History of Modern China Midterm
Chen Duxiu
Founder of CCP, leader of New Cultural Movement (supported changes in Chinese society. positive to communism) and editor of the New Youth
Liang Qichao
(1873‑1929): Student of Kang Youwei. Exiled to Japan after the conservative coup of 1898, he used his writings to raise support for the reformers' cause among overseas Chinese and foreign governments. Initally a supporter of Kang Youwei's ideas of constitutional monarchy, he later split with his teacher and advocated a liberal republicanism.
Treaty of Shimonoseki
(1895): Disastrous treaty for China, ending the Sino‑Japanese War (1894‑1895). Under its terms Korea effectively became a Japanese protectorate. China ceded to Japan Taiwan, the Pescadores, the Liaodong region of Manchuria, added four more treaty ports, and promised to pay Japan 200 million taels in war indemnities.
First United Front
(1923-1927) CCP and Guomindang formed an alliance in 1923 to end warlordism. Formed the National Revolutionary Army and lead through Northern Expedition.
Treaty of Nanjing
1842, ended Opium war, said the western nations would determine who would trade with china, so it set up the unequal treaty system which allowed western nations to own a part of chinese territory and conduct trading business in china under their own laws; this treaty set up 5 treaty ports where westerners could live, work, and be treated under their own laws; one of these were Hong Kong.
Nian Rebellion
1851 - A rebellion in China. They had no clear-cut religious affiliations, political ideology, strategic goals, or unified leadership. Comprised of mostly poor peasants, they were split up, not unified, but rather many mobile bands. Raided villages to take crops etc. Put down by Li hongzhang
Boxer Uprising
1900; anti-foreign sentiment growing; aim was to expel foreigners in order to save the Qing Dynasty; Cixi eventually endorses the uprising while provincial leaders refuse to; 8 Power Expedition formed by foreign nations with stakes in China; Result: Boxer Protocol - huge indemnity, execution of Boxers, and it being named "Boxer Rebellion" with blame placed on the Boxers; Also causes "Yellow peril" in Western nations - ie. Exclusionary Act in US towards Chinese immigrants; leads to New Policy Reforms
New Life Movement 1934
1934; need for a new national consciousness; based on Confucian and Christian virtue; the state the center of public life - listen to authority, abide by rules concerning speech, manners, and hygiene; attacking modern ideas and virtues; a complete failure
Consider the symbiotic relationship between elites and the government in late imperial China. How and why did that relationship begin to change over the latter half of the 19th century?
Civil Service established by Qing Elites studying to pass these tests After Cixi shuts down 100 Days, realize their interests don't align Their views too revolutionary/modern
Opium
Britain with no good to trade with the Chinese; realize can trade opium; China initially banning opium except for medical reasons and then bans outright in 1799; Opium leading to class of addicts and impacting peasants by causing silver to flow out of China and making it more expensive to purchase the silver to pay the land tax; When the Chinese government tries to shut down foreign trade of opium in 1839 leads to the First Opium War
British East India Company
British merchant company with a monopoly on all Asian trade; by 1735, trading in coastal Southern China; Pushing for increased access to China in 1760; pressure by British East India Co leading to Canton System - limiting trade to Canton and restricting foreign access
Why did China and Japan go to war in 1894? What were the most significant outcomes of that war?
China and Japan went to war in 1894 over Korean control and territoriality reasons and came about due to Tonghak Rebellion. The most significant outcomes surfacing were: Chinese Military: Proof of weakness in Chinese military; failure of Self-Strengthening Chinese Economic: Higher war indemnity (1895)→ foreign bonds → anti-foreign sentiment Chinese Territory: Liaodong peninsula Japan Status: Modern nation (same as European nations); given country leverage, industrialization worked
Cai Yuanpei
Chinese educator, Esperantist, president of Peking University, and founder of the Academia Sinica. He was known for his critical evaluation of Chinese culture and synthesis of Chinese and Western thinking, including anarchism. At Peking University he assembled influential figures in the New Culture and May Fourth Movements.
Hong Xiuquan
Chinese religious leader who sparked the Taiping Uprising and won millions to his unique form of Christianity, according to which he himself was the younger brother of Jesus, sent to establish a "heavenly kingdom of great peace" on earth
100 Days of Reform (1898)
Emperor Guangzu issued about 40 reform decrees between June 11th and September 21st in an attempt to modernize the Chinese state, administration, education, laws, economy, technology, military, and police systems. Remain largely on paper, while officials awaited Ci Xi's input. Ci Xi staged a military coup d'etat and confined Guangzhou to the southern island in the palace lake.
Is it accurate to say that the early Republic under Yuan Shikai failed to achieve the goals of the 1911 Revolution? Explain with examples.
Failed - political revolution not happening; Yuan Shikai centralizing power around himself, outlaws GMD, elections happen but results not upheld Did not strengthen nation - Example: 21 Demands Led to warlord era
21 Demands
Japan also took advantage of the war to advance its imperialist designs on China. On January 18, 1915, the Japanese presented to the Chinese government the Twenty-One Demands, which would have turned china into Japan's political and economic protectorate. In effect, Japan insisted on virtually direct control over Manchuria, eastern Inner Mongolia, and the Shantung Peninsular and demanded a monopoly of iron ore and coal mining in the Yantze valley. Japan also "requested" the right to build railroads in the southern China and to share control over Chinese police units and arsenals. China capitulated on nearly all points on May 15, 1915.
What led to the massive outbreak of rebellion in the mid-nineteenth century? In what ways were these rebellions similar to previous peasant rebellions in China? How were they different? What do you think were the most significant outcomes of these rebellions?
Land hunger, currency devaluation, Western thoughts (Christianity) Taiping - different because wanted to destroy Confucianism Elites using the peasants for their own means; top down Outcomes: reform efforts (but then failed) - Self Strengthening and Tongzhi
Lu Xun
May 4th Era author and important part of New Culture Movement; wrote about the problems with traditional Chinese society using satire and biting prose; trying to show people the issues of the old ways and to get them to wake up; Writings include Tale of Ah-Q, Medicine, and New Year Celebrations; wrote on a variety of issues with traditional society such as the civil service system, women's lack of rights, and adherence to old values as backwards
Consider the repeated efforts at reform undertaken to strengthen the Qing dynasty from the 1860s onward in terms of motives, form, and outcomes. To what extent did the failure of these reforms contribute to the beginning of a sense of nationalism among elites and urban residents?
Mid to late 1860s - tongxu by central gov, attacked corruption, water control, tax cuts, grain relief------traditional approach to reform China Education reform -> make schools more western, conservatives opposed this Self-strengthening movement -> Li Hongzhong (sp?) Decentralization of improvements, Qing might not work anymore, but contributed to sense of nationalism outside of idea of being subject of the Qing Anti missionary sentiment played role in nationalism too. Anti foreign sentiment, tried to drive them out but instead gave europeans an excuse to come into china, didn't splinter it, but harmed Qing dynasty actually Manchu, not Han, which also contributed 100 days reform. Emperor tried to do sweeping reforms, but stopped by Ci Xi. Taiping Rebellion - created mood in country for reform and nationalism. Exacerbated problems, unaddressed, expressed frustration of social elites. Led by elite. Poverty and land hunger, able to mobilize a lot of people System and cause of failure Reforms never fully addressed internal crisis and foreign intervention. Couldn't address both fully Never fully aligned the ideas of urban elites and intellectuals 100 days - only time there was a conservative sense of power in gov accepting radical ideas -> but couldn't happen Once a reform failed, ppl fled. Went to japan, etc. made it hard for QIng to reform since reformers pushed away -> ppl started to imagine China differently
Sun Yatsen (1866-1925)
Most prominent nationalist leader of China, leader of the Nationalist People's Party, or Guomindang. Did not share the communists' enthusiasm for dictatorship of the proletariat and the triumph of communism. Sun's basic ideology, summarized in his Three Principle of the People, called for elimination of special privileges for foreigners, national reunification, economic development, and a democratic government based on universal suffrage.
What was the May Fourth Movement and why do historians see it as a turning point in Chinese history? How can the apparently contradictory ideologies of the GMD and the CCP both be seen as outgrowths of the May Fourth era?
New Culture - social movement; emphasizing the role of the youth; calling for modernization of ideas; vernacular language Literature for the people - Lu Xun May Fourth Movement: against Treaty of Versailles and Western influence in China; Chinese govt went after students which caused uprisings throughout China; in Shanghai, students worked with merchants, industrial workers to shut down the city in protest - closed Shanghai GMD - focusing on liberal democracy; wanted stability; modernity - following the West; CCP - attractive to youth and intellectuals; based on science; talking about social and economic transformation Both: taking power away from Qing and giving it to the people; rejection of Communist government
Tongzhi Restoration
Qing dynasty try to strengthen China. A number of reforms were implemented such as the development of an official foreign ministry to deal with international affairs, the restoration of regional armies and regional strongmen, modernization of railroads, factories, and arsenals, an increase of industrial and commercial productivity, and the institution of a period of peace that allowed China time to modernize and develop.
To what extent did Chiang Kai-shek's government implement Sun Yat-sen's vision of liberal democracy in China? To what extent did Chiang depart from Sun's vision as well as from the "May Fourth Spirit" in general?
Similarities: create a strong government; created a nation; use Confucianism to promote new moral standings; achieved development in cities, developed infrastructure; legal reforms Not upholding: His government corrupt; use of Christianity to promote moral standings in addition to Confucian values; Fascism Departed: regime become proto-fascist; maintained his own power and did not promote democracy; killed all the communists; ended United Front; even Sun's widow saying he wanted a more leftist regime
What factors contributed to virulent anti-foreign sentiment in the closing years of the 19th century? Where and how was such sentiment expressed?
Sino-Japanese War (1894) -> Treaty of Shimonoski (1895) Missionaries Value differences: local deities vs. God Who was killed the coverts and religious missionaries? Juye Incident in 1897 - killed German missionaries; Germany responds by seizing Shandong Bay and get more Western involvement via Spheres Expressed: Boxer Uprising aimed at destroying foreign influence and saving Qing dynasty Where: Around Beijing When: 1900
What were the goals of the First United Front? Were these goals achieved?
Take down the warlords; establish a new central government; Ideology motivating: 3 People's Principles Nationalism, rights, and livelihood Goals achieved: not really; Warlords used to advance Chiang Goal that was achieved: they did get a new government
Shanghai Purge
The suppression of Communist Party organizations in Shanghai by the military forces of Chiang Kai-shek in attempt to wipe out CCP leaders
Of the various challenges facing the Qing dynasty in the mid to late 19th century, which do you feel were most serious? Why?
Western influences Rebellions - land hunger, starvation, poor government Failures of reforms
Song Jiaoren
a Chinese republican revolutionary, political leader and a founder of the Kuomintang (KMT). He was assassinated in 1913 after leading his Kuomintang party to victory in China's first democratic elections. Evidence strongly implied that China's provisional president, Yuan Shikai, was responsible for his assassination
The New Policies Reform
a result of Boxer Uprising; Cixi finally realizes they have to reform or it will be the end; educational reforms (mixed curriculum, people studying abroad in Japan); decentralization of military; and created of new constitution that would lead to a republic in 1917; doesn't work: provincial assemblies treating their role as local governments and people not really understand what constitutional government is; Ultimately too little too late; many intellectuals believe reform is not enough - need revolution
Hu Shi
believed that China needed desperate reform., philosopher, writer, and leading figure in the NEW CULTURE MOVEMENT. Calls for use of vernacular Chinese. Advocated acceptance of Western modernization, criticized Chinese feeling of superiority for a more "spiritual" lifestyle, claims Chinese equate rural, primitive system w/ spirituality. together with Chen Duxiu helps to launch the literary revolution in 1917; studies at Columbia and Cornell;
Blue Shirts
cadets from Whampoa Academy loyal to Chiang Kai-shek; modeled after Nazi Brown Shirts; backbone of the military and worked to arrest/execute communists and take out Chiang's enemies
Yuan Shikai
commander of largest army in the North; agrees to help the rebels during 1911 Revolutions in exchange for being named president; Not a republican - becomes increasingly authoritarian: outlaws GMD after they when the majority of seats in the elections of 1913 and in 1915 declares his intention to declare himself as emperor (backlash forces him to drop it)
The Three People's Principles
created by Sun Yat-sen as the basis for a nationalist government; 3 main principles: nationalism, rights, and livelihood; the understanding of these principles would cause a split between the CCP (focusing on livelihood) and the GMD (Focused on nationalism and rights); wanted to promote national unity based on anti-warlordism and anti-imperialism, secure a liberal constitutional democracy, and look after the well being of people
Zeng Guofan
creates provincial army to deal with the Taiping Rebellion (Xiang Army); a well fed, well paid, military force; successful in ending the Taiping Rebellion; Sig: establishes the dominance of provincial armies over a central armies; forces government to decentralize the military
Taiping Rebellion
led by Hong Xiuquan; begins in 1851 and ends in 1864; starts as a religious movement against Confucianism but also calls for gender equality and land redistribution; Central government unable to deal with the rebellion and Nanjing taken in 1853; Ends up getting pushback in rural and urban areas due to banditry and stifling moral rules; Foreign powers nervous; ends when Hong dies and provisional armies attack the rebels; Effects: huge death toll; decentralization of military
Rights Recovery Movement
movement to end unequal treaties and restore sovereignty. China demands tariff autonomy, and all countries except for Japan oblige under the pressure of the Nationalist government--China is able to decide it's own tariff rates. China also calls for an end to extraterritorial rights--all western countries and Soviets agree except for Great Britain and the US (until 1943). Had a heavy focus on nationalizing railroads, which ultimately failed due to the limited government budget.
Spheres of Influence in China
one country would have special authority or presence and another country would have a different area of authority. China became divided by European powers. The different European countries supported each other through the spheres of influence because of economic advantage
Self-Strengthening Movement
provincial leaders carrying this out, not the central government; Provincial leaders using Western ideas to reform; belief that industrialization will equate with modernizing and reduce the influence of Western powers; Problem in that using foreign loans to fund industry causing most industries to remain foreign owned; proven to be a failure during Sino Japanese War in 1890s
Li Hongzhang
the main leader in the Self- Strengthening Movement in China and came to power by assisting Zeng Guofan suppress the Taipings. He started his own provincial army and navy, built arsenals, created a shipping company, founded a naval and military academy, and also started textile mills. He became the Superintendent of Trade in Tianjin in 1870, and was the foreign minister for the Manchu dynasty until 1895. He was considered unusual and his movement lost credit when China lost the Sino- Japanese War (1894-1895). The only reason China lost this war is because Li did not listen to the government. People then realized that radical reforms were needed to modernize China successfully
