled from the Kingdom of Portugal -Outbound ships usually carried a small number of degredados to assist in tasks deemed too hazardous or onerous for ordinary crewmen, and thus were important in the establishment of Portuguese colonies -Initially first migrant forced labour for sugar plantations; ex Cape Verde. Later on in early 16th Century as colonist in Brazil. Form of extrusive slavery (from article on social death) -Due to the fact that many of them did not know how to make it as agricultural peasants, they had to form alliances with indigenous people -Often intermarried -This created in racial mixing between the Portuguese and Indigenous population

Moriscos and Conversos

-Moriscos: Moors of the kingdom of Granada: allowed to be there but the Catholic Church tries to convert them. Provokes resistance and then a mass conversion -Conversos: those who have been converted (only prior Muslims and Jews were considered Conversos) at least nominally, but some were crypto-Muslims/Jews -These terms and underlying meanings behind them are important during the Inquisition morisco was a term used for the child of a mulatto and Spaniard in the sistema de castas -Significance: Shows how Spanish colonialism was influenced by domestic occurrences and past history, and the natives were often associated with the Moors - i.e barbarians

Toussaint l'Ouverture

-One of the leaders of the Haitian Revolution -Lead slave rebellion of Saint Dominque at end of 18th century

Reduccioes

-One of the reforms introduced by Francisco de Toledo -Social framework to administer native population for the mita -They concentrate people in these new Christian communities. Way of gathering people together rather than splitting people up. Living together is how civic order occurs -Laid out according to Spanish rural city templates, rectangular/grid formation and town square with a church. -Significance: with concentrated areas of Indigenous, Spanish could more easily dominate and maintain control, collect taxes, maintain mita. Obviously large impact on life of indigenous, changed economics, social structure, and altered original methods of agriculture. Because of larger concentration of population when exposed to disease, greater fatalities/sickness (smallpox).

Chichimecan

-Pejorative name given to the semi-sedentary or nomadic indigenous peoples of "Aridomerica" by the Mexican and Mesoamerican groups. -An example of semi-nomadic peoples. They typically lived in smaller groups (from lecture 3-4 families). -They are often referred to as the 'dog tailed people'. often viewed as barbarous -This group sometimes conflicted with the Mexican/Mesoamerican Indigenous groups: "The Mexica had it in for the Chichimecs" -Prof. An example of the vast differences between indigenous cultures in the Americas prior to conquest. -Also an example of the process of cultural "othering" of a group of people in the Americas (of chichimec by Mexica) Shared a common ancestry with the Mexica Mexica were "Chichimec" who slowly made their way to Mesoamerica and became a sedentary calpulli. -Significance: From review session: Prof mentioned that this goes against the argument that Latin America is an unpopulated/empty land.

Taqi Onqoy Movement

-Peru 1550s-1560s -Taki Onqoy are representatives of native divinities. They move from village to village, preaching a new pan-Andean alliance of all different kingdoms that are working together to defeat the Christian God (and to coordinate this in their sphere against the Spaniards). Promoted return to the worship of huacas. -This effort will create a turn in the cycle itself, that will be opened with a plague that will sweep through the Andes and only affect the Spaniards, and a new time would come about. -People are warned that if they don't join the movement they will suffer the same fate as the Spaniards. -Repressed by Francisco de Toledo believed to be one of first rebellions up until that point that was not motivated mainly by politics, but also social and religious aspects.

Pueblos Hospitales

-Prototype for developmental work and social transformation by Utopian design The first mission communities in the Americas -First projects by Vasco de Quiroga were founded in the outskirts of Mexico City, but were vulnerable to raids and attacks by nearby settlers and conquistadors -Quiroga moved the experiment to the region of Michoacan, where they would be less at risk of raiding during 1540s-60s -Traza: gridded plan of streets -Uniformity and regularity of houses and buildings -Nuclear families, children reared by community -Common property regime and communal labor- tool working, metal working, copper work, ceramic work, cabinet making etc. (the European artists train the people in these villages). One must break up the greed that individual material property can bring about. Break up of gendered division of labour and of labor specialization

Nahuas

-Sedentary natives in Mesoamerica, along with the Mixtec and Maya -The Mexica were a Nahua people -Language: Nahuatl consists of many dialects -Some of most prominent Mesoamerican civilization were Nahua ethnicity (Toltec, Aztec, among others)

Quilombos

-Settlements of runaway slaves (maroons) living semi-autonomously -In Brazil, in the north east, generally in hinterlands (easier to escape and less authority to prevent it), but also tended to be near settlements so that people & goods could be stolen. -Quilombros of Palmares is the most famous example -Example of slave resistance and African "survivals" Significance: proves that afro-creole could create their own culture and communities speaks to the agency of the enslaved - challenges social death, How does this prove agency? - the political relationships within the community, the leadership structure, the way the communities - are all linked back to African culture and tradition - this is indicative of Cultural agency - more importantly this evolved into it's own type of culture because they were also a fusion of the different cultures. Also economic agency, they were almost never agricultural and instead tended to work on a model of parasitism on plantations and European colonial settlements. The quilombos were influenced by a number of African precedents in terms of crops grown and defense mechanisms, but the housing complex used interestingly enough adapted the plantation slave model. The culture that emerged from what slavers hoped would be a "social death" not only incorporated many different African cultures, but also reappropriated a portuguese design, reproducing and improving upon the slave quarters they had all experienced.

Canibales

-The European view of "Indians" in the New World is that they were innocent, lacked civilization and culture, and that they were barbarous in a highly negative sense (symbolized by cannibalism) -Human sacrifice was a heavily freighted cultural practice of the Mexica (aka Aztec people), and the readings for "Recovering the Pre-Conquest Indigenous Past" give insight into the connection between human sacrifice and supposed cannibalism -Cannibalism- a colonial construction? -Carib, Caribe, Cariba, Caribal, Caniba (all these terms, including Arawaks -friendly Indians- are problematic for they are colonial construction). What defines a Caniba (at first an ethnogroup)? Resistance or anthropophagy (human eating).

Social Death

-The Orlando Patterson & Katia Mattoso readings talk about this sociological theory -A legal & social mechanism by which slaves are transformed into a quasi-persons without legal rights or identity -The enslavement process begins this transformation by attempting to strip away as much of the person's previous identity as possible and replacing it with their slave identity by:Changing names; Cutting/shaving hair; Branding; Taking their clothes and any other personal items; Cutting any links to their former lives (family, status, etc) -The validity of social death is questioned particularly in terms of to what extent or if at all there is an "internal" factor of social death that "dehumanizes" or internalizes the legal and societal loss of status and identity that the slave experiences. i.e internalizing their oppression/thinking like a slave -Some argue that social death denies agency to the slaves and reduces any identity based practices to mere "survivals" rather than viewing them as active strategies and practices used in resistance to slavery/colonialism/etc

Palmares

-The Palmares = a network of runaway settlements and strongholds which together were known as Palmares (the most large scale maroon community that ever existed) -The settlements were est. in the backlands of northeastern Brazil in the early 17th century comprised mainly of escaped and free-born African slaves although did include other ethnicities -Persisted for almost the entire 17th century, despite determined attempts to eliminate it by the Dutch and Portuguese colonial governments signified that life could exist outside of colonial institution and successful resistance against colonial domination

Kurakas

-The chief or leader of a particular community. -During the colonial era, his responsibility was to figure out who the people will be to show up to the mita (rotating labour; see below). -The kuraka and the Spanish authority for med must coordinate. The kuraka and the villagers reproduce those pre -Spanish forms of reciprocity. Before the mita is decided the villagers and the kuraka get together and he "feast" (read: feeds) them (food, alcohol etc) and in return they then choose who will be part of the mita. Has this pre-colonial form. -If the kuraka is bad they get rid of him.(he was elected in pre-colonial ayllus, after this he would often be gotten rid of through through popular action) -Chief of a repartimiento (after the Toledo reforms) Exempt from tribute Collected tribute This shows how the old indigenous systems were adapted to suit Spanish colonial needs

Vasco de Quiroga

-The first bishop of Michoacan, Mexico and one of the judges in the second Audiencia that governed New Spain -Quiroga founded the hospital-pueblo of Santa Fe with his own money and converted many Indigenous to Christianity.

The Spiritual Conquest

-The place of the Church in daily life of post-Conquest society: surveys and consensuses, local institutions, economic actor, property-holder, bank, birth, and even reproduction death. -Cultural genocide? Converting those from -Pantheism (all Native American religions) to Catholicism -Baptism, born into the church and a new life -Reaction: people created a new form of spiritual practice, utilizing both this new Catholic tradition and their own indigenous practices.

Maroons

-The term "maroons" is derived from the Spanish term for runaway, "cimarron" these are run away people -Maroons = refers to the formation of fugitive communities; groups of slaves who flee their masters and join up with other runaway slaves Maroons were both small scale (such as a strict of communities resulting from a wrecked slave ship formed on the coast of present-day Ecuador in the 1540s/1550s) or large-scale (such as the quilombo of Palmares) -Significance: maroons point to the exertion of autonomy on the part of slaves, represented through wilful exit of the slave system. Although some argue that they do not in fact exit the slave system as living in relative confinement outside of colonies, still wary/in fear of being found by the Europeans

Chinampas

-They were a form of agriculture used in lake regions of central Mexico of pre-Columbian indigenous peoples. -Comes from Nahualt word meaning 'fence of reeds', literally planting into the lake through a mud, piloti and tree structure Were hydroponic and led to high fertility land -Demonstrate how the Mexica refuted any myth of virgin soil - they had had a profound impact on the ecology of the land prior to the conquest -Complex form of agriculture, used to cultivate the new invented plant called corn, maize came from 'teosinte' (A wild grass) by human mutation and e||||biological mutation. -Benefits of using these were:A high yield per acre, didn't need much land; Grows fast; Adapts to the land; Easy to store; Feeding a very densely populated area so caused great human growth Significance: It was an agricultural system that was more advanced than anything in Europe and combatted the colonial notion that indigenous cultures didn't change or alter the land.

The Dispute Over the Nature of the New World

-This debate was important b/c there was still a mental landscape that climate and environment could determine your body and attitude → based on (flawed) logic arguing the "natural" differences between Spanish and New World Americans -Political impacts- what you are saying about the nature of the New World translates to a characteristic of the Creoles -Example of debate: No large animals in the New World indicated that ppl's nature is repressed and dwarfish (Buffon) vs. there are lots of new and different types of animals so there is an emphasis on diversity (Clavejero)

Bartolome de Las Casas

-b. Seville (1574), sails for Hispaniola and hears Montesino's speech, but this doesn't seem to be of much effect at the time. -Participates in conquest of Cuba, receives encomienda (1513) and gives up encomienda (1515) after going to confession with a Dominican priest who refuses to forgive his sins. -Becomes an intellectual, using text as a form of political activism --> New Laws of the Indies (1542) -Last treatise "The Treasures of Peru" as a reflection of restitution- he claims that all are damned even the King, past the point of return for justice; the responsibility is shared not just on the conqueror but even those back in Spain who financed the horses etc. -Becomes one of the greatest advocates of Indigenous peoples as Christians. They will come into Christianity he claims, so he tries to convert purely through dialogue and is publicly a success! -Privately however (non-public documents) reveals private deals between local authorities and de Las Casas, and he allows them to maintain their religious practices as long as they publicly 'confess'. -Significance: calls into question the authority of the King (King Charles V), questions justification for colonization as well as purity of the Empire's religious devotion.

Jose de Galves

A Spanish lawyer, a colonial official in New Spain (1764-1772) and ultimately Minister of the Indies (1775-1787). He was one of the prime figures behind the Bourbon Reforms

Henry the Navigator

Died in 1460. -Was a Portuguese royal prince, soldier and patron of explorers -Sent many sailing expeditions down Africa's west coast but did not go on them himself. These expeditions were sent to create much-needed maps of the West African coast, to defeat the Muslims, to spread Christianity, and to establish trade routes. -Helped begin the Great Age of Discovery

Inkas

Inka a lineage (ayllu) not a nationality or ethnonym. The Inka state itself is in a state of war with one another Emerge as regional power less than 100 yrs before arrival of Spaniards The Incas were the rulers of Tahuantinsuyu (translation: the 4 corners, integration of the 4 great regions of the Andes) Sapa Inka as the name of the leader Conquered in 1532 by Francisco Pizarro because of epidemic disease and internal division were on his side. Significance: The Inka culture, later became a strong rallying point and source of continued cultural identity in Spanish colonies, despite attempts to eradicate all pre-colonial identity. Inka culture was eventually revived and adopted by Creole elites to separate themselves from Peninsular Spanish elites.

Calpulli

Pre-Columbia Aztec society. It is the generic word for 'community' -based on lineages, occupation, ethnicity, geographical orientation. In cities they often formed large neighbourhood. The ruling aristocracy formed its own calpulli in rural areas, calpullis were often linked by a common lineage -Groups such as artisans, merchants and royal servants were led by senior males from different kinship groups Significance: In one sense, calpulli is a general term that was used to describe the different wards of cities, however, it has much deeper social implications. Calpulli refers to class, status, and lineage and it was a term used to describe different social strata in hierarchical prehispanic societies. The nobles formed their own calpulli and in rural areas it was often more based in lineage. It is indicative of the complex social world of the precolonial era and the way that communities formed using a variety of factors to identify with one another.

Huacas

Ritualization of common ancestors called "Huacas", referred to as spirits (who didn't have to take human form). Variation of divinity made it difficult for colonizers to eradicate these "religious"/spiritual figures Significance: Because of the way that the Andean populations' beliefs were grafted into the land (a huaca could be a mountain), it was very difficult for the missionary project to destroy them. This is symbolically important because it led to the mezcla of religious beliefs among indigenous populations who very often converted to Catholicism, but maintained their own spiritual beliefs as well, incorporating the two in a way that made sense yet defied attempts at assimilation.

Engenho

Sugar plantation and slave communities in Brazil (based around sugar-processing establishment/mill)

Chicama-Moche Inter-Valley Canal

pre-Incan hydrological system/irrigation system in western Andes that crossed over 74 km. due to sharp seasonal distinction in rainfall, needed to find a way to harness rainwater from wet season and make it last year round/act as a buffer between seasons. In order to do this, built a huge hydrological system that would provide water all throughout the arid coastal region. It took over 100 years to build, mobilizing over 1000 Significance: it was a huge technological feat as it needed to take into consideration waterflow/evaporation rate/slope/angle of flow etc.