History Test 2

Joseph Dimow explains why the validity was limited

"I think the experiment had only limited relevance to our understanding of the actions of the German people under Nazi rule. In the experiment, the professor had no power to enforce his orders. In Nazi Germany, the enforcement powers went from simple reprimand all the way to imprisonment and death. In addition, the role of the learner in the experiment was markedly different from the victimized Jews, Gypsies, gay men and others under Nazism, who had not volunteered to be in an "experiment" and had no ability to stop their suffering."

What is Anthropomorphism?

- qualities that we think of as being very human were contributed to animals. Something like intelligence. Animals are able to navigate world and learn, but intelligence is thought of as human. A lot of work at this time put a lot of human characteristics onto animals in a movement called Anthropomorphism - attributing human characteristics to non-human species.

Who was Hall more similar to - wundt or james?

. As a founder of laboratories, departments, journals and professional societies, he was more like Wundt that James, but his ideology and research belonged to the American rather than European tradition.

What did james study?

. William was sent to Harvard to study chemistry. He shifted his interest from chemistry to physiology, and then went to Harvard Medical School. He took a trip to the Amazon and the leader of the trip wanted to disprove Darwin. He got smallpox and returned home. He was sick and his father sent his to Germany to go to the mineral springs to get healthy. While in Germany, he had the opportunity to read Wundt. It was there that he developed his interest in psychology.

Watson defined psychology as an objective experimental branch of science. This involved distancing himself from traditional psychology in 3 ways:

1. Behaviorism is objective and traditional psychology used introspection=subjective 2. Watson said that the goal of psychology wasn't to describe and explain consciousness but to predict and control behavior 3. He denied the historical distinction between humans and animals - lower animals could help us learn about human psychology Although he condemned introspection, he still did some of it. Then, he learned about Pavlov. Post Pavlov, other people started extending Pavlov's work to other areas (like electric shock). Carl Lashley developed a tube you could put in a cheek and measure salivation. He also developed a shock thing.

In 1919 be published psychology from the point of view of a behaviorist. This looked at humans. He wanted to know which emotional responses were innate and unconditioned. He determined from studying infants there are 3 kinds of emotion responses produced by a small number of stimuli.

1. Fear - sudden catching of breath, puckering and crying, from a loud noise or when they were dropped. They did not react in fear to other potential scary things 2. Rage - body stiffens, slashing movement of arms - brought on by the physical hindering of movement 3. Love - stroking, rocking - may smile He wanted to study conditioned emotional reaction. He did this with his grad student Rosalie Reiner. They studied little Albert. They trained little albert to fear a white rat (which he was originally intrigued by). They did not try to decondition this fear.

What are the 3 methods that James sad could be used

1. Introspection 2. Experimentation 3. Comparison

why does Jahoda's study matter?

1. It is interesting 2. They used different methods they went into the community and lived there. they even made some interventions. Jahoda and her team wanted to understand health practices and who was prioritized, she arranged for doctors to come into the communities and have public clinics. This was a way to helping the community (they were impoverished) but she also did interviews with the mothers who were bringing their kids and who was prioritized to be brought. 3. Their work was not theory driven - it was problem driven. It is a practical research question

There were misinterpretations of heritability. What were they?

1. Populations, not individuals 2. Heritability refers to the variability of a characteristic, not to a complete makeup.

The results of the army testing program were published in 1923 by psychologist at Princeton. the book was called The study of americas intelligence. In this book, they conclude that:

1. the average mental age is 13 years of age 2. the mental abilities of "negros" falls below whites 3. Even amongst whites, there is a clear relationship between intelligence and occupation 4. country of origin and intelligence are related - northern Europe is smarter than southern and eastern Europe.

Why did Skinner think that the educational system was fundamentally flawed?

1.You cannot get immediate feedback about your behaviour e.g. testing (one principle for skinner is that the consequence needs to follow the behaviour) 2. individualized instruction is more efficient because behaviours could be shaped up individually (for some people class is too easy, for others, it is too hard) This was going on in the 1950s.

Who was George Romanes?

A colleague and friend of Darwin, named George Romanes carried on this work. Darwin published a book in 1872 called The expression of the emotions in man and animals and Romanes read that 1872 book and continues this book in something he wrote called Animal intelligence in 1882.

What is a good way of looking at nature vs. nurture?

A good way of testing this would be looking at twins. In 1875, he wrote an article called the history of twins to talk about nature and nurture. Galton knew that there were 2 types of twins, identical and fraternal. He saw that a lot of twins showed similarity to each other psychologically and physically even though they had very different life circumstances. There were also twins that had opposite behaviors. Although he lacked evidence for this, he said that the ones that were similar were identical and the ones that were different were fraternal, but there was no genetic testing.

What did spearmen determine about intelligence scores?

A later observer by Spearman, an English psychologist found that when you looked at coefficients of correlation, the items in the submeasures used in intelligence tests are positively correlated - if you did well in reading and writing you will do well in math. Some subtests correlate better than others. Abstract reasoning correlate better than rote memory.

Fact:

A lot of Galton's work was good, but some things were very controversial (Eugenics). Also, a lot of his views would be considered very racist.

What did Darwin say about emotional expression?

A lot of emotional expressions could have a functional origin (e.g. your eyes get big when you get surprised). Certain reactions might be the opposite of a particular reaction. Human emotional expressions are similar throughout all human groups and different cultures - points to a common source to all human groups to a non-human ancestor.

What was a problem with Lamarck's ideas?

A problem with Lamarck's ideas was what could account for changes in organs that are not used by the animal. For example, a bird who changes the colours of feathers (they arent actively changing the colour of its feathers) There were clearly changes in species that couldn't be attributed to the active use) Another problem is how does this get passed on? There are some problems with Lamarck's thoery but it was accepted by a lot of scientists at the time.

Who was Ogdan Lindsley?

A study was done by Ogdan Lindsley - he wanted to see if the same type of behavior could be established by putting kids in room sized skinner boxer. He took typical and developmentally delayed children. Results were modest.

What was another problem with the intelligence tests from a socialization perspective?

African american psychologists that wrote about the impact of socialization on the very content of the tests and explored through their own empirical work the impact of the race of the tester on the performance of the person being tested and so on.

How do Afrocentric scholar and other redefine objectivity?

Afrocentric scholar and other redefine objectivity by saying that objectivity is only possible when unmakes clear and its transparent about all of the assumptions, biases and beliefs that everyone of us brings to our science. It is only possible to really objectively evaluate science if scientists are clear that they are human beings like everyone else and they don't abandon all of their assumptions, values and beliefs when they step in to the laboratory.

What did Galton do after Cambridge?

After Cambridge, he did a lot of nothing (the idle rich).

Who was Albert?

Albert was a patient in a hospital - he had health problems and was institutionalized (That is how Watson found him). We don't know what happened to little Albert.

Who did James read a lot of?

Alexander Bain dealing with habits. Bain spoke about voluntarily repeating things until they become a habit. Combining the advice of freewill and habit, James tried to convince himself to be happy. He found that with repetition, difficult things did become habitual. He also studied the new mechanistic physiology and psychology.

Who was Alfred Binet?

Alfred Binet - Galton and Cattell's ideas did not measure intelligence how were psychologists gonna do this in a valid way? That is where Binet came up with this. He was a french psychologist and a student of Charcot. Binet is a psychologist working in France and he was interested in developing a set of tests that could be used to develop/formulate a rich picture of a person. he calls this project the project of individual psychology.

What is social facilitation?

Allport studied social facilitation - he demonstrated that when people are given a simple task(ability to wrap string on spool) , their performance increased when you were in a group of others. performance is facilitated in the presence of others. This sounds pretty social, but it was all about the individual - what happens to individual behaviour when you are in the presence of others.

Who was Alphonse de Candolle?

Alphonse de Candolle is another rich dude. But, he believed in the environment rather than genetics. He studied 300 European scientists over 2 centuries. He wanted to prove that the great scientists were served more by the environment as opposed to heredity.

What is The complementarity hypothesis?

Although the different sexes (men and women) had different though complementary set of characteristics, men were more agentic, rational, passionate, but not emotional - they were the doers. women might be intuitive, nurturant, more submissive

What did Binet's work do?

Although they were technically unsuccessful, some tests helped pave the way for his more famous achievement. He decided that you need a more direct test of higher complex mental processes.

Who was James McKeen Cattell?

American psychologist, James McKeen Cattell, takes some of these ideas and then goes back to the United States. Cattell worked with Wundt. he trained in Wundt's lab. At this point, the new psychology was a fairly small community. a lot of then trained with Wundt. Wundt was not interested in individual differences. Cattle noticed when working in Wundt's lab that when he ands lab mates were involved in experimental introspective studies, often differed in really reliable ways from one another in their reaction time. There were individual differences. Within subjects was consistent, but between subjects was larger. Wundt was not interested in this.

What is American social psychology?

American social psychology became defined as the study of how individual cognition, emotion, and behavior are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others There was a lot of attention in the mid 20th century to after the mid 20th century to the notion of conformity and obedience to authority.

What is experimental neurosis?

An experimental neurosis occurred when differentiation did not result in food - the dog was not able to cope. Pavlov said that neuroses occurred when unavoidable conflict between 2 conditioned response tendencies.

Who was Leon Festinger?

Another experiment was Leon Festinger - did for on cognitive dissonance. He was an american social psychologists that worked with Kurt Lewin.

Who was Carl Pearson?

Another mathematician, named Carl Pearson, read Galton and created a mathematical equation called peason's r. this allowed you to get a numerical value (positive or negative) for the correlation.

Who was another professor at Cambridge?

Another professors name was Adam Sedgwick.

Who was Daniel Patrick Moynihan?

Around the same time that Clark coins the term tangle of pathology" to describe rationalized communities, there is a person who worked for the department of labour who eventually becomes the US senitor Daniel Patrick Moynihan.. He Published "The Negro Family: A Case for National Action" in 1965.

What statistical element did Galton come up with?

As Galton was trying to measure intelligence and different genetic characteristics, he came up with statistical correlation, scatter plots, and noticed the pattern of regression towards the mean. He developed the regression line and noticed that the steepness of the line the steeper the relationship, the flatter the line the flatter the relationship between x and y. He referred to the steepness of the slope to the coefficient of correlation.

What did Watson not like about Wundtian psychology?

As Wundtian psychology developed it became apparent that to get reliable data, the people engaged in experimental introspection and those being exposed to the repetitive stimuli had to be highly training - the subjects had to be trained to give any reliable data. Watson thought that it was strange. Watson was not considered a good experimental introspector. When he served as subject in these experiments, he did not provide reliable reports. He was very put off by the whole enterprise of introspection, be in Jamsean introspection or the experimental introspection of Wundt. He decided that he would study animals - animals cant introspect!

What did Darwin want to learn about the animals he was seeing? What did this lead to?

As he started looking at all of these animals, he wanted to know the function of all of these characteristics (e.g. why do animals camouflage?). he wanted to look at functional adaptiveness of animals. This led to his theory of evolution.

What was the result of the world having a creator?

As such, if the world was created by a g-d or divine creator, then it must be perfect.

Who was Solomon Asch?

Asch became famous for his experimental study on social conformity and obedience in groups.

What was Asch's study?

Asch brought men who would be confederates except one. The true subject would be given a very simple task (e.g. shown a series of lines of different lines and were asked about the lengths of the different lives). He then manipulated the number of confederated that gave the wrong answer and wanted to see if the true subject would give the wrong answer. He showed that a surprising number of people would give an answer than was wrong based on other people. He would then see what happens if one there person gave a different answer. Does it matter how many people gave the wrong answer - he did a lot of manipulations but showed that people can be convinced to give a wage answer to something that was clearly wrong if others gave a wrong answer.

What was a problem with associationism?

Associationism was discredited by hypnosis and abnormal psychology.

What did Mamie clark find?

At the end of the report, they compared northern children in desegregated schools to southern children is segregated schools and they compared their doll preferences. The southern children in segregated schools were slightly less pronounced in their preference for the white doll than the northern children. More of them still preferred the white doll, but their preference was less pronounced than the northern children.

What did psychologists do at the world's columbian exposition

At the fair, psychologists had a couple rooms - they were concerned with differentiating themselves as a science with non-scientific and pseudoscientific fields (e.g. mesmerism) new psychologists thought this was unscientific. 1 room was research findings, another room was like Galton's laboratory (people could get measured). It was a great success all kinds of people came to the fair and got themselves tested and it provided popularity of psychology.

What happened when he developed mental orthopaedics?

At the height of his career, when he developed mental orthopedics, he had little time to enjoy because his wife was sick. He was also suffering from depression.

Who was Skinner?

B. F. Skinner was born in Pennsylvania. His father was a lawyer, his mother was bright and beautiful. He was good with music, mechanical and literature. He published his first work at age 10, a poem. He majored in English. He was a practical joker. After graduation, he moved in with his parents. He became depressed. He read a book that discussed behaviorism. And also read an article about Pavlov. After reading about Pavlov, we wanted to go to grad school and learn behavioristic psychology. He went to Harvard. He developed Operant conditioning. He created a skinner box - operant chamber. He described how he invented it in a book.

Who did Baldwin resign?

Baldwin resigned because he gets caught in a bordello with sex workers. He was married and he was caught in this situation which caused the university and its religious board of governors extreme embarrassment - it was a scandal - and also caused problems with his wife. It was a public scandal, he was forced to resign and he moved to France. Baldwin denies it and said that he was there for the music. He was asked to resign and Watson inherited all this stuff!

What did Skinner say about reinforcement?

Because of reinforcement, there is no such thing as free will - whatever you choose to do it is because of reinforcement.

What did Skinner's students generalize?

Behaviour his a product of the environment learnt from our experiences . We are the product of the interactions that we have with out environments. This negates freewill. Skinner's students, behaviour modifiers, generalized this to humans and led to the field of applied behaviour analysis. This is used in treatment for developmental disabilities and it is the gold standard for autism.

What are behaviour modification programs?

Behaviour modification programs are things like token economy - used in schools, hospitals.

Fill in the blanks: Watson becomes a champion of ___________________

Behaviourism

Why did Watson focus on animals? What was his background?

Being from a southern farming area, he was really good with plants and animals. He had issues with original psychology, but he was a good academic psychologist

With whom did Binet collaborate?

Binet Collaborates with Theodore Simon.

France recently introduced universal education - what was Binet asked to do?

Binet become interested in mental subnormality. France recently introduced universal education and that brought to the public awareness the existence of mentally handicap kids. These kids previously wouldn't go to school. now there were required by law to go to school but couldn't keep up. He was commissioned by the government to investigate subnormal kids. The first thing he had to do was diagnose subnormality. They had some assumptions of what intelligence was, what deficiency was.

Fact:

Binet continued to believe that intelligence was multifaceted.

What did Binet decide in terms of testing?

Binet decided that there was no short test that could substitute an extensive case study.

What happened when Binet died?

Binet died from a stroke at age 54. He left behind the basic technology for modern psychologist's test. Psychologist are still trying to come up with an intelligence test that is culture free. Good tests include memory, reasoning and judgment. There are some limitations with these things - the general ideal that general intelligence is measured by these things.

How did Binet start to come up with his ideas? What did this lead to?

Binet observed the behavior of his 2 daughters, Madeline and Alice. he tested out psychological tests on them. It led to ideas about the nature and measurement of intelligence.

How did Binet view intelligence?

Binet saw intelligence as a loose collective of separate capacities linked together by judgment/good sense.

What did Binet do after he bombed his first paper?

Binet then wrote another paper or associationism - which is credited to john Locke - all psychological phenomena are related to other phenomena.

What was a difference between spearman and Binet?

Binet thought that intelligence could only be approximately shown numerically, people thought that Spearman's 2-pronged approach could give you a numerical value to overall intelligence.

What is mental orthopaedics?

Binet thought that the performance of tests of children could improve them they take on training and practice which he called mental orthopaedics. He developed games and exercises that would help children improve scores of tests. He developed mental orthopaedics. He found that or those children whose problems stemmed from an inability to sit still or concentrate benefited from these games.

Where did Binet live? How did Binet grow up?

Binet was from in Nice in France. His parents were wealthy. His parents separated when Binet was young. His father was a physician. Binet was a timid boy. Binet tried law, but didn't practice, he tried medicine but had a breakdown and withdrew. He passed his time at the library where he discovered psychology.

What type of intelligence was Binet interested in?

Binet was interested in different kinds of intelligence. He didn't think that intelligence was the same for all people - people could be similarly intelligent but that intelligence could be expressed in different ways - this is where studies of his kids were influential (e.g. the description of a leaf)

What was Binet interested in?

Binet was interested in the individuality so he developed individual psychology. He tried to develop short tests that people could take in 2 hours as to how people express ideas and things He wanted to understand the individual and all the complexity through a series of different types of tests.

Who read Burt's article? What did he conclude?

Burt's article was read by Arthur Jensen. Jensen was studying operation Head Start. Head Start was like Ari's project start - a government program to catch low socioeconomic status people up with middle class people. This was a failure. He relied on Burt's study that showed heredity not environment - the head start program was not and will not be successful - the slums will forever be the slum.

What is a problem with only looking at schools of thought?

By the 1910's 1920's, it became hard to only look at different schools of thought. If you only look at schools of thought, you will miss a lot. The rest of the material in this course looks at different subdisciplines and seeing where they came from and how they evolved through a larger landscape of psychology.

What is Heritability?

By the 1920s, researchers developed a statistical measure researchers called heritability, which is a characteristics variability within a population that is determined by genetics (height is X amount genetics and x% environment). They thought that this would be a set number. Heritability doesn't refer to an individual's height but a population. It is the same for intelligence. Some people are highly intelligent while others are deprived. We want to level the playing field though (maybe test heritability in a more narrow/uniform demographic and within that demographic it will be easier to test for heritability). If you use a narrower population, heritability will be high (very much due to genetics).

What happened to Paul Bingham's work?

By the 1930s and into the 40, some results of Paul Bingham's work in emotional intelligence were being recanted, even by the psychologist who published them

True or false: Darwin was the first to challenge that there was a creator.

By the time Darwin starts to think about this, there was already challenges of the world evolving as opposed to the world static.

What does Calkins do after Harvard?

Calkins goes back to Wellesley with her unawarded PhD.

What did Cattell's data show? Who argued against the data? Why?

Cattell collected all types of data and one of his grad students, Clark Wissler, thought that if this really does measure intelligence, they should correlate highly with academic achievement. Clark compiles all the grades with the correlation coefficient and he found that the correlation was r=-.02 (low correlation; not very strong).

What test did Cattell devise?

Cattell devised a theory of 10 tests that he thought were responsible for intelligence *Dynamometer pressure* - that is the grip strength *rate of movement* - how fast can you move your hand from point A to point B (strength of nervous system) *Pressure causing pain* - sensitive nervous system vs. insensitive nervous system was related to intelligence *Least noticeable different in weight* - can you discern minute differences in weight *Reaction time for sound* - how quickly can you respond/identify to auditory stimuli *Time for naming colours* - naming colours quickly *Bisection of a 50cm line* - how accurately can you divide it in half. *The judgment of 10 seconds of time* These tests are not correlated with intelligence

What does Cattell notice about the American environment?

Cattell in the American context quickly sees the scientific and practical value of mental test. "Psychology cannot attain the certainty and exactness of the physical sciences, unless it rests on a foundation of experiment and measurement. A step in this direction could be made by applying a series of mental tests and measurements to a large number of individuals. The results would be of considerable scientific value in discovering the constancy of mental processes, their interdependence, and their variation under different circumstances. Individuals, besides, would find their tests interesting, and, perhaps, useful in regard to training, mode of life or indication of disease."

Why did Cattell go to Galton's lab?

Cattell, sensing wundts disinterest went into Galtons lab and studied with him.

What were the 2 geological theories?

Charles Lyell came up with a theory called uniformitarianism The alternative theory was called catastrophism

What did Chomsky say about language?

Chomsky talked about the Surface and Deep structure. He said colourless green ideas sleep furiously - he said that this explains why language can't just be learned. Chomsky also says that humans have an innate knowledge of the fundamental structure of language which is contrary to the behavioristic standpoint where everything is learnt. Chomsky's book represented a turning point where behaviourism lost its disciplinary dominance to cognitive psychology. Noam Chomsky had his own theory of language acquisition. he said that we are born with a LAD. Chomsky won out.

Who was Clark Hull?

Clark Hull was another who was influence by Watson - he came up with mechanistic behaviorism. He thought that there was a mathematic relationship between different variable - the strength of the behavior is a function of the amount of time

Why is Clark criticized?

Clark gets pulled into some of the criticism because he has previously coined the term "tangle of pathology"

What does Phillips try to do?

Clark was a controversial figure. Phillips tries to reconstruct this legacy and understand some of his writing by characterizing him as an afrocentric scholar. She outlines the characteristics of an afrocentric. She thinks that the framework of afrocentrics could help us understand Clark in a different way.

How did Clark explain the data?

Clark was very committed to the importance of integration to blacks and white. He interpreted his results to suggest that segregation causes passive acceptance of a rejected status that was detrimental to black children under conditions of segregation. That is how he placed this research as support for desegregation. It was cited with other social psychology studies. Contact hypothesis is the notion that you can reduce prejudice when you bring groups together under certain conditions. In 1954, Brown v. Board made the segregation of public schools by race illegal.

Why was Clark so important?

Clark was very important - he was, to date, the only African American male to become president of the APA (There have beed 2 african american women recently). He was very connected with all the major figures i the civil right movement.

What did Clark write in his book about black nationalism?

Clark write another book in 1974 where he is very clear about his opposition of black nationalism "Under the guise of assuming a positive identity, black nationalism has adopted an imitation of white racism with its deification of race, its attempts to make a virtue out of color, its racist mystique.... Many of it advocates are dominated by deep feelings of self-hatred. Part of the pattern of pretense and posturing includes a suicidal eagerness to ascribe all middle-class patterns of speech, grammar, dress, manners, and style of life to whites, while reserving for the exclusive use of Negroes the uncouth and vulgar.... Whatever the motivation for individuals associated with the black nationalist movement, I consider the movement as a whole to be sick, regressive, and tyrannical." These are harsh words directed at his own race. the goal was to combat racism - who would undoubtably want Clark on their side; he had achieved (because of his moderate position) high levels of recognition within the establishment. There was a lot of tentsion. Despite Clark, Black psychology continues to develop. It is a very vibrant area of psychology. Clark holds a very controversial place there.

What is Comparison?

Comparison -refers to the kind of individual differences that arose with galtons work (in Britain) Where you were interested in a particular psychological characteristic (e.g. intelligence)and you wanted to know how much it differed between people in a population. You would give lots of questionnaires, get a lot of information on that characteristic and plot them on a graph to see how people compare. James calls this comparison.

What happened alongside the development of intelligence tests?

Concurrently with these development in american psychology and mental tests and intelligence test, we see the establishment of psychology as a scientific discipline in the united stated

According to Pavlov, what are conditioned reflexes?

Conditioned reflexes occurred when nerve pathways in the cortex became part of the circuitry, connecting stimuli and responses in new combinations. He thought that different stimuli excited different nerves.

What was the view of programmed instruction?

Critiques thought that this got rid of the teacher student relationship - others thought it was efficient. Some level of this learning has been used from preschool to grad school. It is valuable but does not replace a teacher. Philosophical implications of operant conditioning - skinner thought that if you think of both negative and positive reinforcement, that all behaviour is controlled by reinforcement

Who was Cyril Burt?

Cyril Burt (1883-1971)- regarded Galton as his intellectual hero and role model. He was Britain's first professional educational psychologist. He liked Binet's intelligence test. At age 11, he tested school children and streamed them (smart kids go to school, dumb kids are geared towards trade). He was conducting a large number of twin studies and suggested that the test scored correlated to heredity. At the age of 63 he published an article that he studies 53 pairs of twins. They were the best separating and the best testing. There was evidence that nature was more than nurture. He was a person who made himself famous by fabricating data. he completely made up data.

Who was Darwin?

Darwin (1809) was part of a large and wealthy family in England. His father was a rich doctor. His mother was part of thee Wedgewood family.

What is the variation hypothesis?

Darwin also argued that across all species, men have been more influenced by evolution than females and there is more variation between different men. This is called the variation hypothesis.

True or false: Darwin argued for his book.

Darwin did not like conflict. So even though he knew that his book would generate conflict and debate but he never defended his books. Instead, Thomas Henry Huxley argued for it.

True or false: Darwin was a very smart child.

Darwin didn't do well in school and was a likable guy. He was very curious. He went to medical school but didn't like it; he hated the sight of blood.

Why did Darwin have the idea to meet at the Royal society?

Darwin got Wallaces letter, didn't want to get scooped so they both went to the Linnaean society in 1858.

What did Wallace do to Darwin?

Darwin got a letter from Wallace (they communicated through letters). Since Wallace knew that Darwin was someone that he should be talking to - darwin established a reputation. Darwin has many biographies written about him and we have a lot of material about him.

Why did Darwin wait to Publish his work? What did he leave out of his work? Why?

Darwin had the idea first but he sat on it, his wife was very religious but he didn't want to hurt his wife. He believed it, but left humans out of it for his wife's sake.

What did Darwin say about sexual selection?

Darwin hypothesized about sexual selection. There are certain characteristics that were favorable for reproductive success. There are certain human traits that are very beneficial for men (ability to provide, strength) and women (nurturing and caregiving). The differences in men and women could therefore be evolutionarily based.

What did Darwin know about the response of his theory?

Darwin knew that his theory would not be accepted by many people because it took god out of the equation. Darwin's basic theory does not contradict god creating the world (the basic changes are evolution. Darwin originally left humans out of the equation but he thought that humans were not really any different from other animals. This goes against god (what was be doing on day 6 if he already created animals on day 5.

What did Darwin do with dogs?

Darwin looked at dogs. Dogs display similar emotions to humans. When dogs get attention, they feel pride, when a dog is reprehended, they feel shame. They will also play games - they have a sense of humor. Animals also appreciate beauty.

What did Darwin do with the information that he got from the beagle?

Darwin made these observations, came back to England and read some information. He read work of Thomas and Malthus.

Which theory did Darwin agree with, uniformitarianism or catastrophism?

Darwin started believing more in the uniformitarianism approach. He would be encouraged in this view when he found sea shells imbedded in rocks up in the mountains. He felt that 6000 years was not enough time for some of these changed and that the world, therefore, must be older than 600 years.

How did Darwin adapt Malthus' proposition?

Darwin thought about this and thought that the people who are going to survive are the ones that are more adaptive to survive.. Darwin then suggests that it is the struggle for survival that causes the most fit (well adapted organisms in a particular environment) to live healthier and longer and pass along those characteristics that allow them to be successful in their environment.

Fact:

Darwin was influenced by his wife and his first cousin was a Devout Christian **This is important for later.

What happened ad Darwin got old?

Darwin was very rich and liked frugally. He developed some type of digestive problem so he was no longer able to travel. He Died in 1882 from a heart condition.

What would Darwin have said about survival of the fittest?

Darwin would not have liked that idea. He would say that one is not more fit than the other, it is just better suited for that environment.

What book did Darwin write?

Darwin wrote a whole book about emotions called the expression of emotions in man and animals. He argued that emotional expressions are also inherited and evolved. All of Darwin's theory of evolution was that any adaptation would stick around only if it was adaptive.

When did Darwin write his ideas?

Darwin wrote these ideas in 1842 but didn't publish then for over 16 years because he thought that it was too radical. He deliberately, even when he went public, he still kept human beings out of the equation. He didn't want to be branded as a heretic.

Who was Erasmus Darwin? What did he do?

Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, wrote a book called Zoonomia that actually drew on a lot of evolutionary thinking.

How did Darwin contribute to comparative psychology?

Darwin's ideas gave rise to comparative psychology - comparing humans and animal behavior. There was an existing field of comparative anatomy, but we could do the same with psychology and compare the psychology of different animals and see if that sheds light on human behavior.

Who dealt with the problem about the age issue and IQ?

David Weschler He was an assistant in the WWI project. He was interested because there were 2 tests, one for soldiers who could read and another for those who were illiterate. He went to Columbia and received a PhD in psychology. He wanted to develop a more sensitive breakdown on intelligence.

What is differentiation?

Differentiation would be used by showing the dog a circle and then giving it food repeatedly. But the dog was able to discriminate the circle and an oval. How much of a difference is necessary in order for a dog to notice a divergence?

What did Psychologists want to do with their intelligence tests?

Early psychologists were thinking about how useful their work could be and how they could be used in education. They were forming professional and institutional alliances with education.

Who was Edna Heidbreder?

Edna Heidbreder also joined Wellesley. She published Seven Psychologies. Teaching at a women college was the only viable educational career for women

Who was Thorndike?

Edward Thorndike was another person who thought that you could study animals by the observations of behaviour. He, as an undergraduate wrote James' principles. He decided to go to Harvard to study with James. He was interested in studying how animals learn. Thorndyke was born in 1874. Growing up in New England and went to Wesleyan University in Middleton Connecticut. Thorndyke went to Harvard for graduate studies and took James psychology course. He liked it so much that he changed his field of study to psychology and taught psychology. He started doing experiments in animal psychology - specifically chickens.

Who was Edward Tolman?

Edward Tolman was influenced by him who did work with rats in mazes - he came up with latent learning - learning that occurs incidentally without reinforcement. He developed purposive behaviorism - behavior serves a purpose and is goal directed.

What is Epistemology?

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that investigates the nature and origin of knowledge. This was Skinner's first love. Skinner wrote about this epistemology in a 1957 book called verbal behaviour. According to this book, you have to start with the behaviorist position that knowledge is a result of behavior and language is 1 form of behaviour. How we come to know things could be analyzed by the science of behavior. The only way we learn anything is through reinforcement in the environment. Skinner believes that thought is simply behaviour. Gaining an understanding of verbal behaviour the same as generating a theory of knowledge.

What is negative eugenics?

Eugenics is the idea that you either should make sure that unfit people should not be able to reproduce (this is called negative eugenics)

How did Darwin keep in touch with people back home?

Even though his trip took 5 years, they were able to get and send letters by other boats coming nearby. He would send information and he had a good reputation in England for it. He kept a good record of thing that he saw, both living and fossils. Many were unknown to scientists in England.

What did religious groups do with Darwin's theory?

Even though there was a religious outcry, religious views adapted.

What is the minimal group situation?

Eventually, this became known as the minimal group situation - psychologists managed to devise techniques where you could get the same performance effects just by getting others to believe that there were others in the experiment.

What do evolutionary psychologists say about the mind?

Evolutionary psychologists recognize that the mind isn't a unified entity but rather a collection of independent modules. There are different parts of the brain that are independent of each other. The environments that originally produced these behaviors may come into conflict or lose theory adaptive value. Behavior may be influenced by cultural and education.

What is evolutionary psychology?

Evolutionary psychology uses all aspects of evolutionary theory to create testable hypotheses about human behavior. These people say that because we live in a common human environment that is different from the environment on which they developed - we don't just want to know what is adaptive today, we want to know how it came to be.

What is Experimentation?

Experimentation - (this is Wundt's experimental introspection) - This is the standardized presentation of stimuli in a laboratory setting where people would report on what they were experiencing as they were presented with these standardized stimuli repetitively. They would then report on their experiences of these standardized presentations of stimuli over and over again (e.g. the thought meter experiment) James was very critical of it. He said that the people in Germany were doing dissection and reductionism of human life that he felt was unwarranted, and he called them the prism pendulum and pornograph philosophers - that was not meant to be a compliment. He said that they were trying to break down mental life into time little bits. James didnt this this was possible, nor did it represent the reality of what mental life was.

True or false: Galton's ideas are still used today.

False. Many of his ideas were incorrect or oversimplified.

True or false: Binet was the first to test children.

False. Binet was not the first to test children; Piaget tested his children.

True or false: Darwin came up with the theory of evolution.

False. Darwin didnt come up with evolution, the world was thinking in evolutionary terms, but he added to it. People were starting to think about evolutionary long before Darwin.

True or false: Galton did adoption studies to look at the effects of environment vs. genes.

False. He wanted to look at adoption to see if there was a difference. He did not do this though.

True or false: Eugenics was always considered something bad.

False. In the 1920s and 1930s, eugenics wasn't a negative word. only after WWII and the Holocaust did people realize the implications that this could have.

True or false: Darwin never wrote about humans.

False. Later in life, he wrote 3 papers that touched on some of these ideas. Darwin was trying to understand human psychology. One of the important papers was called descent of man. Here, he argued that humans descended from animal ancestors (apes)- there are similarities between humans and other animals.

True or false: Calkins was the first women to be awarded a PhD from Harvard.

False. She was never aware a PhD because she was never officially enrolled. People have been lobbying the Harvard corporation to retrospectively award Calkins her PhD. There have been petitions - Harvard could be making good with their gender rights. The Harvard corporation will not do it. Calkins was offered a PhD from Radcliff, but she refused it - she didn't want to take a PhD from a school where she did not attend.

True or false: Mary Cover Jones was a behaviorist.

False. She was not particularly behaviourist in her outlook, and she went on to direct a longitudinal study of child development for the rest of her career. She published dozens of papers looking at child develop into adulthood looking at a cohort of several hundred children in california.

What was Festinger's theory?

Festinger created the theory of cognitive dissonance is the experience involving 2 or more incompatible or contradictory beliefs. What do you do if you hold 2 incompadible contradictory beliefs. Cognitive dissonance creates an uncomfortable state of dissonance and you want to receive it.

What were some differences that Binet noticed between kids and adults?

For example, kids couldn't name colours as fast as adults even though they could point them out as fast. These tests had Binet question Galton.

What did Calkins do for her dissertation?

For her dissertation she devises a technique for studying memory that we still use today called the pairs associated technique - you pair a number with a colour and then you assess memory by showing the colour and asking for the number. She was a very good student. She defended her Dicertatcion at Harvard. It was highly praised,

Who was Francis Galton?

Francis Galton was Darwin's cousin. One of the people who became very interested in how one might go about measuring intelligence was Darwin's cousin Francis Galton.

What is the problem with freewill?

Freewill doesnt work so well in a deterministic scientific system. James didnt believe in determinism in daily life.

What happened after James published the principles?

From the time that James publishes the principles (1890) over the next 20-30 years (1 generation), psychology in the United States undergoes a fairly profound shift in terms of how we think about proper subject matter and methods in psychology. That shift is what we are talking about now. Part of that shift involve changes in the ways that people view the very nature of consciousness. For James, consciousness, mental life and the mind were appropriate subject matter of psychology. it could be examined through introspection, experimentation and comparison. The point of this all was to uncover the functions of the mind Over the next 30 years there was a real shift. part of it has to do with the changes in the notion of what mental life actually is.

What is functionalism?

Functionalism in early American Psychology (William James was the card carrying functionalist in americas psychology and it was his take that psychology should really be about the study of the function of the mind (rather than the structure) and the way in interacts with the world to help adapt us to the world. That orientation to psychology becomes very prominent in the US especially This comes out of evolution idea - the characteristics that serves the best function is the one that gets passed down. In early American Psychology, Functionalism was the school that was associated with early american psychology. Partly because of James, partly because of the influence of Evolutionary thinking. Functioning is the position that understanding should be based on an analysis of function rather than structure. another way of saying that is to know what something does is to understand what it is. This was the dominant position in American psychology by the early 20th century. Thorndyke became a leader in functionalism - focusing on utility and purpose of behavior

What else did Galton develop?

Galton also studied finger prints. First police used fingerprints because of his work.

What did Galton create?

Galton created an anthropometric laboratory.

What did Galton develop?

Galton developed the self-questionnaire method to sample a large number of individuals.

In terms of twins, what did Galton fail to recognize?

Galton did not, however, consider the environment of identical vs. fraternal twins (are identical twins treated more alike).

How did Galton modify his view?

Galton modified his view and said that heredity is important but you need support from the environment.

What did Galton realize about the "shape" of intelligence?

Galton recognized that most measures of intellectual ability followed a bell curve.

What did Galton use the anthropometric laboratory for?

Galton wanted to try to collect a lot of data on individual differences in intelligence. He establishes the anthropometric laboratory in 1884 in London in the South Kensington Museum. He sets up the laboratory and you were invited to pay to get your measurements taken (3 pence). He tested 9000 people. a lot of these tests had to do with measurements of sensation and perception - he thought intelligence was a reflection of the strength and size of the nervous system

How was Galton able to do his research?

Galton was also very wealthy so he was able to put money into research.

What phase did Galton coin to explain this?

Galton was the first to use the phrase nature vs. nurture. Galton realized that nature and nurture interact with each other.

How did Galton test people?

Galton went to a large health exhibition in 1884 and people came and spent money to be tested in all sorts of reaction types. One problem that Galton had was that he was testing adults. But, it was important to test children too, so he developed an intelligence test. The top 10 men and the top 10 women would get married and mate.

How did Galton's work differ from Wundt and others?

Galton's work was different from Wundt and others because Galton was trying to distinguish the abilities between different people (Wundt thought differences were errors or irregularities, Galton thought that the differences were something to explore).

How was it discovered that the world was changing?

Geologists began to discover things like fossils (for animals) that didn't seem to exist anymore. The idea of the natural world and fix, unchanging and perfect - why did the creator make them if they are no longer here? what if they were not perfect. As these fossils were found deep in the world, it was realized that there was a lot of change. The fact that the fossils were found at the top out mountains the bottom the sea made it obvious that it wasn't always that way - there had been change (water shifted, there was erosion).

Why was Miller's address noteworthy?

George Miller's address was also noteworthy because a group of young black psychologists storm the stage. These were a group of black men that, a year before, had established the association of black psychologists as a way to combat racisms in institutional psychology. This group wanted to protests the APA fro racism and exclusion.

How did Goddard improve intelligence testing?

Goddard did a lot of improve the cause of intelligence testing. Although he focused on the dumb, there were others that focused on the super intelligent. Testing for intelligence was given to army troops in WWI so you could select smart people to officers rather than fighters. The war ended before these tests could be put into practice

What was Goddard known for?

Goddard is the one who imports the Binet test to the USA and he used it under a set of very different assumption. The test was picked up by a psychologist at Stanford University named Lewis Terman (and colleague Catharine Cox Miles) in California.

What was Goddards plan?

Goddard wanted to keep the feeble minded institutionalized. Others thought that they should be sterilized.

What did Goddard disagree with in terms of Binet's intelligence testing?

Goddard was not in agreement with Binet on a few things. Goddard believed that intelligence was hereditary and he also believed in Eugenics. He also did not believe that intelligence was multifaceted and changeable. he looked at a family and use it as evidence for his view of intelligence.

What case study was Goddard interested in?

Goddard wrote a book about the Kalikak family where there was a smart side of the family and a dumb side of the family. The dumb side came from an illegitimate child and the god side came from his marriage. The bad side produced feeble minded children and the good side produced good children.

What was Goddard's view?

Goddard's view was the menace of the feeble minded. He thought that feeblemindedness was one thing, one gene. He wanted to identify the feeble minded. This was easy for the extreme feeble minded but harder for the subtler ones. It was hard to find those who looked normal.

Fill in the Blanks: James spoke about the importance of ________________ _______________.

Habitual activity He said that habit formation is impartial, you can either have good or bad habits, and once you've established a habit, it is hard to reverse it. He believed that his students, since they were still young, could get rid or bad habits. This is harder for older people.

What is Hall known for?

Hall is know for his questionnaire stuff. He gives out a lot of questionnaires, especially to children - he studied development and worked with educators - it becomes a very common practice in the united states for psychologists to give out a large number of questionnaires.

Who was G Stanley Hall?

Hall was born in 1844 in Massachusetts, studied theology. He found Darwin more interesting than theology. Hall went to study in Germany, he taught in Ohio, read Wundt's book and decided to pursue and interest in psychology. He met James and he encouraged Hall to study muscular cues in the perception of space. He then went to Germany, became Wundt's first American student and then went back to Harvard and lectured at Harvard. Then he went to Johns Hopkins in Baltimore. Hall established the American Journal of Psychology. In 1888 he was appointed president of Clark University in Massachusetts. He founded the APA and was the first president.

What happens after Watson resigns?

He Resigns, gets divorced and then marries Rosalie Rayner. he has to leave academia though. John Watson and Rosalie Rayner go on to have 2 children, both of whom become psychologists (a psychoanalyst and an organizational industrial psychologist)

What did he train his animals in?

He actually ends up devising puzzle boxes into which he places cats, chickens and dogs. Through these experiment, he concludes that animals learn through trial and error - they don't observe and figure it out. They don't learn by imitation - they learn by trial and error. This became known as the Law of effect.

What is generalization?

He also looked at generalization - if the tone is a different pitch, will you still get the response? Yes, but the more different it was, the less the response.

What environmental factor was important for intelligence?

He also recognized something that reinforced the Environmental perspective. Many scientists spoke about events that really inspired them (e.g. for Darwin it was his trip on the beagle).

What did Galton say about the intelligence/sensory information of males?

He also thought that males were, on average, more intelligent and more acute in their senses compared to women.

How did Alphonse de Candolle and Galton view each other?

He and Galton had a lot of respect for each other. De Candolle's book prompted Galton to do more research on genetics.

What did they do at the Linnaean society?

He and Wallace present their ideas and the society published their official report and it wasn't really as powerful as they all thought it would be.

According to Pavlov, what are unconditioned reflexes?

He argued that unconditioned reflexes were based on connections between sensory and motor nerves.

According to Galton, what was the most important part of the evolutionary perspective?

He believed that from an evolutionary perspective, the more important were intellectual and psychological. Galton believed that more intellectual differences were based on innate differences.

What did Thorndyke say about intelligence?

He believed that intelligence was not a single quality but a combination of skills. He believed these components were largely hereditary and also believed in eugenics.

What did Alllport beleive?

He believed that social psychology should be experimental, objective, and focused of the reaction of subjects in controlled social situations as opposed to out there in the real world. He was very much into the tradition of bringing people into the lab and controlling things. That was very behaviouristic.

What did Thorndyke call the learning of chickens and cats?

He called this trial and error learning.

What number did Binet come up with to explain the results of the tests?

He came up with mental and chronological age (without calling it that). He called these children retarded, suggesting delayed.

What phrase was coined by Herbert Spencer?

He came up with the phrase survival of the fittest

What did Binet and Simon consider retarded?

He determined that if your intellectual age was less than 2 years below your chronological age, you can get by in normal school. if more than 2 years, you will have trouble - those kids would be sent to special education.

What is mental imagery?

He developed questionnaires to study mental imagery - he would say, imagine a beach, and wanted subjects to tell him what they were imagining.

What did David Weschler develop?

He developed the Wechsler Belview intelligence scale. This has remained the goal standard for adult intelligence ever since.

What was Watson's dissertation on?

He did a dissertation with white rats. He was interested in changes in the growth of certain types of brain cells and the complexity of behaviour in white rats.

Hall did a lot with children. What theory did he come up with?

He did a lot of research of children. He proposed a theory of child development based on Darwin including a concept he called recapitulationism - children pass through the stages of our prehumen ancestors. Men had to go through an evolutionary development to reach the heist stages of evolutionary potential.

What was Festinger's study?

He did a study called when prophecy fails - Fastinger thought that this would be a perfect study. There was a cult that thought that the world was going to end on a particular day, when the world doesn't end, how will they respond. They observed that the leader of the group and the members were very upset - their belief was not passed. First, there is a lot of uncomfortable state of dissonance. but, gradually they develop other beliefs. They came to believe that their prayers and beliefs obverted the disaster - our preparations were enough to appease the higher forces. He goes and observes all of this and writes in when prophecy fails.

Where did Skinner write his views of freewill?

He dramatized these ideas in a novel in 1948 called Walden 2 - about an ideal society where positive reinforcement is the sole means of social control. Children are taught to only seek positive reinforcement and they grow up to be cooperative, intelligent, sociable and happy. There are some communities that are trying to practice skinner's ideas Free will is an illusion - the idea that we have doing things out of our own freewill is wrong. The systematic findings have proven that all of our behaviour and all of our personhood came about through complex systems of reinforcement. He saiid that if we continue to ignore these finding and simply proceed this way, we will self annihilate. This was his call to his fellow citizens (most traction in the USA). He said we have to change reinforcement in society to ensure that people behave in prosocial and proenvironemtnal ways. he said that we have the tools and we aren't using them because we think that we have freewill. People didn't respond so well. the book was no well regarded

How did James resolve his tension?

He eventually resolved this tension by making a pragmatic decision. He continued to believe in freewill as a non-psychologist, philosopher and human being, but for the purpose of being a psychologist, I will choose to believe in determinism. He wanted to believe in freewill because that is what worked for him. As a psychologist, believing in freewill didnt work for him anymore, so he chose to believe in a deterministic worldview. James was putting into practice a kind of pragmatism and adaptive set of practices that became quite exemplary to both his study of psychology and philosophy. This was the idea that the truth value of certain propositions or behaviours is determined by how it helps you adapt to a certain situation belief in free will was adaptive in his personal life belief in determinism was also adaptive in the context of being a psychology.

What does Watson say in his lecture?

He explains that psychology has failed in its aspiration to be a natural science(introspection is not very scientific) . Nor, has it yielded practical application (before the proliferation of intelligence testing, before the first world war). He then says that introspection is unscientific and unreliable. the failure to replicate findings (which makes something a science) using the introspective measure is often attributed to the lack of training of the introspectionist. Thus, the object of attack is the observer not the experimental setting as in physics and chemistry. you cannot get the same results more than once and this makes it unscientific. He concludes that behaviour can be studied without appeal to consciousness We don't need the mind to look at behaviour. Therefore, psychology, as the behaviourist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. The theoretical goal of psychology is prediction and controlled behaviour. Introspection forms for essential part of its methods.

What did Clark say about Segregation?

He felt that racial segregation was detrimental to african americans and other people of colour. he thought that it was detrimental to whites too. He said that it was the fact that they segregated and economically marginalized that maintained these types of community problems.

What was Terman's view?

He felt that we wasted a lot of money to educate children whom cannot benefit from it. He thought that if we could use the test to see peoples ability, we could design an education system could be more efficient

What was a problem that Galton realized about studying families?

He figured that this wasn't good enough because families shared environments as wells as genes.

What did Binet discover about people with certain abilities?

He found that people that had the same abilities did it in different way (one math guy saw the numbers in his head, the other heard them. Some authors worked in brief spurts while other worked methodically for long periods of time).

What problem did Binet discover?

He found that the girls reacted just as quickly as adults (if they were paying attention). If they were not paying attention, they had slower. He thought that this was a difference in intelligence, not neurological activity. When wanted to show differences between kids and adults, you had to look at things that kids couldn't do as well as adults. If kids were equal than adults, they weren't testing intelligence.

What types of questions were of value to Binet?

He found that when he tried to devise some of these tests that would discriminate between kids and adults, he found that those test involved higher and more complex faculties (e.g. sustained attention, sophisticated use of language, memory - rather than sensation and perception) - with these tests, there was a difference between adults and children and children of the same age.

What happens to James Baldwin?

He gets full professorship, and within weeks, James Baldwin is forced to resign.

What happened after Watson got his PhD?

He graduates in 1904 and he doesnt get a job - he stays in Chicago where he continues to experiment rats. He was getting frustrated though. Animal psychology was growing at this time but it wasnt super high prestige either. Harvard didnt have facilities. he hung around Chicago for a few years after getting his PhD.

What impact did James have on psychology?

He had a major impact in American psychology - he created a certain atmosphere and inspired many students to come up with their own approach. G Stanley Hall, Mary Whiton Calkins and Edward Lee Thorndyke.

What was Darwin interested in?

He loved nature

What title did Binet receive?

He met someone from the University of Sorbenne and he went to work there without pay. He soon became recognized as the leading experimental psychologist in France. He ultimately became director of the lab at the university. He founded a journal devoted to experimental psychology. He did studies on suggestibility which set the stage to modern experimental social psychology. He then started doing case studies on exceptionally talented people, including famous authors, people who did complex math in their head.

What was a problem that Binet had with his own work?

He never satisfied himself and this project is kinda a bomb and he doesn't succeed.

What was Galton's book about?

He published a book about his travels to Africa and it was very successful.

What book did Terman publish? What was the point of the book?

He published a book called the measurement of intelligence. In the first chapter, called the uses of intelligence tests he wrote - numerous studies of the age grade process of school children has statistics that show that many children cannon progress. many children need to be taught too many times and it is a waste of money. he said that we would not waste money and time and effort. he ties this to an economical perspective. This disrupts the notion that these are scientists with no particular interests in the social lubrication of their work - this was not value free.

What did Thorndyke do in Columbia?

He publishes his dissertation work with chickens in 1898. This title of his dissertation was called animal intelligence, an experimental study of the associative processes in animals - sounds more scientific than Romanes' work. It builds on it to show that you could construct experimental apparatus in which he placed animals to see how they behave and made inferences about learning

How was Galton influenced by Darwin?

He read Darwin's work and was influenced by evolutionary thinking and he picked up of the importance of the idea of the idea of individual differences.

What were some problems Binet had with his test?

He recognized that there were problems with his tests, including motivation - if kids weren't motivated they would do badly. There were also biases in the test. He also felt that intelligence wasn't fixed. It grew naturally over time - you can become more intelligent with training.

What was the rational behind the little Albert study?

He said that fear in infants will only display a startle response - that is how he operationalizes fear - all about behaviour. the only things that evoke that in a newborn are really loud sounds, if you drop them, and if you swaddle them too tightly. There were only a few things that evoke an innate fear response in infants. In the little Albert experiment he shows that everything else, all other fears are created through the pairing of those stimuli and a loud noise.

What did Darwin collect on the ship? How?

He soon developed a real interest and ability on the ship and created bags to collects specimen in the water and he would study them. The 2-year trip turned into a 5-year trip.

What did Galton study?

He started studying families and traced patterns.

What was James interested after psychology?

He still practiced psychology, wrote an abridged version of his textbook. But, psychology became less prominent amongst his activities. He was interested in psychic research.

What was the name of Watson's dissertation?

He studied with both psychologists and neurologists and produced a dissertation called Animal education, the psychical development of the white rat.

What did Thorndyke suggest?

He suggested that we study animal behaviour, not consciousness, not mental life.

What did Galton think of Darwin?

He then read Darwin's book. He found Darwin disturbing because of the religious implications. He realized the human implications.

What did Binet do after he bombed his second paper?

He then volunteered for psychologist named Charcot where he stayed for 8 years. He published 3 books and many papers. His most important work involved hypnosis. A lot of his work on hypnosis was discredited by that same physiologist.

What did Galton say about intellect?

He thought back to his time at Cambridge and thought that the people in his class that were better had an innate ability to do better. Intelligence ran in families - if there were smart parents, there were smart kids. Even in his own family, he and Darwin were both good scientists.

How dod Darwin connect Malthus to the finches he saw on the beagle?

He thought back to the finches and thought that they all started from the same type of bird with medium size beaks. And the ones that had slightly longer (or stronger) had a slightly comparable advantage and natural selection occurred. Those that are best adapted to survive are the ones that will survive. This was the idea of natural selection.

What was Galton's view about heritability?

He thought that certain psychological variables were inherited, including intellect.

What did Binet say that intelligence was related to?

He thought that should relate more to language and abstract reasoning.

What did Cattell believe about his research?

He thought that there was both scientific importance and practical implications. They wanted to portray the usefulness of their science. This practicality was particularly important in the United States.

What did Galton say about how to measure intellect? What was the belief at the time?

He thought that we could measure intellect by testing how quickly we respond to certain stimuli (e.g. sound or sight) or the size of the head. There was a belief at the time that there was a relationship between intelligence and sensory discrimination. His implicit theory of intelligence that it must be reflected in the strength and size of the nervous system. Galton thought that brain size and the corresponding head size related to head size. also, physical measures talking about strength could relate to intelligence (e.g. grip strength).

What did Darwin do before he published his theory?

He tried to write down every opposing theory and tried to think about it. Darwin still has not published his theory. He was writing a massive book and it took him 18 years after his original inspiration.

What types of meteorology was Galton interested in?

He turned his attention to meteorology and was interested in high pressure and low-pressure changes in weather. He was building a reputation for himself in science.

Where did James teach?

He ultimately became a professor at Harvard. He was an enthusiastic professor and treated his students as equals with a common quest for knowledge. He was interested in his students. He tried to make the subject seem personal and relevant to the students and applicable to daily life. He was originally taught to teach physiology and anatomy but changed his course to the relations between physiology and psychology.

Watson went on to do a lot of work on infants and children. What did her urge parents to do?

He urged parents to take direct and manipulative control over their children's environment. The book offered advice. He thought that parents should treat kids as young adults and not to be overly affectionate. He recognized that children are individuals thought.

How did Weschler view intelligence?

He viewed intelligence as complex and multifaceted - in line with Binet. These tests are periodically revised and their scores standardized to different populations.

What is mechanism?

He was also pro mechanism Mechanism - science could explain all phenomena in terms of the causal, interactions among physical entities. We don't need to refer to agents and purpose, will - James was so upset because agency and will and purpose (everything that he thought was fundamental to being human were ruled out of scientific psychology - if you believed in science as mechanistic, it rules agency and purpose and will outside of that system)

Why was Clark so controversial?

He was controversial thought. in 1965, he wrote a book called Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power. He was involved in an institution called the Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited Project - a community based project that was designed to do both research and develop community based interventions in Harlem. based on the results of these studies, he articulated several factors that he thought were responsible for problems of the ghetto. Articulated the factors responsible for the many problems of life in the "ghetto" - such juvenile delinquency, crime, family dissolution, educational failure, joblessness, violent crime, etc. Attributed these to systemic barriers to opportunity maintained by a unique combination of economic marginality and rigid racial segregation

Of what was Galton a proponent?

He was interested in increasing the fitness of the human population by encouraging selective breeding.

Why did Galton choose this way of measuring intelligence?

He was interested in ways to measure this quality because he thought that intelligence was hereditary and uninfluenced by environment. What we were given at birth was out potential. It might be affected by a certain degree by environment and experience but there is a certain point where the influence doesn't help us - and that certain point was hereditary.

What was something positive about Galton?

He was still a great pioneer and developed a foundation on which others could build. He was considered a child prodigy. He was not a good student when it came to discipline and memorization.

What area of religion was James interested in?

He wasn't interested in the validity of religious beliefs, just the functionality.

What did James do when he went back to America?

He went back to the USA to finish his medical degree. While recovering from anxiety attacks he took a keen interest in freewill

What did Galton go to school for?

He went to medical school. He went to Cambridge and studies mathematics.

What is the transfer of training?

He worked on an important study with Robert Sessions Woodworth, a fellow James student. He worked with his to develop the transfer of training - working in one area to affect performance in a different area. If you were good at something, you could be good at something else because of the association between the 2. This transfer theory was very slight, consistent with Thorndyke's theory of learning.

Darwin thought a lot about his trip and everything that he saw. What did Darwin think about digs?

He would also think of dog-breeders and how we could breed different types of dogs. Maybe this type of thing could happen naturally over time.

What book did Galton write about intellect?

He wrote a book called hereditary genius to show the intelligence and abilities were inherited. in 1869, Galton published a book called Hereditary genius. Galton talks about the hereditary theory.

What did James write about?

He wrote a book over 12 years. He struggled a lot with the idea of whether or not psychology could be a science - as a systematic study that involved assumptions around cause and effect, determinism and mechanism etc. James struggled if psychology and the subject matter could be studied in that way. Finally, he wrote his book the principles of psychology and dropped physiology all together. He later dropped psychology and taught philosophy. He was very influential in psychology.

What did James wrote about emotions?

He wrote about emotions which was related to his own emotional crises. James wrote that emotion is the consequence rather than the cause of physiological effects. Essentially, emotions represent the perception of bodily responses - fake it till you make it.

What did James say was the ultimate form of freewill?

He wrote about freewill - he felt that the act of paying attention to something was the ultimate act of freewill. As a scientist there was no freewill, but as a philosopher and a human being he accepted freewill.

What principles did James write about?

He wrote about this in the principles of psychology that he starts writing in 1878 (contemporaneous with Wundt's lab which happens in 1879). IN his book, he sets down the basic foundational principles of the new science of psychology. This book was considered a classic. he says - let psychology admit that for her scientific purposes, determinism is the way to go - has no fault. If it is determined later that it does work, a readjustment can be made. He said that in psychology, let's assume that determinism is the proper way of viewing a science. if later, other models that arent consistent with determinism seem to be useful then we could change - this was a very Jamsean attitude- pragmatic and functional attitude. We need to reassess truth value based on whether or not something works/is adaptive to a specific context.

How did James refer to psychology?

He wrote that psychology is "a nasty little subject" and everything that is interesting in human psychological life actually can be found in other ways. That was James' take on his wrestling with putting psychology into a scientific world view.

In the 1910s and 1920s, Binet's intelligence tests were the rage in the USA. There were 2 individuals who were fascinated.

Henry Goddard was one.

Who was Henry Goddard?

Henry Herbert Goddard brought intelligence testing to the USA. He was interested in the feeble minded (subnormal). He was interested in diagnosing different levels of feeble mindedness. He was trying to get to the line between normal and dumb. He found that Binet's tests were effective. Goddard made one lasting but unfortunate contribution to English in his translation of Binet's work. He created a new word; moron. He had a particular interest in morons and was committed to the negative eugenics' movement.

About what opportunity did Henslow tell Darwin?

Henslow learnt of a position for a naturalist on a ship called the beagle. The beagle was going on a 2-year voyage to map the coast of south America. The ship's captain was looking for a naturalist (scientist) and a captain's companion.

What is Mary Cover Jones' work called today?

Her work then gets taken up by behaviourists and it was known as the pioneering study of systematic desensitization - a common method of behavior therapy.

What has heritability been used for?

Heritability has been used for separated twin studies.

What is Higher order conditioning?

Higher order conditioning is when you pair the conditioned stimulus with another stimulus, then that second stimulus eventually elicits a conditioned response.

What did people say about the baby box?

His article had mixed reviews. some people were in favour of using technology to improve domestic life. the child could see through the plexiglass as opposed to having bars on the crib (looks like a jail) Other reactions were not good. There was a huge response that it was inhumane. don't stick your child in a box, it can lead to neglect. you need attachment etc. Skinner defended himself and said that it isn't used as a substitute, it's meant to act like a regular crib. He wanted to sell this and mass-produce it. They never did this in a way that was affordable. He then raised his 2nd child is a baby box.

What was Binet's first paper in psychology about? What was a problem with it?

His first paper dealt with the 2-point threshold. Unfortunately, the paper was read by a Belgian physiologist who wrote to Binet and told him that he was wrong and that parts of his theory were already developed by that physiologist years before.

What was Allport's focus?

His focus was on the individual and how they are influenced by the group. This is, to the large extent, what social psychology has become. This view that Allport had gave rise to a lot of experiments that we think about when we hear social psychology, and what is in Phillip's article.

Allport had a particular view of what social psychology should be. What was his view?

His idea was not the only view. even today, people say that social psychology has lost any emphasis of what being social actually means. Most social psychology studies are done individually. This is the tradition that Allport started.

What did Darwin study in school? What was the name of the faculty member who was interested in Darwin?

His interest in nature attracted the attention of one of the faculty at Cambridge where he was studying named John Stevens Henslow

In terms of functionalism, what bridge did Thorndyke create?

His major influence was that he created a bridge between functionalism and behaviorism.

What other contribution to psychology did Darwin provide?

His other contribution of psychology was also tracing the development of his infant child. He then turned it into a book (first movements were reflexes but then they became voluntary). He also recognized sounds before he was able to articulate words. Darwin suggested that an individual's development precedes roughly around the same line as the species development.

How did Terman study superintelligence?

His second strategy of relating high IQ to high adult achievement was by testing 2000 California school children to identify a group of gifted children with IQ above 140 and did a longitudinal study. He called this study the genetic study of genius. This confuses IQ score and Genuis. His book calls them gifted rather than genius.

What was Lamarck's theory?

His theory was called the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics. His idea was that animal species change and evolve over generation because successive generations in a species inherit the bodily changes that are produced by the voluntary use or disuse of certain organs.

What were Galton's views?

His views were quite racist.

What did Galton's writings show?

His writings reflected innate rather acquired differences.

What does evolution say about altruism?

If behavior is determined by evolution, evolution would have a problem explaining altruistic behavior. but you are more likely to save people who are in your gene pool.

Galton went to a phrenologist. What did they tell him? What did he do?

In 1849, he visited a phenologist who said that Galton's brain lacked spontaneous on relation to scholastic affairs. He was more suited for physical activity so he went exploring in Africa. He studied a lot of African tribes.

Why was Darwin scared?

In 1858 he received a letter and a manuscript from Alfred Russel with another theory of evolution. This scared Darwin because he didn't was Wallace to take all the credit when Darwin was working on it for a long time.

What was the first intelligence test?

In 1905 he constructed the first intelligence test with 30 different items of increasing difficulty. These were the first tests that were able to discriminate between lower degrees of intelligence. They devised tests and gave them to children and developed 30 tests with increasing levels of difficulty.

What job did Watson get?

In 1907, he had the good fortune of receiving a job offer at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Johns Hopkins is a graduate research institution that was founded in Baltimore MD.

What did Chomsky say about verbal behaviour?

In 1959, Chomsky critiqued verbal behaviour. Chomsky was opposed to the whole behaviorist agenda. Behaviorism was inadequate to account for the many theoretical levels in which grammatical structure is represented.

What did Diana Baumrind say?

In 1964(contemporaneously with the publication of the study) Diana Baumrind said that "I would not like to see experiments such as Milgram's proceed unless the subjects were fully informed of the dangers of serious aftereffects and his correctives were clearly shown to be effective in restoring their state of well being." Some people were afraid that social psychologists would also get a bad name once it was clear that they were using deception - how could social psychologists be views positively if they use so much deception.

What is the Flynn effect?

In 1984 a New Zealand psychologist named James Flynn created the Flynn effect - people have been getting smarter over the years. People have been trying to figure out the reason for this. The genetics are the same, so it must be environmental - maybe there is more information available because of the internet. But there is also an increase in reasoning and the rate of responses.

What else does Romanes compare in his writings?

In Romanes writings, he uses a lot of human characteristics as sympathy, jealously, impatient and more to animals. To the modern eye, it seems very anthropomorphic (and unscientific) to attribute all of these elaborate emotions to animals.

What did animal behaviour show us?

In fact, the importance of the work for understanding how consciousness come around was because animal consciousness isn't directly accessible through language, he had to rely on behaviour. Behaviour was the thing that was actually studied, even though he made unscientific inferences about the animals emotional and cognitive life. The anecdotal evoked derision, it was put down by scientifically minded psychologists because of its quality of being anthropomorphic.

What did Clark say in his book?

In his book, he coined the phrase "tangle of pathology" to describe these problems - he was pointing out all of the problems in these rationalized communities. But he said that the problems were maintained by structural barriers that were exacerbated by racial segregation.

What did Skinner write about in his dissertation?

In his dissertation, he makes the distinction (that was already made but he draws it out) between respondent and operant conditioning.

What is the law of effect?

In his doctoral dissertation, he suggested that these responses were connected to/dissociated from each other in predictable ways - he called this the law of effect (you will repeat something that results in pleasure).

Did James believe in free will?

In his personal life, he found it useful to think and behave as if he had freewill, but as a scientist, he believed in mechanistic determinism (these were 2 complete opposites but it was helpful to think of each as true in different areas of his life. This idea of evaluating something based on experience was a hallmark of his philosophy which he later called pragmatism).

What is Monogenesis?

In putting forward these views Darwin proposed and was a proponent of monogenesis - he view that all races are descended by 1 common ancestor and the differences that we see and different races (e.g. skin colour) come from environmental pressures. All races were descendent of a common ancestor but environmental pressures created people with different characteristics. This was a position that was controversial.

What is the difference between operant conditioning and respondent conditioning?

In respondent conditioning, the response is elicited by the conditioned stimulus. Whereas, in operant conditioning, it must be emitted by the subject before conditioning can take place. Respondent conditioning, both conditioned and unconditioned stimuli can be precisely defined. In operant conditioning, you can never say with certainty which stimuli triggered the response. The strength of respondent conditioning is measured in terms of response magnitude/latency. Operant conditioning is measured by response rate.

What are the practical affects and practical value of pragmatism?

In terms of evolution, adaptation was very important - James is being influence by that notion as well, but he is extending it to the realm not of organisms adapting to their environment, but that ideas have certain function that help us understand the world.

What did Darwin say about Gender?

In terms of gender, Darwin was sure that women were inferior to man in terms of their intellectual capacities. He subscribed, rather wholeheartedly, to a couple prevailing social views 1. The variation hypothesis 2. The complementarity hypothesis

What was the general view of the creation of the world?

In terms of the context of evolutionary thinking - it is the period up until the 18th century. In many part of the world but especially those with the Judaeo-christian tradition, There was a generally accepted belief that the world itself was created by a deity (a god). There was a creator. Traditionally, people had thought biblically that all animals were created by intelligent design and all animals were created by god at that time.

Why did the original view begin to shift?

In the 18th century and accelerating through the 19th century, this accepted orthodoxy began to shift. part of the reason this began to shift was because of scientific discoveries in a variety of areas that challenged steps in the logic needed to maintain this belief.

What was the concern about conformity?

In the 1950s, after WWII there had been a lot of concern about people conforming too much. People just went along - there was a lot of cultural anxiety about this. Another part of this was the reflection on the holocaust. How could average people be persuaded and conform to and obey orders in such mindless ways and do such awful acts? There were some high profile trials, including the eichman trial.

In the USA, what was the use of intelligence tests?

In the USA, intelligence tests are administered to large groups of individuals for the purpose of sifting and sorting people for various types of training opportunities and careers. They do take off in this context and cattle forecasts that this will take off in this context.

Why did skinner create the baby box?

In the middle of the 1940s, he and his wife had 1 child. There is a lot of work involved in having child. His wife asked him, is there anything you could do to create better conditions and make this less work.

Why was the Timing of the Stanford Binet test so important?

In the middle of this, WWI breaks out during this time 1914-1919. the US doesn't immediately enter the war, but by the times they do psychologists were ready to prove their worth to society. When the US enters the war, the face a problem - there are thousands of men being drafted and no clear way of organizing them - which should be sent to what unit. Psychologists said that they have tests that could make these decisions and do it fast. They established different committees in sorting the US militaries as the US made its way to WWI. These people get together and said that they could sort the army. They don't have the right test but they administered them in groups and they had to administer it to people who were illiterate.

Who is George Miller?

In the middle of this, in 1970, Clark becomes president of the APA. 1 year after, George Miller gives a talk (1969). He said that we need to think about social stuff little bit. He gives a talk that gets immortalized as his giving psychology away talk. This was the title of his article. He says that "As scientists we are obliged to communicate what we know, but we have no special obligation to solve social problems. Our obligations as citizens, however, are considerably broader than our obligations as scientists...If we have something of value to contribute [so social problems] we should make every effort to insure that it is implemented." There is a role from the scientist in terms of their social responsibility.

Why was Binet confronted by the French government?

In the middle of this, the french government comes and says that students need to go to school. What was clear was that there were a lot of children who were accommodated but were very in need to special help - they weren't at the same level as the majority of students and needed remediation. Binet was asked to make a test that could figure out which kids needed remediation. Binet was approached by the french government in 1905 which would help them discriminate kids that needed help.

What did Cattell do at the University of Pennsylvania?

In the university of Pennsylvania, he sets up a lab, and starts doing some of these tests. These test look similar to what Wundt was studying in his lab, but here, they are being used to infer something about intelligence.

What does James say in his book?

In this book, he sets down what he thinks psychology is the study about. he decides that despite all of the philosophical disagreement and controversy, around whether or not the mind could be of scientific study (unobservable, subjective unmathematical). James said to put all of those queries aside and we will make the assumption that the mind exists as an object as any other that can be studied scientifically. Put aside the metaphysical questions, assume that it is, get passed the problem of reflexivity and just get to the point. He said, yes, we acknowledge all of that, but for our purposes, the mind is an object like any other that can be studied.

Allports work was influencial in social psychology - should be:

Individual behaviour in group situation How does the group influence the individual as oppose to the psychology of the group itself.

How does evolutionary psychology relate to individual differences?

Individual differences: One of the requirements for the theory of evolution by natural selection was the existence of considerable variation within and and between species There had to be variations in characteristics within species and between species or else there would be nothing to select. Individual variation is the bed rock on which the theory of evolution is based. For psychologists, what came to be of avid interest in terms of individual differences were individual differences in intelligence. Today, there are individual difference psychologists

What was a benefit of the testing?

Individuals also may find their tests interesting and useful in regard to training, mode of life or indication of disease.

Why was it a challenge to study intelligence of other animals?

Intelligence in human beings (the start of mental tests for human beings), you need to rely on the language on human beings - you can ask a human question and use verbal reasoning. Animals don't talk.

What were mental tests used to prove scientifically?

Intelligence testing specifically and the use of them to justify scientifically racial hierarchies in intelligence. And the ways that this expressed certain racist attitudes that were in stand in society at large. The use of science to justify those, and the pushback against those interpretations by psychologists themselves whom identified with the racial categories that were being compared in these hierarchies.

What is introspection?

Introspection (different than Wundt) - more of a philosophical introspection defined introspection as the looking into our own minds and reporting what we there discover. He felt that we could do this objectively. He accorded a lot of importance to this in his thinking os psychology.

Why has sociobiology been criticized?

It has been criticized for implying an excessing biological determinism to social behaviors.

How do you define intelligence?

It is hard to define what intelligence really is. There have been lots of attempts to measure intelligence. They all came out of different assumptions of what intelligence is. in terms of sophisticated theory people didn't have a lot of theory of what intelligence was.

What is hard about separated twin studies?

It is hard to find cases of separated twins. In the vast majority of separated twin studies, they are only partially separate - the differences in environments are pretty similar.

Why couldn't Thorndyke stay in Harvard?

It turned out, although James was a very supported mentor and supervisor, Harvard didnt really have an animal laboratory. There were no facilities at Harvard that would allow Thorndike to study the animals. He started using chickens for his research. He is also known for studying cats in the puzzle box, but he starts with chickens. There was no place in Harvard to keep chickens.

What was a problem with Darwin's proposition?

It was a controversial proposition. He wrote for a year about the origin of species by means of natural selection in 1859 - this book lays out the theory of evolution by natural selection. he doesn't talk about human being until subsequent work called the decent of man.

What was accepted about comparative psychology?

It was accepted that we could study animals and learn something about humans. There was however a significant amount of Anthropomorphism

What did Binet start doing following his work with Charcot?

It was around this time where he started doing testing with his daughters. He saw both of his daughters as intelligent but they each demonstrated that intelligence in different ways. The older one was more cautious and the younger one was more enthusiastic. The older one was an observer and the younger was imaginatory. He put a lot of importance on the individuality of intelligence.

What was a problem of studying behaviour?

It wasnt seen as super scientific but t was important because it shows how you might go about studying animals by observing behaviour.

What Happens to James?

James Publishes this massive book, it does appear in 1890, he put forward this functionalist school of thought. Within a couple of years, he has, pretty much, retreated from psychology. He decided that in contorting psychology to fit a natural science model, he made psychology very uninteresting.

What is the metaphysical club?

James and a bunch of friends formed a society called the metaphysical club. One of the members was Charles Sanders Peirce who promoted pragmatism - nothing is absolutely certain, just various degrees of pragmatic belief. Influenced by Darwin - no idea is permanent, it will evolve as circumstances change. James also adopted this view- he believed that freewill was pragmatically adaptive. He also had an influence in spirituality and influences in human life.

What did James say about comparison?

James did not have much to say about that except that he noted that it had become a popular method in the United States. There were people, like G Stanley Hall, who were interested in these individual differences and how people compare in a population to one another. He became a proponent of giving out lots of Questionnaires.

What is pragmatism?

James espoused a view called Pragmatism. pragmatism - the value of an idea can be determined by the extent to which it helps us adapt to the world.

What are streams of consciousness?

James most famous psychological metaphor is called stream of consciousness where he argued that human thought was like a stream. You can never have the same thought or sensation twice. Every experience is influenced by other experience - since other experiences happen between two experiences, they are no longer the same. This means that you can never freeze a particular thought; things are always in motion. he didn't think you could break down consciousness and thoughts into individual components. Stream of consciousness is a Jamesean phrase. He believed that consciousness was like a stream - it was fluid, dynamic, constantly changing. to break it down was very reductionistic and impossible. He didnt feel that this kind of consciousness could be captured by those kinds of measures.

What is the difference between James and Watson?

James said that the subject matter of psychology should be mental life and consciousness - stream of consciousness. Watson says that behaviour is the subject matter. According to James, the appropriate method is introspection, experimentation and comparison. James was a huge fan of introspection. He thought that we could look into our mind and report what we discover Watson said that introspection is out. He encourages people to use observation of behaviour as a method of studying psychology.

What happened in James' seminar?

James starts a small seminar and Calkins was the only student that was able to keep up with James. Calkins ended up having a 1-1 seminar with James of the principles of psychology.

What society was James a part of?

James was a member of the American Society for psychical research - a society in which most new experimental psychologist rejected. James was interested in this, and his obituary referred to his as a dabbler in ghosts. This embarrassed his scientific colleagues. He was otherwise well regarded.

What was James' field of study?

James was also a philosopher. William James was also an early americas philosopher. He believed in free world, it accorded with his religious and spiritual beliefs as well as his beleifs about the nature of human beings. He felt that it was fundamentally incompatible with the methods and aims of scientific psychology. nonetheless, he was interested in asked to write a book about how pschology could be a science. He thought that if there weren't natural laws, regularities, environmental determinants of mental life and behaviour, then how could science go about studying it.

Fact:

James was never that interested in establishing a laboratory. He did establish a laboratory at Harvard but he quickly turned it over to somebody else (Hugo) James was not interested in the laboratory even though he was the founder of experimetnal psychology.

What does James do to make his scientific colleagues uneasy?

James was well respected among the other early american pioneers, but he continues to believe in the possibility of paranormal phenomenon in spiritualism (belief in life after death and the ability to communicate with the dead through mediums and saionces- this was a common part of Bostons Society in the later 1800 and early 1900s. These beliefs were pretty common - psychical beliefs, spiritualistic beliefs. The new psychology sounds like it is related to psychical. People were really interested in psychical so when they thought that the new experimental psychology was about that, they thought it was really interesting. That was not what the new psychologists wanted their image to be at all - they thought it was unscientific and embarrassing. they took great efforts to distinguish themselves from this whole realm of psychical phenomenon. James was not willing to completely reject the possibility that there were these types of experiences.

What did Jensen conclude?

Jensen concluded that genetic factors matter. This conclusion generated a lot of opposition and debate. People that supported nurture thought that Jensen's argument would cancel head start and other efforts to improve the environment for other individuals.

What did Jensen say about Burt's conclusions?

Jensen, who was still alive, also took a second look at Burt's conclusions and agreed with Kamin.

Who was John Watson?

John Watson studied at the university of chicago. he studies Experimental psychology but he was very put off by Jamsean psychology - he didnt believe that introspection, as james proposed it, was scientific, nor was Wundtian psychology and experimeta introspection. Watson was a little rebellious. He originally studied theology, but ended up getting an education in philosophy and psychology.

Who were Kenneth and Mamie Clark?

Kenneth and Mamie Clark In the USA in the 50s. In the context of the civil rights movement in the united states. This is Part of the strain of social psychology that connects experimental work with larger social problems. It is an example of application of social psychological research to social justice and social problems.

what do we make of these results?

Kenneth went to the actual responses of the children to see the responses to try and interpret the finding. They found that in the northern group, even though there was a difference and there was a slightly more pronounced preference for the white doll, they tended to escape from the painful fact of the meaning of colour difference in American society. They were upset at having to choose that they identify as black but they are choosing/prefering white. This caused the Northern kids a lot to distress. Clark then looked at the responses of the kids in the Southern schools. The southern children were more likely to give matter of fact explanations and were able to identify the black doll as the most extreme racial negative way. but they accepted it and stated it with resignation.

Who was Kurt Lewin?

Kurt Lewin was a German psychologist, emigrated to the US to escape the Nazis (like other German Jewish Psychologists). He died quite young but he influenced a lot of social psychologists including Festinger.

What did Calkins grow an interest in?

Later in her career, she became more interested in philosophy.

Who was Leon Kamin?

Leon Kamin was an experimental psychologist at Princeton. He looked at Jensen and Burt. He looked at Burt's article and the results were too perfect. The method was also not described. He didn't mention the type of IQ, no case histories, not information on sex, when they were tested etc. There were a lot of missing pieces. He found that all of Burt's conclusions were based on adjusted assessments. Many of his conclusions and correlations were identical to the third decimal point. Even as the sample size increased from 20 to 53, the results were still identical. He concluded that Burt's conclusions were rigged.

What area of Galton's research was continued following his death?

Long after Galton, people were looking at the nature nurture issue and twin studies.

Who was Malthus?

Malthus proposed by observing the human population that that life is a struggle for too many organisms to get too few resources - it is a competition; there are more members than resources. There is a struggle for survival.

Who was Mamie Clark? What did she study?

Mamie Clarks masters thesis research at Howard was the first set of studies called the doll studies that were subsequently cited in a brief of the supreme court in 1954 on behalf of the national association of the advancement of coloured people. Their case was to argue the unconstitutionality of the segregation of pubic schools by race. Until 1954 it was legal to segregate public schools by race. Mamie Clark in her masters thesis was interested how/when young children become aware of their race. Subsequently, and related to that, they looked at how children develop racial preferences and an awareness of how different races are regarded differently. The method of the doll study was that Mamie Clark showed children, aged 3-7, four dolls that were identical except for skin and hair colour. By the time the child is 3, they have an awareness of race

Who was Marie Jahoda?

Marie Jahoda (1907-2001) was trained in Vienna in the late 20s early 30s. Before she got her PhD, she did a very famous study that was published in a book called "Marienthal: A Sociography of an Unemployed Community" This was published in 1933. This was about an entire community (not the individual)

What was Mary Cover Jones view of behaviourism?

Mary Cover Jones didnt agree with behaviourism. She explained that letting go of introspection is like throwing the baby out with the bathwater - it may have some problems but it is still an important method. Not everyone hops on the behaviourist bandwagon.

Who was Mary Whiton Calkins?

Mary Whiton Calkins - one of the first women to practice psychology. She was part of the APA and faced a lot of discrimination. She was born in Connecticut in 1863 and grew up in Buffalo. Mary Whiton Calkins was a student of William James. She studied with him as he was writing the principles of psychology. She was influenced by his thinking. Calkins (1863-1930) was educated at Smith collage in Massachusetts (women's college) Women's undergraduate colleges at the time were not attach to any research institutions - women went, were trained, they were not expected to go on and do academic work. sometimes they went on to be teachers. Calkins was trained at Smith and she then got a job at another women's college.

What is Materialism?

Materialism is the view that everything that exists could be broken down into physical matter (opposite of metaphysical which allows there to be a whole realm of things that cannot be broken down into physical matter) For example, the mind exits and can be broken down into ints physical matter. Pavlov believed this and that the mind could be studied through brain processes.

How did Milgram defend his study?

Milgram defends his study by saying his debriefing was thorough and archival evidence suggests otherwise

Why did Milgram do his study? What did he want to show?

Milgram did this study to show that ordinary poeple will obey orders that are clearly harming others. he connected this with events of the holocaust. he did a lot of variations of this study.

Why was Milgram's study controversial?

Milgram's study was very controversial. Did the end justify the means? people thought that it was very unethical: 1. Was the use of deception justified - was the upset that it caused worth the results - a lot of the subjects, when they were debriefed, said that they were upset. they learned something about themselves 2. could this have been done in a lot of ways Milgram said that he debriefed his subjects and that he didnt return anyone to the community without having them know that what they did was normal and they sontributed a lot to research etc. subsequent archival research shows that since he was doing this in a small community, he didn't debrief the subjects right away. He did this in Newhaven Connecticut. If they were debriefed right away, he wouldn't have been able to obtain naive participants. There were also doubts of the importance of the study - if the finding were important then maybe it was ok. But these findings aren't unanimously agreed that it can explain the holocaust. Was what people were doing the same as what was happening in the holocaust? is it generalizable? some people say that it wasn't. you cant use the Milgram experiment to explain killing millions of jews - the subjects knew they were in a psychology experiment. Some of the transcripts and the debriefing, a number of people (ones that didnt go all the way to the end of the shock machine) said well, we knew that it was just a psychology experiment so we actually doubted if we were actually inflicting harm - we kinda knew we were set up

Why is Moynihan criticized?

Moynihan is called up and the Moynihan is criticized as blaming the victim - black people for their problems. Both Moynihan and to some extent clark are saying that black people aren't doing well because they are fundamentally tangled in pathology (black people were not doing well because of their pathology ) - their family structures are bad, they don't know how to get out of their situation. the Moynihan report was accused of stereotyping black families and black men. It was criticized by using the standards of the white middle class to judge blacks (clark was caused of that too). Clark was associated with this position too.

What is negative Eugenics?

Negative Eugenics is sterilizing the dumb.

What is Normal and subnormal?

Normal and subnormal kids would both be able to pass a test, but normal children could do it younger.

What was the point of the watchmaker analogy?

Nothing as perfect as the world couldn't have happened accidentally. there must have been a purpose.

What is the argument of design?

One argument for G-d being the creator was the argument of design. some things are just so perfect that they just must be created by god. There had been a rival theory of evolutions (promoted by Darwin's grandfather) but Darwin's theory had a scientific basis. The People looked at the human eye and saw that it was so complicated and perfect and the function is so impressive that it couldn't have happened by accident. there must have been someone/something that made it. The argument of design was supportive for this view. This was a very compelling way to see the world.

What is a critique with evolutionary psychology?

One can critique evolutionary psychology because there are a lot of assumptions of the past that are post hoc explained. Evolutionary psychologists try to circumvent those problems in certain ways.

What is a controversial part of the book?

One of the controversial things that they write is that children should not be coddled and they should be treated like adults. there should be strict ruled.

How does evolutionary psychology relate to comparative psychology?

One of the first implications is that because evolutionary theory embraced the idea that human beings were a part of nature and descended and evolved from primates. There was an idea that humans were part of the natural order and the continuum of animals. we could also study animals and gain insights of human behaviour. There is a branch of psychology called animal behaviour/comparative psychology - alludes to the fact that you can compare animals and humans from an evolutionary framework.

Who was Joseph White?

One of the founders of black psychology was Joseph White (1932-2017) He wrote an article called toward a black psychology that appeared in Ebony Magazine in 1970. In this article, Joseph White write that "Psychology has a history of pressing marginalizing and ignoring black people". Even liberal minded white psychologists have been blind to their own internalism and status, conducting studies that ignore the black experience..." He and others begin to articulate what it is that a black psychology would look like. The journal of black psychology was established in 1974.

Who was Floyd Allport?

One of the founders of contemporary social psychology was a man names Floyd Allport. Part of the reason he is a founder of social psychology was because he had a vision as to what social psychology should be. It was very influenced by the emphasis of experimentation and the need that psychology should be an experimental science. he was influenced by the behavioural/behaviourist perspective with watson.

What was "counter evidence" to the notion that G-d created the world?

One of the ideas was that if there was a divine creator that created the earth in this natural state, then nature shouldn't be changing all the time. if it were perfect, why would it need to change.

What innovation did Terman make?

One of the innovations that he did was he took the intelligence quotient and suggested that it be multiplied by 100 to get rid of intelligence. IQ of 100 is average. Below 100 is below average and above 100 is above average. He thought that if kids were super smart they would probably be super smart adults. He started studying many smart people from history and wanted to come up with their IQ - this didn't have a lot of evidence.

What was a problem with the theory of evolution?

One of the problems was that they couldn't figure out what the mechanism of evolution could be? How would something get transmitted from one generation to the next? How would the process occur? There is no proposal in Lamarck's theory

fact:

One of the tasks of black psychology - almost a direct response of the notion of the pathology. He said that we need to recognize the strengths of whites and not compare. it looks at communalism rather than individualism. Focus on the basic tenets and The aim of black psychology was to theorize the black experience on its own term. In the meantime, Clark becomes President of the APA in 1970. He does not identify with a lot of the younger more radical black psychologists. he believed that they are going too far in rejecting things. Purely for political reasons and not looking at the value for some of it.

What is the the world's columbian exposition in Chicago?

One of the ways that psychologists inserted themselves in the public mind was through thier participation in 1893 in the world's columbian exposition in Chicago - a large fair that coincided with the anniversary of the arrival of columbus in the new world. They were celebrating his 400th anniversary of his arrival (this is 1 year off though - it was a big fair and they were 1 year late). It was held in Chicago. There was a series of international congresses that preceded the fair that were conceived of as a summary university. they could come and take courses in a variety of areas and fields.

Who was Jean Baptise Lamarck?

One of those people that had a theory of evolution was Jean Baptise Lamarck (1744-1829).

What did his questionnaire determine?

One question was "what factors got you interested in science". He got back 104 responses and the majority of them said that "they always loved science". So, if it was an always answer, Galton concluded that it was genetic.

Overtime, Goddard changed his views. What did he say?

Overtime, Goddard changed his views and give the environment a bigger role. He recognized the importance of the environment in improving intelligence levels.

What argument did people make on her behalf? What happened in the end?

Part of the argument that was made was that she was different because she is already a professor. A special case was made and she was able to study with James as a guest to the university. She wasnt allowed to formally enrol.

Why was Pavlov so influential?

Part of the reason it was influential was because he thought psychology was too metaphysical and he wanted a mechanistic and materialistic theory between the relationship between the mind and the body (he was not a psychologist)

Who was Paul Ekman?

Paul Ekman validated Darwin's view of emotional universal/cross cultural emotions (anger, fear) but there are certain aspects which are culturally specific.

What did Paula Fass say?

Paula Fass - "Mental testing is important in the United States because it crystallized the interests and needs of a whole culture. It provided Americans with a powerful organizing principle, a way of ordering perceptions, and a means of solving pressing institutional and social problems." This quote connects back to social constructionism and technologies of the self and how science it related to personal interests.

What school of thought is associated with Pavlov?

Pavlov became very famous and created the school of behaviourism. Pavlov insisted that he wasn't a psychologist but a physiologist. He did not deal with mentalistic orientation. Turning it from a science of consciousness to a science of behavior. It had a strong influence on a lot of Americans Including John Watson.

Who was Pavlov?

Pavlov considered himself a scientific physiologist and didn't like being called a psychologist. At the time, a lot of psychology was introspective psychology which Pavlov was not fond of. Pavlov was born in Russia in 1849. His parents were peasants. He sped a lot of time writing and systematically reporting. He was poor but gifted. He won a scholarship to university where he became interested in physiology. He was influential after his work was translated into English

What did Pavlov study? What did this become known as?

Pavlov studies salivation. He learned that putting a small amount of acid created a lot of saliva. He noticed that they would salivate even before they received the acid. He spoke about conditioned reflexes. He named then the Unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, the conditioned reflex, the conditioned response. This is called classical conditioning/Pavlovian conditioning.

What is Shaping?

Pavlov was confident in the notion of shaping - he said that you can take any complex human behaviour and break down anything into simple components and build it us (go from a simple behaviour and withhold reinforcement until they do the next step). He thought that this could be applied to dance and even language. he trained animals to do things that we didnt think that animals could do -the private experiences of the "world within the skin" are not fundamentally different from the publicly observable experiences of the organism and have no special or unique status with respect to 'causing' behavior

What did Pavlov work with?

Pavlov worked with dogs. He put this saliva measurer in their mouths and measured the amount of saliva. Pavlov worked with classical conditioning.

What did people say about the book? Why is this oversimplified?

People extrapolated from that kind of child rearing philosophy that they must have committed suicide by being raised by a behaviourist - but, their mother died young and their father was emotionally unavailable because of the death. it is an oversimplified story to say that the children were unhappy because of behaviourism, but that is what people say.

Did Darwin believe in Lamarck's theory?

People like Darwin believed in Lamarck's Theory.

What was so crazy about the theory of evolution?

People organize their lives based on Religion.

What is performance according to spearman?

Performance on any particular task in a mix of the G factor as well as the S factor. Certain tasks (like abstract reasoning) needed a lot of G but not a lot of S, Rote memorization needed more S than G.

What is Polygenesis?

Polygenesis races were descendants of different ancestors.

True or False: Psychologists were part of the world's columbian exposition in Chicago.

Psychologists did not have it together to mount their own congress - they were still institutionalizing. they participated in the congress of education and presented some of their work on mental tests and measurements. Psychologists attached to some of the teachers and presented some of their work on mental tests and measurement.

Fact:

Psychologists were called upon to defend the hereditarian assumptions underlying the IQ there was not whole sale despite the use of these data to support things like restricted immigration. Not everyone trusted the psychologist, and they certainly didn't trust the unquestioned hereditarian assumptions that underlie these kinds of interpretations.

What was the view of psychology as a science?

Psychology needs to be a science like a physical science. It needs to rest on the foundation of experiment and measurement. We could get there by applying mental tests and measurement to large numbers of individuals. This can be used to establish psychologies similarity to physical sciences (requires exact measurement).

What was psychology of individual differences?

Psychology of individual differences focuses on the measurement and study of differences between individuals on a psychological characteristic, rather than general qualities of that characteristic.

There is a notion that skinner is a radical behaviourist. What does this mean?

Radical behaviourism is in distinction from methodological behaviourism Radical behaviourism - It is called radical because he questioned the nature of consciousness. He believed consciousness existed but it was not more important in explaining human behaviour than anything that happens externally in out environment. We cannot use consciousness as an explanatory process.

Fact:

Recent developments, emotions, sociobiology and evolutionary psychology.

Who was Reginald Jones?

Reginald Jones (1931-2005) was another founder of the association of black psychologists. He wrote a book called Black Psychology in 1972. "I was part of a radical front of psychologists who were attacking the institutional structures of psychology. That's where I was. There were lots of people who wanted to hear what black people had to say. It was a very busy time. Now, the advantage that I had, in a sense, was that I did not have to develop my career in this climate because my career was in pretty good shape before. So, I had more time to devote to these matters. I didn't have to prove that, I was quote, "worthy" to be in the academy because I was a full professor, at the time that a lot of this was developing, andI actually contributed to its development. That probably was shocking to a number of people, because I was the president of the Black psychologists, and I was a fellow of the American Psychological Association. Well, probably, at that time, I doubt if there were more than three African Americans who were fellows of the American Psychological Association."

According to skinner, what is more effective, reinforcement or punishment?

Reinforcement

What is Respondent condition?

Respondent condition has already been articulated by Pavlov - classical conditioning (Skinner calls it respondent conditioning because here you are working with a behaviour elicited by a stimulus) Respondent condition is what skinner calls Pavlov's classical conditioning. It creates completely new connections between stimuli and responses.

How do you study animal intelligence?

Romanes devised a method called the anecdotal method to try to understand animal intelligence. he would provide descriptions of animal behaviour from different sources. He then sorted through all of the descriptions of animal behaviour and made inferences of the functioning of the animal mind. Make inferences from behavior to the mind of what is its rational and emotional capacity etc. He doesnt have direct access to the animal mind because there is no language - so he had to use behaviour and make inferences to consciousness (emotions and rationality are words that we associate with humans).

What does evolution have to do with psychology?

Rutherford argues that evolution influences a lot of areas of studies and there were social implication involved. The implications of the theory of evolution for psychology: Psychology was in the air at the same time as evolution was being debated and communicated.

Why didn't teachers get payed to lecture?

Science wasn't a well-respected field at the time so they didn't get payed to lecture.

What were the results of the MISTRA?

Segal wrote a book about the results. Her book indicated that a number of heritability correlation reached the low 80s (very strong heritability), her conclusions about the intelligence tests are that 70% in genetic for middle class. Not lower class because they don't develop as well. As well, intelligence cannot be enhanced with educational or remedial interventions. Nature contributes more than nurture.

What was Jahoda's study?

She and some of her colleagues were interested in understanding the effects of almost total unemployment in Marienthal (just north of Vienna). There was an incredible economic depression. The (early) 1930s were difficult economically. Jahoda wanted to look at communities that experienced total unemployment. This community was dependent on a textile factory for its major source of employment. Almost everyone worked in this factory, and if they didnt, they worked in an industry that was supported by it. She was a social democratic in Austria. The social democratic party was the socialist party. they were committed to socialism. they had a hypothesis of what total unemployment would do to the community, but they were interested in exploring Their hypothesis was that total unemployment would cause the rise of revolutionary consciousness in the members of the community.

What study did Mary cover jones do?

She did another famous study called the little peter study. The little peter study is actually the followup that watson and Rayner never did with little albert. She took a young infant who was housed in an orphanage where she was doing her research and she wanted to take an existing fear of a white rat and she wanted to decondition the fear using deconditioning principles

Where did Calkins want to study? What was a problem with this?

She felt that Harvard would be the best place for her to get educated in this new experimental path of psychology. James was there, but women were not allowed at Harvard. People Lobbied on her behalf.

What was Calkins' area of study?

She had studied Greek at Smith. She was hired at Wellesley to teach Greek. at the time,

What did Calkins come up with?

She originated the paired associated technique - she would show a colour and a number and after a while of being paired, she would show the colour and ask for the number. Vivid colours were easier to remember than neutral colours.

What does phillips say about afrocentric scholars?

She outlines the principles of afrocentric scholars. She says that "Afrocentric scholars must apply their scientific findings to the betterment of society before the scientific process can be considered complete" This was part of Clarks being - of course those were his beliefs - he is an Afrocentric scholar Afrocentric scholars redefine scientific objectivity by outlining their own assumptions, biases, and objectives - esp. as they pertain to categories such as race, gender, and class The definition of science and what makes something scientific is objectivity.

What came out of Darwin's looking at function?

Since Darwin's theories focused on function, there was a new branch of psychology that looked at the function of behavior. Individual differences between people also became important because of adaptation and survival.

Since Galton and Binet, what have the idea of intelligence testing been used for?

Since Galton and Binet, the idea of intelligence testing has been connected to Eugenics, genetics and the nature-nurture debate.

How did skinner study conditioning?

Skinner created a controlled and properly behavioristic method for studying a range of learned responses.

What is programmed instruction?

Skinner developed programmed instruction. Here, complicated subjects, like math, are broken down into simple stepwise components that can be introduced to children incrementally. Programmed instruction was taught to thousands of students in the US through a machine

With what was skinner interested? What did he hypothesize?

Skinner started to become concerned about the practical applications and philosophical implications of classical conditioning. He hypothesized that complex behaviors could be thought of as chains of simple behaviours. He tried to work on building up complicated sequences using a process called shaping. The first step was to find a reinforcer (something that influences the animal without interfering with regular behavior). Skinner would use secondary reinforcers to build complicated chains of responses. Skinner thought that you could shape human behavior.

What other book did skinner write?

Skinner wrote a book called beyond freedom and Dignity. there was a large negative reaction to the book. Skinner's book was so controversial and Skinner was at the cover of Time magazine with the heading "We can't afford freedom"

What did Skinner think about freewill?

Skinner, conversely, thought that all of our behaviours (including language) are determined by the environment-reinforcement and punishment - he had a very deterministic world view, almost an extremest deterministic view. Skinner believed that when we explain behaviour through freewill, it is prescientific and it is detrimental to essentially saving the world.

What was Darwin's solution?

So Darwin had the idea for both of them to meet at the royal society and show their work at the same time.

What is Social Conformity?

Social Conformity is a concept studied by Asch, Milgram, and other social psychologists to explain how individuals feel pressured to conform to the ideas and opinions of other group members.

Who supported social darwinism?

Social Darwinism developed after Darwin's death. This was supported by Herbert Spencer

What is social darwinism?

Social darwinism and Eugenics: another part of darwins thinking when he formaulated the thoery of evolution of natural selection was the idea that there had to be survival of the fittest - competition - too many organisms for the amount of resources. Only the organisms that had the most adaptive characteristics will survive and reproduce. This is a position called social darwinism. It is the natural order of things that only the fittest should survive. Any intervention, like welfare or rehabilitation services interrupted that natural order and unfit individuals could include racism.

Fact:

Some ideas were adopted by the Nazis.

What was the question of the ecological validity of the experiment?

Some of the participants who have since spoken out about their participation in the milligram experiment explain that it caused them significant distress to the point of them having health problems.

Some people did not agree with the intelligence tests. What did they do? What was the name of one of the spearheaders?

Some of the people who did not agree and launched a counter scientific attack were psychologists like George Sanchez who was a mexican descent. He published results and said that intelligence tests were not culturally appropriate for use with Chicano children and he argued that those children don't share the same language proficiency nor the same cultural experiences as the children on whom the tests were standardized. The other group of scientists that launched a counterattack were African American psychologists. They published a lot of studies. Some of the scientists who studied intelligence in African American communities Howard Hale Long argued that educational disparities, inequalities in resources came into play of tests. he directly observed the inequalities. he was the superintendent of schools in Washington DC other African American psychologists argued that the testing situation in which a white tester tests a black child creates a situation where black children don't do as well. The race of the tester matters.

What was the other view of social psychology?

Some people thought that the study of social psychology should be the study of groups and how people's behaviour is changed when in the presence of other people.

What tests did Binet use?

Some tests measured reaction time and sensory discrimination (like Galton).

What was special about Wellesley?

Some womens colleges hired men as professors and women, but some only hired women. She was hired at Wellesley College, also in Massachusetts.

What were differences in mental imagery tests?

Some would have very in depth and other would not. He would also say a word and ask them to say the first thing that came to mind.

What is general intelligence? What did spearman call this?

Spearman theorized that all intelligence tasks have a common factor which he called general intelligence. Each individual type of item required a specific ability called the S (specific) factor. Spearman thought of the G (general) capacity to overall mental energy/power needed for different task. He called his theory the 2-factor theory of intelligence.

What would Spencer say about societal evolution?

Spencer would say that this societal evolution results in progress and we should let that progress happen naturally. Any government intervention would be bad because it stops the natural process and natural evolution of society.

Who was Stanley Milgram?

Stanley Milgram (1933-1984)—An experimental social psychologist best known for his studies on conformity and obedience in the 1960s in which subjects were ordered to deliver shocks to a confederate to test their willingness to obey the orders of an authority figure.

What happened to Terman's subjects?

Statistically, these kids did very well. They attained high education, more money, healthier and happiner than the average. However, high IQ did not guarantee success. Some failed to lead successful lives and there were few in the creative arts as opposed to the professions. There were no noble prize winners. Catharine Cox worked with him on this.

What is IQ?

Stern decided to take that ratio rather than the absolute number (divide mental age by chronological age) - this was called the intelligence quotient (IQ).

What did Terman do to IQ tests?

Terman made IQ test very popular and led to a vast industry of IQ testing. They are useful for kids, less useful for adults. It made sense to use the ratio (mental over chronological) with kids, not adults.

What was Festinger and Carlsmith's study?

The $1 v.s. $20 study. They did a very boring task and were told to tell the next people that is was really fun. 1 group of subjects were given $1 to lie and the other group was given $20 for the same lie. The liars were then asked how much they enjoyed the task and how interesting it was. The group that was given $1 said that it was more fun than the $20 group- they weren't payed off enough for their lie and had to convince themselves that it was fun so they didn't feel bad.

What is the APA divided into?

The American psychological associated divides itself into divisions that are devoted to different areas of psychology. There are 54 divisions of the APA devoted to everything from the history of psychology to theoretical psychology to developmental psychopathology, psychology and the media etc. There are different things that you could investigate by means of the APA.

What does Phillips article talk about?

The Article by Phillips (2000) attempts to grapple with some of the controversies around Clark. She also attempts to grapple with some of the criticisms of the doll test - it was criticized for beignet methodologically not rigorous he drew conclusions from them that were not warranted. He was bias. They criticized the methodology - the questions asked were always in the same order - no counterbalancing.

What was the The Banality of Evil?

The Banality of Evil by Hannah Arendt- the idea is that everyday people could be somehow easily convinced to do horrendous things if they are asked in certain ways under certain contexts.

What is the CPA? How is tit organized?

The CPA (Canadian psychological association) is organized similarly. It has sections. There are less than 54, but there is still a lot. Each of those sections has a history.

Who was Carl Lang?

The Danish psychologists, Carl Lang, also came up with a similar emotion explanation. Tis has been called the James-Lang theory of emotions. This is how James got out of his depression - by thinking he was cheerful, he became that way.

What was the Eichman Trial?

The Eichmann trial a Nazi that accepted to kill thousands of jews. He got up and said that he was just following orders. How do you understand how it is that seemingly ordinary people could be easily convinced to do awful things. Psychologists were really interested in this.

What is the Galapagos Islands? What did Darwin learn there?

The Galapagos islands was a series of islands that were separated from each other. Here, the ocean currents were very strong so animals couldn't go from 1 island to another. On each island, there were animals that closely resembled each other but not identically. The creatures on each island had distinct features. Amongst the different animals, there were finches and they differed only in the shape and size of their beaks. On some islands the beaks were long and pointed and on others they were short and powerful. The long pointy ones were ideal for digging out insects and the short powerful ones were ideal for cracking nuts and seeds. Darwin thought about this and said that it was adaptive - survival of the fittest - maybe there were more insects on one island and more nuts on the other island.

Who was the Kalikak family?

The Kalikak family was a family where the father had children with a lower class women during wartime and also got married to a respectable women and then had children - he had 2 lines - one line was "fit" and the other line was "not fit"

To what school did Goddard bring intelligence testing? What did he find?

The Vineland Training school in NJ was the school for the feeble minded (developmentally delayed). he was interested in the Binet test. Goddard tried out the test and Vineland and the scores confirmed the differences among the students that he had already observed. He was convinced of the value of Binet's test.

What is an example of mental orthopaedics?

The ability to concentrate was tested - the older the child gets the more they could concentrate. he thought that this could be improved with games (for example statue) and thought that it could help kids concentrate.

Who developed the bell curve? What is the result of a bell curve?

The bell curve was developed by Adolphe Quetelet. This results in a normal distribution.

What did the Biblical view lead to?

The biblical view led to the argument of design - articulated by philosopher named William Paley-

What did Darwin say about races?

The book also touched on concepts of race and gender - this led to a lot of controversy. Some differences between whites and other races also have an evolutionary basis. Western Europeans where smarter, better adaptive and more capable because they had to survive bad weather and stay warm for example and not die. However, life is pretty hard in non-western, non-cold climates.

What was Darwin's classic example?

The classic example from Darwin's Voyage on the beagle was the fitches - their beaks had different forms that correspond to the types of food available on the island - even within that species, their beaks were different and their beaks had adaptive value - there was adaptive value in the variation.

What is the classic example of Lamarckian evolution?

The classic example of Lamarckian evolutionary theory is the Giraffe - How did the giraffe get a long neck? It was proposed that the ones that could reach their neck to get the higher leaves would pass their genes on. Such things could be inherited in a lifetime. This is also importantly voluntary use - rather than changes in organs that are not used for anything.

According to Darwin, what is the difference between humans and animals?

The difference between the human and animal mind is a difference in degree and not kind.

What happens at the end of Watson's life?

The end of Watson's life is a little more tragic. Rosalie Rayner does very young. he sends his 2 sons to boarding school because he is so upset about his wife's death and he becomes a wreck. He was always interested in animals, buys a farm, moves out of the city and doesnt have a happy ending. His son that becomes a psychoanalyst ended up committing suicide. His other son, the organizational psychologist, was interviewed later in life about his relationship with his father and it was accepted that the unhappiness that Watson's children experienced were a direct result of his child rearing philosophy that was influenced by a strict behaviourist notion.

What were changes of Weschler's test?

The first change was that it wasn't the same mathematical quotient. They used deviation IQs. If you were perfectly average it was 100 but then the score was how many standard deviation (SD) above or below the mean. The SD was arbitrarily chosen to 15. He divided the test into verbal (vocab, abstract similarities) and performance sections (inspired to assess illiterate soldiers - assembling blocks into designs, detecting missing elements from pictures identifying images or shapes). He noted that certain brain injuries affected some subtests over others.

Who created the first successful intelligence test?

The first successful intelligence test was developed Alfred Binet.

What is Eugenics? What was the point of Eugenics?

The idea of Eugenics is a way of improving the human race through selective breeding. Originally, it was an idea of promoting good genes. Galton thought that eugenics could be a way of encouraging the people with the best traits to get together and mate. Part of this was the need to test for intelligence. Psychologists are involved, as are many other scientists, in both kinds of eugenics.

Why didnt Binet like his intelligence tests?

The idea of having a number sat uncomfortably with Binet. He was asked to devise a test that can be used for a practical purpose. and in that, he succeeded. he believed that intelligence was also malleable and multifaceted - especially with children, the performance of tests could improve.

To what is social darwinism applied?

The idea of social Darwinism applies not just to individual organisms but to political systems and entire societies which evolved to create the best functioning society/system. Our society evolved from simple tribes to great cities.

What is sociobiology?

The idea of trying to understand social behavioral straits has become known as sociobiology.

What did Darwin do following the Linnaean Society meeting?

The idea was out but the scientific backup was not done yet. Now that the secret was out, he spent 1 year writing his first major book.

What did Pavlov reject?

The importance of understanding Pavlov in the context of moving towards behaviourism is that pavlov rejected the mind as the cause of behaviour and proposed that it was factors in the environment and external stimuli that are the cause of behaviour. He focused a lot on reflexes - both conditioned and unconditioned.

What is the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared apart (MISTRA)?

The largest and most important post Burt separated twin study is called the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared apart (MISTRA). Over 20 years, they studied 81 and 56 fraternal twin pairs raised apart. Not all of the case studies have yet been published.

What did Kamin determine?

The less the separation, the more similar the intelligence and characteristics - therefore, environment is important. He concluded that heritability was irrelevant. He was taken as an extremist.

What were limitations of the intelligence test?

The limitations were that: (1) They were only useful on the very young, (2) It was measuring black and white, not the greys

What did the little albert study show?

The little Albert study showed the power of the environment - you can change the environment to change/influence behavior. He thought that there were only 3 emotions that existed prior to any experience with the world - fear, rage and love.

What is a problem with this idea?

The logical problem with this this that families share a lot in common, not only genes, but environments too. Galton didn't take environment into consideration.

What was James struggle?

The main struggle for James didnt centre around the issue of exactly what could or couldn't be studied in psychology (although he struggled wth that too), he struggled with whether or not the determinism (that was inherit in the scientific world view) was really appropriate for psychology. His struggle was, as a science, could psychologists come up with theories that embraced determinism (we could isolate and understand the typed of things that will determine behaviour. he believed heavily in freewill - he didnt think that human behavior isnt completely determined and we cannot completely explain why and how a people do what they do or think what they think. James had a strong attachment to the notion that as a person, he had freewill.

What is the difference between mechanism and materialism?

The mechanistic view is a more simplified, we do not explain behaviour with reference to a person's will, and we do not explain behaviour with reference to a feeling of purpose - that isnt scientific. Something scientific is explaining the actual interactions among physical entities that cause certain kinds of behaviour. Pavlov embraced both of these views

What was the reasoning for the original view of the creation of the world?

The natural world was so complicated and wonderful that it needed a divine creator.

What was the non-scientific approach?

The non-scientific approach was created by Jean-Baptise Lamarck - the giraffe would stretch its neck for many generations and then the giraffes would eventually be born with long necks after years of stretching.

What did Alfred Russel Wallace and Darwin add to Lamarck?

The process.

What was the response from black communities to Moynihan? What was Clark's response?

The response from many black communities was that black identity, black strength, black resilience, black power is the antidote to all of this racism. What we need to do is organize together and use black power to dismantle racism. This was violent Clark was opposed to this. He accuses the black power movement of being too extreme with the implication that they have rejected all of the things associated with whiteness and those are values that Clark thinks are good. The extreme position is that you are denigrating yourself by rejecting everything that white society brings simply because they are associated with the white society.

What happened at the Linnaean society?

The response was underwhelming.

What happened with racism in terms of intelligence tests?

The rise and somewhat of a fall of scientific racism; that tradition of psychology continues - in the work of Arthur Jensin, A.P Brushman - they continued to insist that they had scientific racial differences in intelligence that were due to heredity and therefore there is nothing to do about it. The history of psychology's involvement in scientific racism continues , pretty much until the present day

When did the ship leave?

The ship left in December of 1831 in bad weather and Darwin was sea sick.

What was the belief about people who lived in the north vs. the south?

The social belief was that people who live in the north are superior to those that lived near the equator - the thinking there was that if you live by the cold, you need to be more ingenious to survive. that was the social believe that was backed up by science. Other people did jump on the bandwagon. the idea of a hierarchy of racism

What is the social science statement?

The social science statement - they submitted it to the supreme court. it was the first time that psychological research was used as evidence in a supreme court decision. When they looked at the kids in the segregated vs. desegregated schools.

What construct is intelligence testing related to? Explain.

The story of intelligence testing cannot be told as a story of scientific development divorced of social constructs. At all stages of the enterprise, psychologists were responding to a need of a society that was faced with certain challenges. At all stages, psychologists were heavily informed by extant social beliefs and ideologies about differences between races that were not originally scientifically supported, but, nonetheless colored by the way the tests were conducted, arranged and interpreted. This is a good example in which psychology (and science in general) cannot be viewed as divorced from its social context; it is influenced in multiple and organic ways by the context that it is being produced.

What was Galton interested in studying?

The study became known as the study of individual differences.

What was the Milgram study?

The subject would administer shocks to the confederate (learner) Showed that a surprising number of people were persuaded to shock the learner even when they were given feedback that the shocks were intensely hurting the other person. The subject was brought into the situation and as experimenter in the white coat would explain the nature of the study. The confederate was always the learner. The learner would go behind a wall and every time the learning would make a mistake, the teacher (subject) would administer a shock. The lab coat guy would say, you must go on when the learner would say that the shock hurt

What is the teaching machine?

The teaching machine - a technique called program instruction that you would put into teaching machines. Skinner thought that the way that we structure education is fundamentally flawed:

When was Darwin coming up with his theory?

The theory of evolution thought natural selection (the mechanism that Darwin proposed through which evolution occurs across generations) was actually discovered/created/developed/formulated at the save time as Wallace - they had the same idea based on different observations.

What is a problem with strict objectivity?

The very nature of being a scientist is that you bring your own interests - we don't do science in a vacuum. Part of doing science is to define objectivity as the elucidation/clarification of one's assumptions, biases and objectives especially around things like race, gender and class.

What were Woodworth and Thorndykes work important to?

Their work helped to undermine the doctrine of formal disciple in education in favour of more task oriented educational practices. His later research was of humans rather than animals.

What are some questions about evolution?

There are questions about evolutions, is it slow and stable or are there peaks and valleys.

What is another way of studying social psychology?

There are social psychologists today that really want to study real world situations - they go out and do that work.

What does it mean that the world was perfect?

There was a belief that the world was created perfectly from the get go, the world and nature was fixed, there weren't changes, and that human beings were at the top of the hierarchy.

Who was James Baldwin?

There was a psychologist working at Johns Hopkins at this time named James Baldwin. He worked at Johns Hopkins and offered Watson a full professorship - they were trying to build up their psychology offerings and their graduate trainings. This was pretty exciting to Watson.

What is complementarity of the sexes?

There was a theory called complementarity of the sexes. Men and women developed complementary psychological characteristics that worked well together. This included the superiority of male intellect over female intellect.

What were discrepancies?

There was also discrepancies in the age of the world and what the bible says (the bible makes the world seem younger - 6 thousand years old) but technologies (geologists and archeologists) show that it is older.

What is group fallacy?

There was maybe something that happened in groups that was different from what happens in individuals. There was an idea that groups generate their own kind of psychology that is different from the individual's psychology. he called this the Group fallacy. He was against this notion. he didn't think that the group had a mind. He thought that this was a mistake. Group Fallacy—Floyd Allport's term for the notion, which he believed to be mistaken, that groups or crowds can constitute superordinate entities, or "group minds," which are more than the combined reactions of their individual members.

There were 2 types of intelligence tests for the army. What were they?

There were 2 types of test, one for literate and others for illiterate.

What were scientific discoveries at the time that supported Darwin?

There were also some scientific discoveries that supported Darwin's theory (fossils). What does this have to do with psychology. Darwin ignored the implications for humans in his original book. Darwin recognized that his theory would have implications for humans but he didn't spend a lot of time on that.

What is antinepotism?

There were things called antinepotism rules that affected a lot of women that were trained in this period that had spouses that were also psychologists - they said that if you were married to a psychologist you couldn't be hired in the same place. So, when their husbands were hired, they would not be allowed to be hired in the same place She ended up being research assistant. She was given a faculty position outside of psychology, and finally toward the end of her career, when they dropped antinepotism, she actually got it.

What did the variation hypothesis and the complementarity hypothesis lead to?

These beliefs led to the justification of women being experts in the private domestic roles and men went out to do things. Darwin had a good relationship with other women even though at large he agreed to these theories. His relationships and gender attitudes were more complicated.

What is the variation hypothesis?

These beliefs were held quite widely in Victorian society. The male of the species was more variable in terms of all characteristics than the female - therefore, women cannot be genius and they are not capable of giftedness. This means that there are more men at the low end and high end. Darwin endorsed the variation hypothesis.

What are operant chambers?

These evironments/laboratories are called operant chambers. He took Pigeons and put them in boxes and the pigeon gets in there and when they peck a disk, they get food. depending on the schedule of reinforcement, you could get the pigeon to peck and precise rates. This was exciting to skinner because Skinner thought that this proved that behaviour was completely related to consequences. This idea could be extrapolated to human beings and explaining complex behaviour. operant chambers came to be known as skinner boxes (Skinner was not happy with that)

What types of tests did Binet use?

These included projective tests (like inkblots). He summarized these results in 1903 in the book the experimental study of intelligence.

What else did these results influence?

These results were used to influence restricted immigration laws. They also caused a great deal of public controversy. The results were also published in magazines.

What type of tests did Binet and Simon devise?

These tests go beyond the sensory tests of Galton. they tested memory, and imagery and imagination and concentration, and attention. There were a lot of other tests. before he worked with Simon, he worked with Victor Henri.

How did they administer these tests?

They deliver these test over a couple months to over 2 million people. Wexler adult intelligence scale is the test used today, and when psychologists administer these tests in Canada, they have to change the tests to make them more relevant - there is still a lot of culture involved. These tests were administered under awful conditions, the tests were highly culturally loaded and the results had some scientific reality of the people who took them.

What was the revised intelligence test?

They extended their pool of items, making a revised intelligence in 1908 and 1911. Each item was designated at the age at which normal children were able to pass it. Each item at the 6-year level have been passed by a minority of 5-year old's, half of 6-year old's and majority of older kids. The 1908 revision had 58 items - testing kids between 3 and 13. The 1911 had 5 question for each age between 5 and 15, plus 5 more for an adult category.

There was a study in the 1930s led by 3 Americans - Horatio Newman (biologist), Frank Freeman (psychologist), Karl Holzinger (statistician).

They found 19 separated twins. The correlation was 0.67. the environments were pretty similar however. This study was done very anecdotally - told lots of stories. Twins that grew up the most differently, were the most psychologically and physically different.

There were some rumours about skinner. what were they?

They said that he was raising his kids like rats in a cage. This was not true. His kids grew up to be pretty normal there were rumours that this child committed suicide because of the baby box. this is not true. Both children are alive and well. His children's names were Deborah and Julia.

How did Binet's test work?

They start off with tests that almost all people could do (follow a candle in a dark room). they then start to make the task more difficult (imagine the design that would be formed if a piece of paper would be folded in quarters and then a triangle would be cut and it was unfolded). they would then note children's progress in the test and the point at which the student could no longer do the test was noted. Each child was compared to the average child of the same age in the typically developing child group. Any child that fell 2 years or more behind their age peers was identified as needing help. That is the origin of the Binet test.

How did Binet come up with these tests?

They started off by examining kids that were already diagnosed as subnormal and Binet wanted to test them not only on school related skills. He didn't want to confuse lack of intelligence with lack of schooling. They were having trouble figuring out what exactly to test. He realized that they need to factor in the age of the subject when looking at normal and subnormal.

What did Binet do with Simon?

They try out a series of tests of kids that were already identified as developmentally delayed and those that aren't developmentally delayed - aged 2 to 12.

These kinds of scientific results were not unchallenged.

They were challenged within psychology by psychologists that were not of the same race as the people promoting these tests. It took the critical perspective of people who were not working within mainstream psychology to point out flaws of those tests

What was Jahoda influenced in?

They were really interested in class - they thought that the effect might be that people would develop revolutionary class consciousness - lets rise up and fight. They went into the community over the course of 6 months and lived there and they lived there and observed them. they counted all kinds of things and all sorts of data that reflected the social effects (and psychological effects). They looked at how people spend their leisure time, how people used the library, or didnt use the library, they looked at how people access medical services. They even intervened in some of these things when it was clear that some people weren't able o meet their basic needs. They got lots of data that reflected the social effects of total unemployment (and psychological effects) What they found was that the community did not develop revolutionary class consciousness. rather, they felt defeated. There was a lot of self-defeat. They also analyzed and were able to understand different sets of reactions that people have and different ways that people cope.

What were Darwin's 2 observations?

They were saying that based on 2 observations: 1. nature presents us with an incredible variety of form both within and between species 2. Many of these variations in form have specific value in different environments

Who was Luis Terman?

This became known as the Stanford binet intelligence scale. It basically adjusted the test to deal with American subjects. Terman was interested in using the test to study gifted children - he wanted to diagnose superintelligence (He spent a lot of time with Catharine Cox Miles studying the trajectory/life development of gifted children). He worked at Stanford university and created the Stanford revision of the Binet-Simon scale.

Where do we see that G-d is the creator?

This can be seen in Genesis - god created the world in 6 days and on the 7th day he rested.

Why has the little albert study been critiqued?

This has been critiqued because the researcher elicited a fear in a child (unethical to create a fear).

Fact:

This idea begins to be extended to the study of human beings - it is not consciousness that we need to study that psychologists should study, but how people behave. The ones studying animals were able to plant the seed that studying behavior might be a really fruitful way of studying human beings as well.

What type of tradition did Jahoda have?

This kind of tradition of collecting data in this way and being a participant observer and being problem focused was also a tradition that you could see in social psychology but it doesnt get as much airplay as the traditional experiments of social psychology. The rest of Jahoda's career was equally as problem focused. She did work on antisemitism, community mental health, and all of these things were guided by very practical problems As a result, when you look at her career, you don't see the say hypothesis testing - rather you see a series of studies of different practical problems - not just experiments. That tradition lives on in community based research and action research. There is still a branch of social psychology that still looks at this.

What did the Clark's say about the research?

This really distressed Kenneth and Mamie Clark. they didnt publish the results of their study until several years later. In explaining why they didn't, he said that the research was distressing - the children were identifying with dolls that they just described negatively. it was even harder to watch the southern children doing it and accepting it. The crying was a more healthy response than just accepting it.

What is uniformitarianism?

This theory said that all of the earths features resulted from gradual processes which occurred over a long period of time that occur over a steady pace.

What study did Terman do?

This was a longitudinal study (still going on today) called Terman's Termites. He was looking at children and their offspring. His question was do children that are gifted achieve greater success and higher levels of success. The results have been difficult to discern. He was also interested in using the test in the education system.

What is a problem with IQ?

This was more useful, but the problem is a black and white type of number and Binet thought that intelligence was more variable.

What did Darwin need in order to go on this trip?

This was not a payed position so Darwin needed money from his father. His father first declined but then when Darwin came with his uncle again, the father agreed.

Until when was G-d being the creator the primary idea?

This was the idea until the 18th century.

What did Malthus believe?

Thomas Malthus believed that human beings are doomed to live in poverty.

Where did Thorndyke go after Harvard?

Thorndyke left Harvard and went to Columbia, taking the chickens with him. He shifted his emphasis from chicken to cats and created 15 different puzzle boxes where they could only escape if they do a specific task (e.g. pulling a string). It started as trial and error, but eventually they learned faster.

How did Mamie study the affects of race?

To assess this, they child was chosen to a doll. The children were then asked to make different relations "Give me the doll that you like to play with/like best" "Give me the doll that is a nice doll" give me a doll that looks bad" Give me a doll that looks like a coloured child "give me the doll that looks like you" That was the basic set up They tested 250 black children, half of them attended segregated nursery public schools in the south and half attended racially desegregated (mixed) schools in the north east. They found that almost all the kids, by the time they were 7, were able to self-identify. In terms of racial preference, the majority of the black children indicated that the white the white doll was the one they wanted to play with, doll had the nice colour, the doll that was bad was the black doll. - by the time that kids reach a certain age, they clearly know their race, and they clearly indicate that being white is better.

What does the normal distribution cover? What did Galton think?

Today, we know that the normal distribution covers a lot of things, Galton just thought that it related to inherited abilities.

True or false: Evolution is important to psychology

True Dawinian Evolutionary thinking is important, especially for the development of psychology as it occurred in the USA.

True or false: behaviourism was not taken up outside of the US.

True It is very much a homegrown view of psychology. in terms of academic psychology, behaviourism is very much an americas phenomenon. It is not really a revolution, but it does become, within academic psychology, a different way of thinking about psychology.

True or false: Skinner was not interested in psychology.

True he was interested in English literature.

True or false: after watson left academia, he continued to informally teach.

True. Even though watson had to leave academia and go into advertising, he informally supervised Mary Cover Jones.

True or false: Galton's Eugenics was positive.

True. Galton's Eugenics was a positive Eugenics but later people developed a more negative eugenics and ultimately the Nazi view of eugenics.

True or false: The USA was not concerned with philosophy

True. Philosophy was not as prestigious in the USA- it didn't have the cultural prestige that it had in Germany. The new psychologists were coming in to the new university system in the united states; the idea of a graduate program where you would actually do research is just starting. Psychologists were competing with philosophers to claim a place in this new research institution.

True or false: William James and Wundt did not get like each other.

True. The way they saw psychology was very different.

Where did evolutionary psychology grow in importance?

Understanding evolutionary psychology is important for USA and England.

What is the different between uniformitarianism and catastrophism?

Uniformitarianism would have required a much longer period of time.

How did Pavlov learn about digestion?

Until there was a case where someone got shot and gave a window to the knowledge of what was going on inside. Pavlov tried to create openings in dogs. Others tried to do this and failed. Pavlov didn't like blood and he was a skillful surgeon. He wanted to make his lab as antiseptic as possible. Most of Pavlov's animals completely recovered from their operations.

What does phillips argue?

Using Clark's life and career, she argues that Clark is an exemplar of an afrocentric scholar - at a time where that language would not have ben used.

What was Wallace's idea?

Wallace came up with a similar idea.

What did Watson use the opportunity to promote?

Watson decided to use the opportunity to try and advance animal psychology - which had been deemed secondary. So he starts to push the notion of animal psychology, and he also uses the opportunity to point out that animal experimentation was much more objective than experimentation with human because it studied behaviour and not consciousness.

What is a problem with the ethics of the little albert study?

Watson did not follow up to make sure that Albert was okay.

What is Watson known for?

Watson is known for the little Albert study

What does Watson do for money after Academia?

Watson then goes into advertising. He worked for a prominent advertising agency J. Walter Thomson - Watson used his psychological theories with advertising - he paired an attractive women with a fancy car to sell cars. He did the same principles of association with tobacco. He becomes very successful in advertising.

True or false: After Balwin leaves, so does watson?

Watson then inherits from Baldwin the editorship of a major psychology journal - the psychological review.

What was Watson interested in? How was this different from Pavlov?

Watson was interested in behavior (rather than Pavlov's interest in the brain).

Why was Watson's work interrupted?

Watson went into the army in WWI; and so, his work was interrupted.

Why do we know more about Darwin than Wallace?

We know more about Darwin than Wallace (Wallace was a junior scholar).

So, what is intelligence?

We never really got to what intelligence is. in 1921, the journal of educational psychology asked 14 leading psychologist what they thought intelligence was. each of these psychologists gave 14 difference answers but they all said that intelligence must be what the test measures.

How did Calkins get into psychology?

Wellesley wanted someone to be able to teach this new experimental psychology. Because anyone who taught at women's colleges often had to teach a variety of things, they came to Calkins and asked her to teach it. She said yes

What does Darwin do when he gets Wallace's letter?

When Darwin reads this letter, he realizes that someone else could take the credit for a theory that darwin has been coming up with for years.

What did Darwin do when he got back to England?

When they returned to England, Darwin got married and had 10 kids. He then started to write about his journey.

What did Binet do while he was creating these tests?

While creating these tests, he continued to test his daughters. He tried out things on his kids, Madeline and Alice.

Who was William James?

William James was credited with being a founder/father of experimental/scientific psychology in the US. he was working at around the same time that Wundt was in Germany (1870, 1880 1890) he had a different take from Wundt on psychology as a science. James was a main psychologist in America. He was born in 1842 in NYC. His family was quite rich. His father studied theology but dropped out. His father was prone to anxiety attacks. The father heard of a man named Immanuel Swedenborg who was familiar with panic attacks and called then vastations. He had a lot of anxiety and panic attacks

What was the cure for atheism according to William Paley?

William Paley authored a book called natural theology (first published in 1802). in this book, he wrote that to study the structure of the eye was a cure for atheism - you cant look at the eye and believe that there is no G-d.

Who was William Stern?

William Stern was concerned that the difference between a child's chronological age and mental age increases over time. therefore, they might no longer be out of that 2-year okay mark. He also saw that kids that were above average also increased over time. Stern wanted to know what this happens. The idea of putting a mental age over a chronological age was developed by a German Psychologist named William Stern but that was later. The origin was in Binet's work though. Binet and Simon worked on this and revised the tests in 1908 and 1911, expand the age range etc

For what did Age-standardized items allow?

With age-standardized items, Binet and his colleague Simon, they were able to calculate a score/intellectual level for each child who took the test. The questions were always asked in increasing order on difficulty until the subject missed 5 in a row. The examiner took the highest year for which all answers has been successful answered for the base. They added 1/5 of a year for each question answered above the base.

Who was Carl Brigham?

Within a few years, Carl Brigham publicly states that the conclusions he draws were not substantiated by the data (wrote a study that there was a hierarchy of intelligence that was race based). others also retracted their views from this issue and pointed out that other scientific data were not as scientific as they would have liked.

What did Hall say about Women?

Women did not need the same extended education period because it would intrude on their childbearing years. He did however work individually with females and African American students (named Francis Sumner - received his PhD in 1920).

How did Wundt get around his question?

Wundt got around this question by saying that there were some basic types of mental processes that could be studied, like sensation and perception and attention. Although, when it came to higher mental processes, Wundt was a little more sceptical about whether experimental psychology could be used to study those.

Why did Wundt not agree with Cattell?

Wundt was not so concerned with rhetorically dividing psychology from philosophy. Although Wundt was the founder of experimental psychology, he wasnt so concerned with the politics. Philosophers are not generally concerned with immediate practical implications.

What is the Heir conditioner?

a crib for his daughter - also called the baby tender or air crib. some called it the baby box, but he didnt like that. Skinner made this thing that he described as a glass enclosed, humidity and temperature controlled crib. Once inside this box, the child would be shielded from sound too. In this box, you can set the temperature and humidity so that the only thing the child wears is the diaper. the floor of the crib was a canvas cloth on a spool. If the child had an accident, the crib would change that part of the linen. you only had to each the sheets once a week. Also, the child didn't have to be bathed as much. Skinner learnt that you could change the temperature to make the child sleep longer. Skinner wrote an article about this and put into practice environmental control. He tried to sell it. It was not a successful product.

Why were intelligence tests so wanted at this time?

around this time, the USA was experiencing immigration and migration - there was a lot of pressure in cities to figure out how to deal with a growing population (from within and outside the country). there were a lot if different people and how to you know what person should get which job. Psychologists thought that they had an answer to this - which was, testing. Another thing that was happening was mandatory schooling by the end of the 1800s. There was a law that kids had to go to school. There are a lot of different kids from different backgrounds that are capable of different things. psychologists saw the need to mental tests in the realm of education.

What did Pavlov study? Why was this hard?

digestion He was interested in the complicated workings of the digestive system. This was hard to do because of all of the digestive organs are inside the body and it is hard to look at without ruining them. He tried to expose digestive organs of animals but it didn't work so well. For a long time there was little information on digestion.

Pavlov thought that 2 different processes were occurring. What were they?

excitation and inhibition. In differentiation, we are learning inhibition rather than excitation.

What work does watson and Rayner come up with?

he and Rosalie Rayner collaborate on popular advice books about parenting - they write about parenting as the behaviourist views it.

What type of genealogical work did Galton do?

he does a lot of genealogical digging. He looked at the the geneologies of individuals who were eminent and made a mark because of an invention, contribution etc. He then traced the genealogy and wanted to see what happened to their siblings. He found that if you were eminent then you also have family members that were eminent. therefore, it must run in families. it must be genetic.

What happens to Watson?

he does the Little Albert study. In this study, he is assisted by a research assistant named Rosalie Rayner. and it turns out that Watson and Rayner develop a romantic relationship. but, he was married. This was at a time where Baltimore was very conservative. When Watson's wife gets wind of his affair, all hell breaks loose. She is a prominent Baltimorian. Her brother was the editor of a major newspaper and he basically threatens to blow watson out of the water. Watson is then forced to resign from academic just like James Baldwin.

What did Binet learn from testing his daughters?

he found that sensation and perceptions were not different between kids and adults. This intuitively seemed wrong to Binet - kids were clearly not as smart as adults. He also thought that intelligence was correlated with judgement and it was highly affected and influenced by experience. Therefore, adults, having more experience, should do better than kids. He did not have a hereditary position - he thought that intelligence could develop. He thought that intelligence was related to judgement and it was highly influenced by experience. therefore, Adults should score higher than children.

Watson becomes a professor at Johns Hopkins

he gives a talk by 1913 at Columbia in New York on psychology as the behaviourist view it. He publishes the talk in his journal the psychological review.

Why did James have this view?

he had a really rich view of psychology. This is what he meant when he said that everything interesting gets pushed out if you make psychology a science. He was very interested in allowing the possibility that these things could exist and was really interested in the function and religious beliefs. He felt that religion was important because it was functional for people. He felt that it was a belief system that helped people adapt to the world and deal with it. He was interested in how people used religion in their lives.

What is the difference between how James and Wundt wanted to study

he said - how do we go about studying it. Wundt thought that only basic mental process can be studied scientifically and higher mental processes need to be studied by another method. James said that pyschology is the science of mental life

What did James believe?

he said that psychology is the study of mental life - mental mind and mental life is an object like any other object that could be studied objectively, these are 3 methods for studying that thing. he also felt that the goal of psychology was to understand the function of the mind, not only its structure.

What skill did James have? Why was this important?

he spoke a lot of languages. Most work in psychology until this time was written in German, French, and English, and he spoke all 3. He wrote magazines and journal articles and revised them as chapters for his textbook. This book took him a long time to write. He didn't like his finished product but it was used once it was published.

Following psychology, in what area of study does James immerse himself?

he then goes back to philosophy and specs the rest of his career not wanting to be identified as a psychologist.

What did Skinner want to do?

he wanted to be a writer. He didnt have a lot to say, and he didnt have a lot of inspiration, so he did a lot of reading. He read Watson and Pavlov (he got to them through Bertrand Russel). He then goes to grad school in psychology (mid to late 1920's). His dad asks him to do some work because he was worried about him, so we worked a little for his father. He had no background in psychology, but he goes to harvard and gets his PhD.

What was Binet's title?

he was the father of IQ but thought that IQ could change. He didnt think that IQ was determined through heredity and he thought that intelligence was multifaceted.

What did Moynihan talk about?

he wrote a report and talks about the connection between economic conditions and the breakdown of family structure in black communities. namely, he said that the reason black communities are economically disadvantaged because they are majority headed by women. he critiques the matriarchal structure of black families. He intended that the report would be used to establish a structural understanding of the causes of black poverty. This report was widely criticized as well.

What does Darwin write in his books the descent of man and selection and relation to sex.

in 1871, Darwin took the plunge and wrote about his theory of what evolution for natural selection meant for human beings - he wrote a book called the descent of man and selection and relation to sex. in this book, he touches on a few topics of his views of how evolution explain differences between races and sexes.

Fill in the blanks: Watson always had a ____________________ complex.

inferiority He was the second best, second to Helen Thomson. He had to work really hard, held several jobs, and suffered an emotional breakdown. When he recovered he was offered an associate professorship at Johns Hopkins.

What was his argument?

it was a progressive argument - it was an argument on behalf of integration to which he remained committed and about which he had become quite pessimistic. It was really difficult to desegregate schools - white people did not want to see this happen. Black kids needed police protection to get into white schools.

Fill in the blanks: ________________ ______________ provided the mechanism for evolution.

natural selection

What type of experimental psychology was Calkins exposed to?

nonetheless, Calkins was exposed both by James and Germany to the idea of what it would take to set up a lab. She got space at Wellesley to do this, and she started, on a very limited budget.

What is Operant conditioning?

operant conditioning strengthens or weakens response tendencies that already exist In operant conditioning (skinner becomes best known for this), what you are interested in is a behaviour that is emitted, and whether it will be emitted again is dependent on its consequences. This is not a response - the organism is emitting behaviour all the time. They are doing it anyways. This is like thordyke's cat in the box, was doing all sorts of behaviours, but when that behaviour elicits a consequence, the probability of the behaviour increases. We know about operant conditioning from Thorndyke, but Skinner gives it a name.

Afrocentric scholars require that scholarly productions be historicized- esp. vis a vis histories of oppression and unequal power relationships

science happens in a point of time and there are histories that come into the formulation of questions, how we interpret results, etc. scientific study isn't a "view from nowhere". It doesn't generate a view from nowhere, rather somewhere - there is a particular context, a particular history, by particular people with particular assumptions. Only when we acknowledge that, and Afrocentric scholars acknowledge that, can we produce knowledge that can actually be used for social change. Further, we have a responsibility to acknowledge that context when we design and carry out science.

What did Calkins do at Wellesley?

she opens the first psychological lab at a women's college in the united states. james was a founding figure for american psychology and scientific psychology, but like wundt he has a very ambivalent position when it comes to scientific psychology - he had to make pragmatic decisions about freewill - he had an ambivalent relationship - not exactly like Wundt but they shared an ambivalence in whether psychology could be a science.

What did Calkins want before she started teaching experimental psychology?

she wanted some training in experimental psychology. the college supported her and she looked around to see where she might study. A lot of places were not open to women. She was the oldest daughter in the family and she wanted to stay close to home. She was not married. But she didnt feel like she had the luxury to go far away.

What were the 2 different schools of thought?

the continental and American. The American was more practical less theoretical, more on the individual.

What is positive eugenics?

the practice of encouraging highly fit people to reproduce more (positive eugenics).

What did Cattell study?

then he comes back to the US and sets up his own lab where he could make his own measurements which he called "mental tests" where he would administer at the university of Pennsylvania. He wanted to mentally test students at the university of Pennsylvania.

What is structuralism?

there was a competing school of thought at the time that james was writing that was called structuralism - this school of thought was an outgrowth of Wundtian psychology This school of thought didnt really go anywhere. Structionalism is the idea of uncovering the structure of it. This is like studying anatomy before physiology. you need to know the structure before you know the Function, but James didnt believe in this.

How did Terman change the Binet test? What was it called?

they standardized the test to the American context, changed some of the items and introduced the practice of multiplying the IQ by 100 to get rid of the decimal. This was the birth of the modern test called the Stanford Binet test (Still used with children). He published it in 1916.

What was the original view of segregation

they then parsed out who was in segregated schools and who was not. the Lawyers felt that being in segregated schools is harmful for kids. Part of the case was that they thought that segregated schools was good for kids. but they wanted to desegregate children and they wanted to show that it has a negative effect of children.

What did human beings at the top of the hierarchy mean?

they were at the top of G-d accomplishment and were semi-divine. God created humans in his own image and they weren't the same as other animals.

What is catastrophism?

this explains that mountains and deserts and oceans resulted from things like earthquakes, volcanoes, "acts of god". This had a large following because it was in line with the bible. Catastrophism was also consistent with the age of the earth, an age calculated by the archbishop James Ussher.

Why were these results tricky?

this was tricky, because if you are trying to prove that being in a segregated school causes harm, there were slightly less students in the segregated school that preferred the white doll - indication that it wasnt o great.

True or false: Skinner was very controversial.

true. But he became one of the most recognized scientists in the USA in 1975.

What is the watchmaker analogy?

within natural theology - he uses an analogy - he is likening god being the creator of the world (specifically the eye) with a watch maker creating a watch. In crossing a heath, suppose I pitch my foot against a stone and was asked how the stone got there. you may think that it was there forever. but supposed i had found a watch upon the ground, and you ask how the watch got there. The watch might have always been there. But it is not as admissible in the second as in the first. When we inspect the watch, we see that the it has a maker. using the analogy of the watch, the world could not have been created by accident. there was a purpose so therefore there must be a god/creator.

What are the implications of psychology?

•*Comparative psychology* (looks at animals as a way of studying humans) •*Individual differences* - there is an incredible form of animals and humans. in terms of plotting and population, the range of individual differences becomes a pre-contemplation. •*Social Darwinism and eugenics* - his ideas were taken up into the social world - people who are poo or criminals are maybe not well adapted and they should dissipate •*Functionalism* (the idea of importance of adaptation and understanding psychology) in influential in early American functional psychology. The only way we could figure out what it true is to understand its function. • One of the direct descendent of his field is *Contemporary evolutionary psychology* Human beings are potentially highly evolved members of the natural world - we are all subject to the same types of forces.