History Witches

What was the Defenestration of Prague?

Ferdinand was very supportive of the Counter-Reformation and sent four noble representatives to Prague to meet with Protestant authorities. Angered that the four nobles may have been responsible for an order to halt the construction of Protestant churches, Count Thurn (Protestant leader) had three of the Catholic thrown out the window in what became known as The Defenestration of Prague. However all three survived the 70-foot fall → increasing suspicions on either sides with Catholics believing God had protected them from the evil Protestants and Protestants believing they had used witchcraft to survive.

What is the 'from above' argument for the reasons for the existence of witch-hunts?

From above argues that the court used intellectual elite ideas to judge accused 'witches', the impact of the Reformation played a part in an increase in witch-hunting, Religious conflict often led to witchcraft accusations, the development of the early modern state (witch-hunting could be used to remove 'difficult' minorities)...

What did Galileo publish in 1616?

Galileo concluded that tides were essential in understanding the motion of the Earth, believing that they slowed down and sped up as the Earth rotated on its axis and orbited around the Sun. He published Discourse of the Tides in 1616, which sparked the interest of the Catholic Inquisition who argued his theory was contradictory to the teachings of the Bible.

What does Hugh Trevor-Roper argue about Bekker's work?

Historian Hugh Trevor-Roper argues that Bekker's work coincides with changes in witch beliefs because the intellectual climate had changed and new scientific approaches had been adopted, as opposed to having a large impact itself. Roper also argues his main influence was in Holland and even there his supporters fell away quickly. He does not believe that Bekker's publication actually did change beliefs in the devil, but that they changed with a decline in the witch-craze, and the reasons for that are difficult to pin down. Keith Thomas claims that the end of the 17th century was a crucial time for the decline of witchcraft beliefs because advancements in science led intellectuals to believe they would soon be able to explain mysterious events through natural causes.

Why was King James becoming more sceptical about witchcraft?

In Leister in 1616 9 women were hanged as a result of the accusations of a 13yr old boy. However King James then interviewed the boy and discovered that he was lying. The judges were rebuked, sending a message to other judges to be more careful when convicting witches and James became more sceptical about witchcraft.

What did Galileo argue in his 1623 publication, The Assayer?

In The Assayer (1623) Galileo argued that the study of the Universe should be balanced between maths and experimentation.

What was Bacon's The New Atlantis about?

In The New Atlantis (1626) Bacon described a utopian state, where scientific knowledge is exploited and valued.

Why was the Isle of Ely particularly effected?

In the Isle of Ely, Sir Miles Sandys had acquired large estates and at Sutton he enclosed 4000 acres of common land in the 1620s, depriving the poor of grazing land or fuel. Thirty families were evicted from their cottages on the land. They presented a petition to the Court of Chancery with 100 signatures but failed. They began rioting in the 1630s and resentment was still prevalent in the 1640s. Many of the suspected witches facing trial there in 1647 had connections to the earlier unrest over enclosure.

What is the first section of A Candle in the Dark about?

In the first section Ady describes what the definition of a witch is according to the Bible. The types of witches he identifies from the Bible include astrologers, jugglers, users of charms and those who attempt to communicate with the dead. He concedes that these types of magician could be seen as false prophets or idolaters, and states that if witches are people who encourage idolatry, then Catholic priests are guilty of witchcraft. He is particularly critical of the notion that witches had familiar spirits, as there is no evidence for this in the Bible.

Who was William Somers?

John Darrell went on to exorcise William Somers in Nottingham in 1597. Somers claimed he had been bewitched by 13 women, led by Alice Freeman, and all were arrested but only two went for trial. Darrell supported Somers but was already attracting suspicion. When Somers was questioned he confessed that his possession by the Devil was fraudulent and that he and Darrell had worked together. Darrell was a Protestant Minister and so the matter was reported to the Archbishop of York who set up a commission to investigate the case. When Somers was questioned by the commission he took back his confession and fell into violent fits that were so convincing, the commissioners believed he was possessed. However Alice Freeman was then brought on trial in front of Judge Edward Anderson, who had already been involved in the trial of Alice Gooderidge, and pressed Somers again on whether or not his accusations was truthful. Somers confessed again that it was not and Alice Freeman was released.

What happened in the trial of Katherine Hewitt and the Bulcocks??

Katherine Hewitt - accused of being present at the Malkin Tower and charged with the murder of a child at Colne. She was found guilty. John and Jane Bulcock were accused of and found guilty for bewitching Jennet Deane and causing her to go mad.

What was Kepler's First Law?

Kepler's First Law is that Planets travel in elliptical orbits around the Sun

What was the reaction to Galileo's work?

Like Copernicus, Galileo's works were added to the Index Librorum Prohibitorum by the Catholic Church. When he published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems in 1632 the sale of his books was prohibited because it contradicted the Church-sponsored Aristotelian system. Galileo was found guilty of heresy, made to sign a statement claiming he had recanted his theories and was placed under house arrest. The ban on printing Galileo's works was not lifted until 1718, although this did not include Dialogue and his works were not removed from the Index until 1758 (even after this time it was stipulated that Dialogue should still be censored). Despite being told by the Inquisition not to write a defence of the Copernican theory, Galileo did so anyway with only minor adjustments. He rejected the right of the Church to act as an authority over scientific matters and believed that the only way to find the truth was through reflection and experience. Pope Urban VIII even protestested against a plan by the Duke of Tuscany to give Galileo a ceremonial burial after his death, due to his heretic works. Galileo's works were published in Italian and translated into a number of European languages and so his influence was widespread.

Who was Margaret Moone?

Margaret Moone was one of the first witches to be accused in Thorpe-le-Soken. She had fallen into poverty and been evicted from her cottage when a man offered her landlord 10 shillings per year more than she could afford in rent. She fell into begging and was later blamed for the deaths of livestock, crop failures and the murder of a child.

What happened to Old Demdike in the trials?

Old Demdike died in prison before the trial and Chattox then changed her story, putting more of the blame on Demdike.

Who was Sir George Mackenzie?

Sir George Mackenzie, a Scottish lawyer and Lord Advocate (chief legal officer of Scotland) from 1677 to 1686, became concerned at the legitimacy of witchcraft trials after the Scottish witch-hunt of 1661-62. He recorded in 1672 that he even represented an accused witch, Maevia who was accused of shape-shifting and using maleficium against a woman, in court. When Mackenzie was promoted to Lord Advocate in 1677, he used his powers to free a number of suspected witches. He paid particular attention to the way in which investigations had been carried out . If he found evidence of foul play or torture, he usually threw out the case. A number of leading bishops and theologians accused him of atheism, however his work contribute to a steep decline in witchcraft cases being heard at court. Mackenzie had no impact on English witch-trials as England and Scotland had not formally joined until the Act of Union in 1707.

How did the East Anglia Witch-trials start?

Stearne went to a Magistrate to get a commission to find witches and then Hopkins joins him. The first witch they accuse is an old, frail, one-legged widow named Elizabeth Clarke. Clarke is a typical 'witch' and so she may have been accused because she was an easy target. She was living in poverty and relied on the locality to support her.

How did the English Civil War lead to Witchcraft accusations?

Suspicions about rival groups in the Civil War, as well as members of different religions, also led to accusations. The traditional authority of the Church of England was undermined by war → 'undesirable' ministers were often ejected from their churches in Parliamentarian areas and replaced by Puritans. Additionally many members of the local gentry left their estates to fight or were arrested and had their estates confiscated (e.g. those with Royalist sympathies in Parliamentarian areas), leading to a breakdown in authority.

What was The Enchanted World?

The Enchanted World has been described by historians Alan Kors and Edward Peters as the most influential critical work of witchcraft beliefs in the 17th Century. Bekker's book was undoubtedly influenced by Reginald Scot, who he agreed with about the impossibility of witchcraft. Despite this agreement, his reasoning differed to Scot's. He again used the Bible as his primary source of evidence, but attempted to approach it in a reasoned and unbiased way, rather than relying on rumours and stories, as Scot often did. In this sense, Bekker's approach has much in common with that of Thomas Ady. He was doubtful about the witchcraft cases that he was aware of and states that in every case there is some sort of deception or irregularity.

What was the Danish phase of the Thirty Years War?

The King of Denmark was a Protestant and many Danes were Calvinist and so became involved to help Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire. Despite this Wallenstein and the Catholics defeated the Danish army.

What were the four key phases of the Thirty Years War?

The Protestants of Bohemia began to raise an army following the Defenestration of Prague, and many other German states became involved in the last major war of the Protestant Reformation. There were four key phases of the war: Bohemian, Danish, Swedish and French

What happened to the accused witches?

Bridget Bishop was the first to be hanged in June 1692, followed by Rebecca Nurse and Sarah Good in July. Giles Corey refused to say anything at all, even declining to enter a plea, was tortured and suffocated by pressing in September. His wife and daughter were hanged in September. The Reverend George Burroughs prayed and recited the Lord's prayer at the gallows August 1692 but it was not enough to save him and he was hanged with several others. By the end of September 19 witches had been hanged and one tortured to death. The list of accused was still growing and Governor Phips' wife had been implicated, as well as Reverend Samuel Willard.

What was the impact of Holt on belief in witches?

Despite Holt's efforts, there was still a widespread belief in witchcraft, and his predecessor, Matthew Hale (1671-76) had been willing to accept dubious testimonies in order to secure convictions for witchcraft. "Towards the end of the seventeenth century and during the first decade of the eighteenth cases of witchcraft still came before the English courts, but the judges for the most part refused to convict" - Montague Summers, A Popular History of Witchcraft. While the actions of Holt may not have changed popular attitudes towards witchcraft, it did make people more careful about accusing witches as a higher threshold of evidence was required and fraudulent claims could be punished themselves.

What was Kepler's Third Law?

The distance from a planet to the sun, cubed, is proportional to the time it takes for a planet to complete its orbit, squared. Therefore he concluded that the further a planet is from the Sun, the longer it takes to complete its orbit.

What was Newton's first law?

The first law of motion states that every object will remain in a uniform straight line or at rest unless an external force compels it to change direction

Who were the last to be tried of witchcraft in England and Scotland?

The last witch to be executed in England was Alice Molland of Exeter. She had been accused of murdering three people in 1682 and was hanged in 1684. In Scotland, 10 people (7 men and 3 women) were executed at Paisley in 1697. One final execution in Scotland involved the burning of Janet Horne in a tar barrel in 1727. Horne had been accused of changing her daughter into a flying horse in order to travel. Her daughter had a deformity that affected her hands and feet and neighbours began to suggest that this was as a result of the transformation. The final trials had ended, but more than 1500 people had been executed for witchcraft in Britain. A final attempt was made to bring a suspected witch to trial in Leicester in 1717, but this was rejected by the court.

What was the impact of population growth in Pendle?

The plague in the 1340s led to a drop in population, so leasing land was cheaper, however dramatic population growth led to greater demand and so higher prices for food and land (population of Pendle grew from 96 in 1443 to 580 in 1563 and 1620 by 1650 - in 1443 there had been just 24 tenants in Pendle Forest but there were 100 by 1527).

What was Newton's second law?

The second law states that the external force on an object is equal to the mass of the object times the rate of its acceleration

What is the second section of Harsnett's publication about?

The second section outlines how Darrell instructed Somers to feign possession, and how they conspired together to fake an exorcism.

What was Newton's third law?

The third law states that for every action (force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (force)

What is the third section of Harsnett's publication about?

The third section recounts the confession made by William Somers, and Darrell's role in encouraging him to initially revoke it. It then details how Darrell and his associate George More argued that Somers had been forced to make a confession through threats or promises. Harsnett then claims that the fits experienced by Somers were not extraordinary, and had been misinterpreted.

What was the third section of A Candle in the Dark about?

The third section shows most of Ady's contempt and anger, containing a critique of a number of English works that promoted witch trials, and even criticises King James' Daemonologie. Ady claims that James' work was actually written by Bishop James Montague, a close ally of James who published his collected works. Ady is particularly critical because no scripture was referenced in Daemonologie.

What was the impact of enclosure in Pendle?

The village unit was beginning to break down due to enclosure and the reformation (church land is sold off) - the rich were getting richer but the poor lost their rights to common land and so communal strip farming broke down. Poor laws were passed forcing the rich to give money to help the poor however this only heightened tensions and it many cases was ignored altogether.

What ideas about witches did Johann Weyer put forward in 1563?

Weyer argued that the majority of supposed witches were in fact suffering from a kind of melancholia (depression/mental illness) and that those who were guilty were unable to cause harm themselves because they were the mere tools of the Devil. He sees the real culprits as the Catholic priests, diviners and magicians who falsely boasted they could identify and treat witches. These were very extreme, controversial ideas at the time, but by the early 17th Century they were gaining support of many other elites such as Reginald Scot, von Spee and Meyfart.

What was the Scientific/Philosophical Revolution?

1550-1800, peaking around the 17th Century (1600s) Emergence of modern scientific beliefs and methods. New developments in Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Astronomy and Maths helped to drastically alter the traditional established views of the natural world and the role of God in commanding nature. The spark that began the revolution was Nicholas Copernicus questioning the ancient astronomical belief that the Earth was at the centre of the Universe. Other key figures included Johannes Kepler (who inspired Newton's theory of gravity with his laws of planetary motion) and Galileo (who discovered 4 of Jupiter's moons and studied the role of tides in relation to the rotation of the Earth). Ancient Greek Philosophers Aristotle and Plato were key influences on thinking and natural philosophy in the scientific revolution Neoplatonic - Big ideas based on observable evidence. An approach that combines Aristotle's experimental empirical approach and Plato's theoretical approach. Maths, experiment and observation were used to gain a better understanding of nature and as a result this challenged the phenomena previously considered witchcraft.

What happened to those found guilty based on Edmund's testimony?

17 people were found guilty and should of been sentenced to death based on Edmund's testimony BUT the judges weren't satisfied with the outcome from the jury (jury common people - elite ideas e.g. from the judges becoming more sceptical but popular views still show strong interest in witchcraft) and so they referred the case to the Privy Council and the King in London. 4 of the accused were sent to London and held in Fleet jail. While they were there a play was written about the witches and shown in London → this suggests that while people probably still believed in witches they were less fearful of them as the play was a comedy so people were able to laugh at them. King Charles had his own physician, William Harvey, re-examine the witches for 'devil's marks'. Almost all the marks that had been found previously were deemed to be nothing unnatural. Edmund Robinson was also taken to the Privy Council and questioned and admitted that he had made up the accusations, basing them on stories he had heard about the Device family witches. It was also discovered that his father had been blackmailing the women - if they didn't pay him, he would have Edmund accuse them of witchcraft. All of the women were acquitted although because inmates in prison had to pay for their board and were not able to leave until they had done so it is likely women such as Jennet Device who could not afford to pay would have died in prison.

Why did Ady write A Candle in the Dark?

A Candle in the Dark uses the Bible as its only source, the same source used by witchfinders to justify their persecutions. In the preface Ady sets out his main argument that the actions of witchfinders and suspicions about witches cannot be found in written form anywhere in the Bible. He goes on to explain that he was compelled to write the book because he knew of too many wrongful executions that had taken place as a result of witchcraft accusations, and that it was ridiculous to suggest that ordinary animals such as cats, mice or frogs, can be taken to be witches' familiars. Scot's The Discoverie of Witchcraft is mentioned as a direct influence, and Ady states that although Scot's work was taken seriously for a time, the English people had forgotten Scot's teachings. His work is essentially a revision of Scot's original message.

What Sceptical publications were written by Thomas Ady?

A Candle in the Dark, published in 1656, is a sceptical book about witchcraft. This was followed in 1661 by A Perfect Discovery of Witches, which attacked the witch-hunts of the earlier 17th century. In A Perfect Discovery of Witches, Ady was critical of physicians who failed to understand diseases and were too quick to blame them on witchcraft. He was also critical of the attitude prevalent amongst the general population that witches were to blame for natural disasters and unexplained events. His final book was entitled The Doctrine of Devils, Proved to be the grand Apostacy of these later Times (1676). This book was initially published anonymously and was heavily influenced by Joseph Mede's The Apostacy of the Latter Times, published after Mede's death in 1644. Both Ady and Mede agreed that possession could be attributed to mental illness.

What Sceptical work did Harsnett Publish?

A Discovery of the Fraudulent Practises of John Darrell, 1599

What was the impact of the Boy of Burton Case 1596?

A canon was drawn up by Bishop Bancroft in 1604 forbidding any clergymen to practise exorcism without a license. Samuel Harsnett issued a pamphlet entitled A Discovery of the Fraudulent Practises of John Darrel in 1599 and in 1603 published A Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures blaming the Catholic Church for the fraudulent claims.

Why did the trials become so widespread?

A day after the arrests of the first three suspects, a meeting was called at the village meeting house where the possessed girls gave evidence against the women. They gave spectral evidence, which was apparently very convincing at first. The girls claimed that the witches forced them to sign the Devil's Book, suckled familiars and caused the fits that had afflicted them More suspects were soon named, including more respectable figures in the community such as Reverend George Burroughs and Rebecca Nurse. As more people became accused, some of them began to confess. Abigail Hobbs and her stepmother Deliverance Hobbs, confessed to attending a meeting where a number of named witches plotted to bewitch all of Salem village. At the Salem trials a confession actually improved the chances of a suspect, as more than 50 of those who confessed were ultimately freed. The number of accused came to 165, although only 39 ended up facing serious charges and only 19 were executed. The Governor William Phips established a Court of Oyer and Terminer in May to officially hear the cases. At the trials, the girls continued to shriek, wail and shout when the accused gave testimony. Half-hearted searches for the Devil's mark were also carried out and were used as evidence. One of the judges resigned within a month when he became suspicious about the legitimacy of the proceedings and was replaced with a prosecuting lawyer. Convictions were easily made because spectral evidence was accepted by the court, the accused were allowed few resources to mount a defence, petitions by neighbours testifying to the good character of the accused were generally ignored, and long-standing and existing gossip from Salem Village was accepted as evidence.

What is inductive reasoning?

A logical process whereby observations are used to reach a generalised conclusion. Provided all new observations fit with the conclusion it is confirmed. It has never snowed in Salisbury in May before (looking at all past evidence on Salisbury weather), therefore it is unlikely it will ever snow in Salisbury in May. Defined in Francis Bacon's Novum Organum (New Method) 1620. Make repeated observations and generalize repeated observed phenomena (but not certain) Bottom Up - specifics generalized. Conclusions are drawn from observations. Draw conclusions from observations - Empiricism. Not certain, assumes things will stay the way they always have done. PROBABILITY. The more data the greater the probability of the conclusion being true (connecting the dots).

How did Galileo build on the work of Aristotle and Copernicus?

A major problem with the Copernican theory was explaining how a body as large and heavy as the Earth could remain in perpetual motion - according to Aristotle, everything that moves in the universe must be pushed by something else, and Galileo was rejecting this theory. He suggested that if a ball was set in motion on an endless and frictionless incline, it would go on forever and if it encountered an upward slope it would slow down. If there was a perfectly horizontal plane, once the ball was set in motion it would continue at the same speed forever. If the Earth moves around the Sun in a frictionless sphere, the same applies to the Earth, it does not need outside forces to constantly propel it (this theory was undermined by Kepler's belief in elliptical rather than circular motion though). Galileo attempted to build on Aristotle's theories of motion, refining the theory that bodies fall with speeds proportional to their weight and proposing instead that acceleration and speed in free fall is constant for all bodies.

What was the impact of the Royal Society on belief in witchcraft and magic?

A number of historians, including Henry Lyons, have claimed that the Royal Society significantly undermined belief in witchcraft and magic through its focus on critical investigation. The first history of the Society, written by Thomas Sprat in 1667, even claimed that astrologers only serve to deceive people and that alchemists were fraudulent. The manuscript of Webster's The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft (1677) was dedicated to the Society. However, despite the Society's focus on science and experimentation, many of its early members were interested in magical areas of study. Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton, John Aubrey and Thomas Henshaw all took an interest in astrology or alchemy. A number of investigations relating to alchemy can be found in early editions of Philosophical Transactions, although these were rare. From 1666 Joseph Glanvill made much of his reputation as a member of the Royal Society when he argued for the existence of witches. He used the Baconian methods to try to establish matters of fact about witches. Although other members may have shared his interest, the Society itself disagreed with Glanvill's suggestion that witchcraft should be studied formally.

How did King James' book Daemonologie impact the Pendle Witch-trials?

According to King James' book Daemonologie, children should be allowed to testify against witchcraft as it is considered treason against the King and God.

What did Ady believe about witches?

Ady did believe that witches existed, but believed that the definition of a witch as found in the Bible did not resemble the 17th century definition used in witch-hunts. To Ady, a witch was not someone who had supernatural powers, but someone who led others towards an ungodly path, either through idolatry or through practices associated with the Catholic Church. The real criminals were the idolaters and witch-hunters themselves. Reverend George Burroughs, the only minister to be executed in the Salem witch trials in 1692, quoted the book in his defence, but it failed to make an impact. In Britain, however, the steep decline in witch trials and increased scepticism in witchcraft after 1660 was likely influenced by the work of Ady. Ady was not disputing the existence of witches but what it was to be a witch → not necessarily to do with magic but the idolatrous Catholics etc.

Why is Ady critical of magicians?

Ady is highly critical of magicians and conjurers and mentions a book published in 1634 called Hocus Pocus Junior, probably written by a leading magician of the time who used the stage name Hocus Pocus. Ady is critical of him and the tricks performed by magicians and goes some way to explaining how their tricks were carried out. Although these performers were claiming to perform miracles, they were able to convince people through sleight of hand or by planting assistants in crowds. He explains that cases of moving statues had been controlled by wires, and that weeping statues of saints were subtly fed by pipes. He also describes critically how some jugglers and swindlers would stuff dead rodents and attach them by springs to their clothes, claiming that they were familiars.

What happened in the French phase of the Thirty Years War?

After the Swedes involvement in the war declines, the French become more involved and begin to fight, with the Swedes funding. No-one really won the Thirty Years War. 1648 the Peace of Westphalia is signed, weakening the Holy Roman empire and reducing their official control over the princes of each state. Calvinism was also accepted and freedom of private worship allowed. However ¼ of the population of the Holy Roman Empire had been killed during the Thirty Years War from fighting and also famine.

How did the Salem Trials end?

Although he had encouraged Cotton Mather to write Wonders of the Invisible World an account of the trials in later 1692, in 1693 Phips issued a general pardon, officially excusing 8 people whom Stoughton had condemned to die in the latest round of trials. In January a new Superior Court of Judicature had been established in Salem, led again by William Stoughton. Although Stoughton had not changed his view of witches and spectral evidence, the political pressure of him to avoid convictions was immense and Phips ordered him to discount spectral evidence. The first 5 prisoners to face trial had been held since the first wave of accusations and were found not guilty. Charges were dismissed against more prisoners, but 3 were found guilty. Phips pardoned these 3 shortly after Stoughton had signed their death warrants. The court sat again at the end of the month, finding 5 people not guilty. The court met for a final time in May 1693 where 5 people: Susannah Post, Mary Bridges, Eunice Frye, William Barker and Mary Barker were found not guilty. This sudden rush to find defendants innocent was probably influenced by Governor Phips. He was critical of Stoughton's role and in a letter to King William in February 1693, he criticised him for allowing the craze to develop so extensively. Phips also defended himself in the letter and claimed he only set up the court under pressure from leading religious figures in Boston. In 1695 the government in London repealed a law passed by the Massachusetts legislature in 1692 that enabled swift prosecutions for witchcraft. In January 1697 one of the judges involved in the trials, Samuel Sewall, officially apologised to Massachusetts officials and asked for forgiveness. Many of the girls who had acted as chief accusers slowly began to apologise as they grew older and realised the error of their ways. In 1711 compensation was paid to families of the victims.

Why were the Salem Trials so widespread?

Although the events at Salem took place over a few months they became widespread very quickly and more than 200 people were accused. Salem and Massachusetts more generally, was a deeply Puritan society. Fear of the devil and witches was part of everyday life. Dangers could be found everywhere in New England and witchcraft and magic helped people to explain what was going on around them. The dangers associated with the Indian threat also played a significant role in heightening the sense of fear that would result in a witch craze. Many of the girls who made the original accusations had been personally affected by Indian attacks. The role of Elizabeth Parris, Abigail William, Ann Putnam and the other girls meant that the court had a large number of witnesses prepared to testify against suspects. They were apparently convincing, and may have gained at least some of their awareness and knowledge from the slave, Tituba. Social divisions in Salem meant that resentment and jealousy was part of daily life. The fact that the majority of accusers came from the less wealthy, more agricultural and more Puritan Salem village is telling. Many of the accused were either social outcasts or resided in the more prosperous part of Salem. The role of individuals is crucial in explaining the extent of the hunt, and Cotton Mather was the most outspoken supporter of witch-hunting in the years before the Salem trials. He came from a respected family of ministers and thousands of people heard his sermons in the months before the trials. William Stoughton's acceptance of spectral evidence meant that evidence that would be viewed as dubious by most courts was fully accepted and relied upon. When individuals such as Increase Mather and Governor Phips began to question the use of this evidence, there is no way the trials would have been able to continue.

How does Ady back up his arguments?

Although the key arguments in the book are derived from close study of the Bible, Ady uses rational common sense to explain a number of concepts associated with witch-hunts. He is particularly critical of the swimming test, which he claims can be manipulated easily. He is also critical of methods such as sleep deprivation, as used by Matthew Hopkins, who had been active in Essex and Suffolk in 1645-47, and is directly referenced by Ady.

How were the investigations carried out?

Although torture was illegal in England, Hopkins was able to avoid this issue, partially due to society breaking down in the Civil War and also by using methods which he could argue were not actually torture - for example sleep deprivation, the swimming test (recommended in Daemonologie) or a body search to find the devil's mark. Witches were supposed to be tried at Assizes (Courts in which central judges travelled around the country to try serious cases) however this broke down due to the Civil War. The investigations carried out were very uniform, often following the same procedures. Neither of the men held qualifications and Hopkins seems to have invented his title as 'Witchfinder General' himself. They did not try the witches themselves but gathered evidence for the trials. The men were paid for their services as well as expenses being paid. Hopkins and Stearne only tended to stay long enough in one location to set legal proceedings in motion and then left others to continue the cases to trial. They were concerned with uncovering the relationship between the witch and the Devil and how they first became initiated as a witch, any marks that could be associated with witchcraft, any imps or familiars the witch had, and any other witches known to the accused. Initially Hopkins and Stearne would aim to isolate the suspect, making them disorientated and more likely to confess. Search-women were then employed to inspect the bodies of suspects for evidence of the Devil's mark. Watching was then used, depriving the suspect of sleep. This tended to be particularly effective but was also controversial → in his defence of the trials he insisted sleep deprivation had been discontinued as a method (torture was illegal in England) but watching was still an essential means of detection and claimed that if some witches continued to stay awake it was because they were not allowing themselves to fall asleep (although he failed to mention in his account that the suspects were bound to a hard stool). Despite torture being illegal there is indication that many of the accused were deprived of sleep and subjected to intimidation and physical violence. Walking was another method used often in conjunction with watching - forcing the suspect to walk around a room constantly till they were exhausted. Finally the swimming test was often used, it had been approved by King James I in Daemonologie giving it an air of legitimacy, although Courts were often sceptical. If the accused floated they were a witch, if they sank (and therefore drowned) they were not.

What evidence was given against Jane Wenham?

Anne Thorne, the 16-year-old servant of a local clergyman, Godfrey Gardiner, complained that Wenham had bewitched her and caused her to suffer from fits and hallucinations of demons with faces of cats, as well as causing her to vomit pins. The case was brought to the attention of Gardiner and his wife when they left Torne alone for a few minutes, only to return to find that she had run almost a mile in order to collect sticks. Gardiner's wife immediately suspected witchcraft and as she placed the sticks on the fire she saw the figure of Jane Wenham emerge in the doorway. The allegations against Wenham were verified by a number of locals, including James Burville, who stated that he had seen a cat with Jane Wenham's face at Anne Thorne's door. Wenham was arrested and searchers were tasked with finding the Devil's mark on her. Nothing unusual was found but Wenham apparently gave a full confession. She claimed that she was a witch but only practised harmless magic. Despite the confession, the only charge the accusers could agree on was that of conversing with the Devil in the shape of a cat. A total of 16 witnesses were called to give evidence, including three local clergymen, and an ointment, said to have been made from human fat, found under Wenham's pillow was presented as evidence. She was asked to recite the Lord's prayer and stumbled over some of the words. The judge, Sir John Powell, was sceptical of the evidence from the beginning and when a witness stated that they had seen Wenham soaring through the air he remarked that there was no law against flying → Burden of evidence has increased over the past few decades.

How did William of Orange and Mary become rulers of England?

April 1687, James II issued an extremely unpopular Declaration of Indulgence in England, suspending the existing penal laws against Catholics. He then dissolved Parliament. 7 Bishops were arrested after refusing to read another Declaration of Indulgence in May 1688 but their acquittal was met with public rejoicing. Terrified of a Catholic heir after James' wife fell pregnant, some leading figures sent an invitation to William of Orange to invade England. James fled in December 1688 and a Convention Parliament established in January 1689 declared that William would jointly rule with his wife, Mary, the Protestant daughter of James. They were presented with a Declaration of Rights, affirming a number of constitutional principles, including the prohibition of unparliamentary taxation and the need for regular parliaments. Pressure from William led to the Toleration Act, passed May 1689, granting many Protestant groups, but not Catholics, religious freedom.

How did the arrival of the Swedish Armies lead to a decline in witch-trials?

Arguably it was the arrival of the Swedish Army in Bamberg that actually led to the end of the witch-trials. The Protestant Swedish army, led by King Gustavus Adolphus, entered the war in 1630 and between 1630 and 1634 much of the territory lost by the Protestants was regained. The Swedish army swelled in size from 40000 in 1630 to 150000 in 1632, requiring huge amounts of resources and food. The army began plundering the countryside in order to maintain itself. When the Swedish army invaded and took over the administration of Bamberg, von Dornheim was forced to flee in February 1632 (taking with him 12 chests of gold and valuable documents from the Cathedral's treasure - suggesting he was led by greed). With a declining population, decimated farms and constant fighting, combined with the flight of the Prince-Bishop, witch-hunting was no longer seen as a priority by the authorities.

Who was Aristotle?

Aristotle (348-322 BC) Realist Designing Politics with a working Government, acknowledges human selfishness and wants a balanced, working State. Empiricism - experiments to formulate theories. Homocentric view of the Universe (Earth was at the centre)

Who were the most likely to be accused in the East Anglia Trials?

Around 80% of the accused witches were female, and many of the men who were accused were already associated with female accused witches. Some historians, such as Louise Jackson, believe that the witch-trials can be interpreted as organised violence against women, especially in the context of the Civil War when women were increasingly breaking traditional gender roles. The accusations made against the women often centred on traditionally female tasks and spaces e.g. the kitchen, the nursery, dairy farming... Hopkins was particularly interested in evidence of sexual activity with the (male) Devil and the suckling of imps → accusations that were more likely to be associated with women. The murders of husbands and children were also often referred to in the trials. Susanna Stegold was found guilty of killing her husband through witchcraft after an unhappy marriage, which almost certainly involved domestic violence inflicted by him. Prissilla Collit confessed to killing her children after a period of sleep deprivation. Around 20% of accused witches were charged with harming or killing children. Although a wide range of background and occupations were seen in the tried witches, the majority came from lower social classes. The searchers were also often from lower social classes, tending to be the neighbours of the accused, which could have impacted their views of the accused and led them to be more likely to see them as guilty.

What was the impact of Sir John Holt on witch-trials?

As Lord Chief Justice, he oversaw at least 11, possibly 12, trials concerning witchcraft and each one resulted in the acquittal of the accused. 1691 Holt acquitted 2 women who had been accused in Frome, Somerset, of bewitching a girl who had fallen ill, the girl recovered despite the acquittals. 1694 Holt reviewed the case of a witch known as Mother Munnings, who was accused of causing death by witchcraft in Bury St Edmunds. Holt refused to accept charges that related to events that took place 17 years earlier and refused to accept the evidence of a man who had been returning from an alehouse when he claimed to have seen Munnings' familiar in the form of a polecat. Ipswich 1694, Margaret Elnore, who was from a family of convicted witches, was accused of possessing familiars given to her by her grandmother (who had previously been hanged for witchcraft alongside her aunt). A midwife testified that the Devil's mark had been found on her body but Holt dismissed the case immediately. 1695 Holt freed Mary Guy in Launceston, Cornwall, after she was alleged to have caused the possession of a local girl. 1696 Elizabeth Horner of Exeter was accused of causing the possession of three children. Witnesses claimed that one of the children was seen walking nine feet up a wall. She was acquitted by Holt.

What was the impact of Native American Indians in Massachusetts?

As well as political unrest and issues with authority, the people of Salem lived in constant fear of attack from Native American Indians. One tenth of all military aged men were killed in the First Indian War 1675-1678, devastating towns across Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island and Maine. After the overthrow of Andros, colonial defences were weakened and attacks became more common. The Salem Witch-trials coincided with King William's War (or the Second Indian War, part of the Nine Years' War 1688-97) that William of Orange was fighting against France in America. Both sides made alliances with Indian tribes. Puritans saw Indians as Devil-worshippers, doing everything they could to prevent a godly society from being created. They were also the allies of the hated French and Spanish.

How were interrogations carried out?

Authorities in Bamberg established a list of 101 questions to be asked during an interrogation and as a result confessions generally followed a similar pattern with witches agreeing to whatever was asked of them after significant torture. The first part of a confession usually involved recounting how the accused became involved with the Devil, the accused then usually described a death threat given to them by their demon or familiar in order to force cooperation. An oath of loyalty or mock baptism in the presence of demons or other initiates, and a new name being given by the Devil, then followed, along with a receipt of a gift - e.g. a piece of gold that then turned into a slice of turnip or a worthless piece of pottery. Additional demons or conspirators and the names of fellow witches were then brought into the confession. Night-flight was also common with witches confessing to travelling through the sky at sabbat. The accused would then provide a list of evil deeds they committed, such as damage to crops. Sacrilege and blasphemy and accounts of witches stealing the wafer from communion and desecrating it were also common.

What did Bacon argue in Novum Organum?

Bacon intended to produce a six-volume Instauratio Magna (Great Restoration), although much was never completed. The second part Novum Organum (The New Instrument) became the most influential and was released in 1620. Bacon argues for his experimental method, but the book contains no new scientific discoveries. The book became an important guidebook for the men who founded the Royal Society.

What did Bekker argue about witches and the Devil?

Bekker used reason to argue that unless the Devil has a body, it would be impossible for him to possess and influence people on Earth. He does not believe the Devil is physically present on Earth. A rational interpretation of the Bible also suggests that the Devil is forever in hell, and so cannot operate on Earth. Again, through his Cartesian methodology, he claimed that if the Devil is an instrument of God, and has no power of his own, then those who believe that the devil has any power are heretics, because they are effectively practising a belief in two gods. He points out that witches should not be blamed for causing events that could be attributed to nature. He believed, like Scot, that there was much that was unknown about nature, that the world of science would inevitably develop further, and that one day explanations would be found for apparent supernatural events.

Who was Bekker and what did he right?

Bekker was a Dutch clergyman and made a name for himself as a Cartesian rationalist, writing about philosophy and theology as well as witchcraft. Born in Friesland, he was the son of a Calvinist minister and was deeply influenced by this religious tradition. He became a minister in 1657, and visited England in 1683, writing enthusiastically about his travels. In 1668 he published De Philosophia Cartesiana (On Cartesian Philosophy) where he argued that natural events cannot be explained by reference to the Bible, an idea he would revive in The Enchanted Word in 1691. A month after his death in 1698, he was accepted as a fellow of the Royal Society.

Who was accused in the Bamberg trials?

Between 600 and 900 witches were executed in Bamberg 1623 - 1632. Women were more likely to be accused than men, making up 72.7% of those tried (1623-31, between 1616-22 women made up 81.1%). Zeil, a town under the authority of Bamberg, saw 59 people charged of witchcraft in 1626, at least 30 of which were executed or died in custody. In 1627, 130 suspects in Zeil were called before the court in Bamberg. In 1628 the trials spread to Bamberg itself and, according to contemporary records 642 witches were tried 1623-31, with only 42 being released or escaping and the remainder being executed. Unusually the majority of witches in Bamberg didn't fit the typical profile of old, poor, ugly or physically disfigured women on the outskirts of society. The majority of women across Bamberg were of marriageable age - the average age was 33.5. Most of the men were middle-aged although there was a nine year old boy tried.

What happened in the Bohemian phase of the Thirty Years War?

Bohemia had a Catholic ruler BUT a Protestant majority. The Habsburgs had allowed Protestantism BUT this was revoked by Ferdinand II, leading to the defenestration of Prague May 1618. Ferdinand then clamps down on the rebellious Protestants in the Battle of White Mountain and there was a decisive Catholic Victory.

How did the English Civil War start?

Charles I married a French Catholic (he was Protestant and so this upset many of his advisors). He was a poor king - kept having to raise taxes etc. and believed in the divine right of Kings (however Parliament is growing in power and increasingly wanting to take a greater role in running the country). Arguably war had been brewing since he became King in 1625. There was also religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants. King James was putting trade first in terms of alliances etc., BUT Parliament was putting religion first, leading to conflict, heightened by Charles' decision to marry a Catholic. Charles also offered his ships to help the (Catholic) French King against the Protestants in France, however realizing this could cause uprising in England he changes his mind and sends the ships to protected the Protestants at La Rochelle, which fails, angering both Parliament and the French King. 1623 England went to war with Spain and lost 1625. 1635 Charles introduced ship tax, which everyone had to pay (because he argued everyone benefited from the protection of the Navy) and so it was very unpopular. Due to conflict over the new Prayer book in 1637, Charles sent an army to Scotland but it was defeated and he had to pay compensation. In 1642 Charles went to Parliament with an army to arrest his biggest critics, sparking the English Civil War.

How did the East Anglia Witch-trials begin to spread?

Communities would invite Hopkins and Stearne to come and try to find witches - predominantly Puritan communities or areas with tension between Catholics and Puritans. Hopkins and Stearne would also write to areas they felt they would be welcomed, offering their services. They would be paid for trying witches and made lots of money from it. Hopkins was invited to Yarmouth, on the Norfolk coast, where he oversaw the questioning of several arrested witches and their charges were brought successfully. He then travelled to Aldeburgh, Yoxford, Westleton and Dunwich, uncovering more witches and taking a fee from each local council. In Norfolk 40 women were tried in the assizes of 1645. 8 women were tried in Huntingdonshire in 1646 and the campaign continued to travel across East Anglia. In many of the towns accusations of witchcraft had been made previously but never followed up by legal action → the context of the Civil War and the help of Hopkins and Stearne caused the accusations to go to trial.

What did Copernicus contribute to our understanding of the Universe?

Copernicus (1473-1543) was a Polish Priest and Astronomer who put forward the Heliocentric Theory that the Sun was the centre of the Universe with the Earth orbiting around it. He published his ideas (originally anonymously and then posthumously because he was aware of the controversy they would cause) in his book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543). However Copernicus' findings were limited because he made theoretical conclusions rather than empirical observations. Additionally he kept the same underlying approach of Ptolemy, continuing to believe that planets and stars moved on spheres (although he could not be sure what the spheres were made of or whether they could be seen).

Who was Cotton Mather?

Cotton Mather and his father, Increase Mather, were two of the most senior Puritan clergymen in Massachusetts. Cotton was particularly convincing in preaching about the danger of witches. He was a 3rd generation colonist, his grandfather on his mother's side, John Cotton, was a well respected Puritan minister who had fled to New England under pressure from the Anglican authorities in England. Cotton Mather graduated from Harvard at the age of 15. His comprehensive religious training enabled him to write extensively and he became an authority on Puritanism in the colonies. He wrote over 400 books, including a number of works on witchcraft. In 1689 he published Memorable Providences relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions which acted as inspiration and a guide to those who conducted the Salem hunt and trials. In contained an extensive account of the Goodwin Possessions and a sermon delivered by mather warning against the presence of witches and offering advice on how to detect them.

Who was John Darrell?

Darlings fits continued and a well-known exorcist called John Darrell was called in. Darrell had been given a warning by a judge at a witch-trials 10yrs earlier for falsely accusing a woman, Margaret Roper, of witchcraft in Mansfield, but he continued to carry out exorcisms. He recommended prayer, fasting and reading particular Bible extracts to cast out the Devil. He used these techniques on Thomas Darling in May 1596 with apparent success?

What were Hobbes' views?

Deductive Reasoning: - All men are born bad - Nero was a bad (Roman) emperor - Therefore, Nero was a bad emperor because he was born bad, not because of the system he was placed in charge of Philosophical Absolutism (but did not believe in the Divine Right of Kings). Government formed by social contract. Published Leviathan (1651), advocating an absolute government (complete control over individuals by the state). The Leviathan was a sea monster from the Bible that could not be reckoned with - need a strong state control (like the Leviathan) or society will go to chaos. Believed the State of Nature was all out war against everyone and without a strong ruler we would all kill each other. Pre-government world: Solitary, Poor, Nasty, Brutish, Short. The Government's duty is to protect us from ourselves, sovereignty resides in the monarch and the government's power can not be limited. In the absence of an invincible absolute ruler, we would all kill each other. Man is incapable of doing good unless his heart is hastened by the Holy Spirit. The ruler should be powerful enough to be beyond challenge. The people have no right to revolution. Writing in the context of the English Civil War (1642-51) - absolute government in England broke down leading to all out, violent war.

How far was Newton actually a modern, rational thinker?

Despite Newton's reputation as a deeply rational and mathematical thinker, Newton still held a belief in arcane knowledge and the power of magic. Newton, like many other contemporaries in the Royal Society, was also an alchemist. He believed that different particles could be attracted to each other across empty space and his confidence in the power of light and gravity stems from a genuine belief that supernatural or occult forces were responsible. Newton's study of the Bible was also as dedicated as his scientific work. He was concerned with prophecies that he thought could be found in the books of Daviel and of Revelation. He wrestled with their meanings from a young age and was still mystified by them when he died.

What happened in Jane Wenham's trial?

Despite the objections of Powell, the Jury found Wenham guilty. Gap between elite scepticism and popular enduring belief. In order to prevent the inevitable hanging, Powell secured a royal pardon and, although she was unable to return to Walkern, Wenham was offered a cottage by the sympathetic Whig Politician, William Cowper, where she lived until her death in 1730 → suggests it was not politically damaging to show scepticism about witchcraft. Anne Thorne was ordered to be watched over until she recovered from the hysteria.

How far had popular beliefs about Witches actually changed at the beginning of the 18th Century?

Despite the repealing of witchcraft legislation, many ordinary people continued to believe in witches. Accusations against neighbours continued and crowds would occasionally gather to confront a suspected witch. In 1751 in Long Marston, Hertfordshire, John and Ruth Osborne were attacked by an angry mob who accused them of harming cattle and people. Determined to put them to the swimming test, a 4000 strong group dragged them to a pond, and Ruth Osborne drowned after she was thrown in. Her husband was beaten to death. One of the ringleaders, a chimney-sweep named Thomas Colley, was arrested and executed for the murder of Ruth Osborne. As witches stopped being tried and prosecuted it may have led to a change in popular belief as people began to question whether the disasters they experienced were actually caused by witches. On the other hand the fact a lynch mob attacked John and Ruth Osborne due to believing they were witches suggests that judicial scepticism did not necessarily lead to popular scepticism.

How did the Salem Witch-trials start?

During the winter of 1691, Samuel Parris's 9yr old daughter, Elizabeth, and her 11yr old cousin, Abigail Williams, began to experiment with fortune telling, using a device known as a 'venus galce' to find out the social status of their future husbands. They began to share their findings with other young girls in Salem. It was later reported that the supernatural events began after the venus glass revealed the shape of a coffin. In January 1692 Elizabeth Parris started to lose concentration and her father concluded that she had become preoccupied. She would forget prayers and bark like a dog when her father confronted her. On hearing certain prayers she would scream loudly and at one point hurled a Bible across a room. Her father believed that continued prayer would cure this behaviour but her symptoms continued and she began to have fits and be afflicted by problems with her limbs. Abigail Williams also began to exhibit strange behaviour and the local doctor, William Griggs, was called to assess the girls. He decided that witchcraft was to blame and recommended prayer and fasting. As godly Puritans the Parris family had already been doing this but it seemed to be having little impact.

How was it discovered that Darrell was a fraud?

Edward Anderson wrote to the Archbishop of Canterbury (most senior bishop in the Church of England) about Darrell's case and Darrell was summoned alongside another minister, George More, who he had worked with on exorcisms, to be examined by the Archbishop and the Bishop of London, Richard Bancroft, as well as Samuel Harsnett (the chaplain of Bishop Bancroft, who later became famous for writing sceptical publications). Thomas Darling and William Somers were among the witnesses and both confessed their stories were untrue. Somers even added that Darrell had told him to fake his symptoms and exorcism, although his confession was tainted by the fact he had undergone physical and verbal abuse in jail for several weeks beforehand. George More spoke in Darrell's defence but they were both imprisoned for a year, where they wrote passionate defences of their techniques and claimed they were innocent. Darrell never admitted to being a fraud but was unable to resume a career as a minister.

What did Elmer argue about the impact of the Scientific Revolution on belief in Witchcraft?

Elmer argues that it is too simplistic to say that it was science on its own that led to a decline in the belief in witchcraft and that political context etc. also need to be considered. The Scientific Revolution was effectively based on two key intellectual developments - Bacon's empirical methodology, which encouraged experiment at the expense of theory, and Descartes mechanical philosophy which promoted the idea that the world operated like a machine, following regular and immutable laws of nature. While other historians have argued that religion slowed the progress of science (people were less willing to accept new scientific discoveries which contradicted religious teachings), Elmer suggests that science and religion could actually have had a much more positive relationship and that religion could even help to shape some of the key concepts of modern scientific thought. He suggests that the 'occult sciences' such as alchemy, which many saw as a step back towards belief in witchcraft, actually helped lead to its decline by encouraging new ways of investigating and understanding the natural world. However Elmer also argues that it was religion, not science, that was the driving influence on the debate over witchcraft in late seventeenth century England. For example Webster, who wrote the sceptical publication Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft (1677), was a former religious extremist. Additionally Elmer suggests we must revise what we consider to be 'science' in this period. For example figures such as Boyle and Newton who are generally considered to be scientific, rational men, were also both keen students of alchemy. Science was not seen as distinct from religion but a part of a broader intellectual endeavour to explain the marvellous workings of God's creation. Elmer suggests a better term for science in this period therefore would actually be Natural Philosophy, and within this there was still room for witchcraft belief - for example Newton's concept of gravity was still partially explained through 'occult causation'. Elmer argues that we must also consider the wider context in which the scientific revolution and the decline in the belief in witchcraft was occuring. For example around this time there was growing sectarian and partisan conflict (conflict between different subsections of religious groups e.g. Catholics vs Protestants). Elmer suggests that the efforts of scientists and theologians such as Bekker to stop witchcraft belief and persecutions were primarily shaped by religious and political motives as opposed to scientific beliefs. The age of Enlightenment was not a straightforward process and the pace of change varied across Europe, and the assumption of a growing divide between 'popular' and 'elite' views on topics such as witchcraft is not justifiable.

How did the Environment in Bamberg impact witch-trials?

Europe was in a mini-ice age at this time (however this was not understood) and so frosts were common and often destroyed crops, making food more expensive. Several witch trials between 1623 and 1632 referenced weather and poor harvests - Lorentz Kempffen was accused of suggesting that the frost should ruin the fruit harvest in her trial in 1629 and the confession of Katharina Merckhlerin in November 1626 contained the admission that she had been part of a plot to freeze and destroy all of Bamberg's crops. Witch-trials peaked in Bamberg in 1629 - the year that frost destroyed the wine crop. Combined with debt from the Thirty Years War, crop failure led to crisis.

Why did the children accuse people of witchcraft?

For many years historians presented the children as selfish frauds who pursued their accusations out of spite. However more recently it has been suggested the girls were bored and frustrated with their stifled upbringings in Puritan New England or that the girls may have been experiencing psychological disorders, hallucinations, naivety and excitement or for some of the girls the accusations may have been a form of escapism from their own insecurities, traumatic childhoods and poor economic circumstances. Many of the girls had been directly or indirectly affected by the Indian attacks, for example, which traumatised them.

Who was Forner and what was his impact on the Bamberg trials?

Forner acted as deputy to von Dornheim. He was also a strong advocate of the Counter-Reformation and relentlessly pursued witches. He published 25 sermons on witchcraft and magic in 1625. He believed that Calvinism was detestable and its preachers were no different to magicians. He reported that in areas of Bamberg where occult practices were being carried out, Protestant preachers were also being harboured. Witches and Protestants undermine the entire social and political order by failing to respect the sacraments, relics and festivals of the Catholic church. He claimed that the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War caused cases of witchcraft to increase. He believed that the Protestant rebellion that caused the war and increased incidences of maleficia represented the final stage in a struggle between God and the Devil. Forner provided the intellectual framework for the witch-hunts. Both he and von Dornheim believed obedience was central to a well-functioning society and found evidence in the Bible to back this up. Forner made a connection between man's disobedience and sin, idolatry and witchcraft.

What happened in the trial of Elizabeth Clarke?

Four search-women inspected her body and 3 Devil's marks were also found on her body. Clarke confessed to having several imps, after being deprived of sleep. She was watched for several nights by various officials and neighbours. Watchers agreed they had seen the imps → likely due to being afraid and emotional - if a spider or rat came into the room or they heard odd noises they may have seen it as an imp - "confirmation bias". Clarke also admitted to giving her body in lust to the devil and named other witches including Rebecca West (who then turned witness for the Crown, gaining immunity from prosecution) In July, trials were held in Chelmsford for the first batch of witches and 20 were found guilty, including Elizabeth Clarke.

Who was Francis Bacon?

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) is considered one of the most important contributors to scientific discovery, however he never carried out a scientific experiment. He became a barrister in 1582, an MP in 1584 and eventually rose to become a member of the Privy Council. He focused heavily on collecting evidence in order to formulate theories, through an emphasis on inductive reasoning rather than deductive reasoning. He believed that scientific discovery is best aided by accumulating as much data about the subject as possible. He rejected any preconceived theories of conclusions about the subject matter and thought that the methodical and meticulous observation of facts was the best way to understand natural phenomena. After his death, other scientists attempted to emulate the empirical nature of his work but his ideas about science were not widely implemented before 1640. However with a change in social attitudes due to the Civil War, his work was revisited and emulated by others and the Royal Society was founded, partially due to his influence. While Bacon applied his empirical thinking to the study of nature, others adopted his ideas when they attempted to gain a greater understanding of religion. Despite being hugely influential in scientific circles, Bacon's method actually served to preserve a belief in magic and the occult, when he rejected deductive for inductive reasoning, he was actually reverting back to the sort of logic used by those who studied natural magic, whose conclusions came largely from observations in nature. Bacon was dismissing the distinction between magical and rational qualities that many scientists were starting to make, his method allowed for unexplained or supernatural physical phenomena to exist as long as they were observed as part of the scientific process.

Who was Galileo?

Galileo (1564-1642) supported Copernican Theory, however he kept his ideas to himself to avoid losing his job as a mathematician at University. He was appointed to the court of the Duke of Tuscany in 1610. In 1597 he wrote in a letter to Kepler that he supported Copernican Theory. Galileo rejected Brahe's theory that the Earth remained stationary and was orbited by the Sun, which was orbited by the other planets, despite the fact the observations he made with the newly invented telescope were compatible with Brahe's findings.

How did Galileo write Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems 1632?

Galileo's Dialogue concerning the Two Chief World Systems was presented as a conversations between three thinkers Salviati argues for the Copernican view of the Universe, essentially arguing Galileo's theories. He attacks the view of Aristotle that the universe in unchangeable and argues it is ridiculous to suggest that the Earth does not rotate and move like other planets. Simplicio is an advocate of the Ptolemaic system and presents the arguments against the Copernican model, disagreeing with Salviati over the motion of the Earth. Sagredo is neutral, presented as an ordinary man as opposed to a philosopher.

What happened in the trial of Gooderidge?

Gooderidge and her mother were arrested and searched for witches marks. Gooderidge was detained at Derby prison and (likely after a long period of sleep deprivation and starvation) she admitted to bewitching Darling. She explained she had a familiar in the shape of a red and white dog called Minny that her mother had given her and that she had sent it to harm the boy after their encounter in the woods. She was put in front of Darling again before her trial and he had a further 37 fits in succession. She explained to the local Justices of the Peace it was possible to break the spell but then had a choking fit, preventing her from speaking. She was found guilty but died in custody before a date was fixed for her execution.

What was Gresham College?

Gresham College - in 1645 a group of national philosophers formed what became known as the 'Invisible College', a loosely organised collective who shared an interest in experimental investigation and had connections to Gresham College, London, which had been founded in 1597. The Royal Exchange, the first commercial building in Britain, had been opened by Sir Gresham in 1571 and he set up Gresham College in his will after his death. A number of achievements can be attributed to those involved in Gresham College including: The first professor of geometry, Henry Briggs, popularised the use of logarithms William Bedwell translated a number of important mathematical works into English and invented a new type of ruler for carrying out geometric calculations. Edmund Gunter became professor of astronomy in 1619 and worked closely with a group of naval officials to improve navigation.

What happened in the Swedish phase of the Thirty Years War?

Gustavus Adolphus was the Lutheran King of Sweden and a military mastermind (one of the first to use mobile artillery on the battlefield). He confronted the Catholics in the Battle of Breitenfeld. The Swedes were also receiving funds from France, despite France being a Catholic country → not concerned about religion BUT politics and the balance of power. France felt threatened by the Hapsburg dynasty (Holy Roman empire). However after Gustavus Adolphus dies in battle Sweden's active military leadership in the war declines.

What is the fifth section of Harsnett's publication about?

Harsnett dedicates the fifth section to the Boy of Burton case, and details how Darrell instructed Thomas Darling to act possessed, and how Darling confessed. He discredits a confession made by one woman suspected of being possessed and treated by Darrell years before, Katherine Wright. Wright ultimately confessed that she was beaten by her father-in-law for many years, and this made her weak and liable to hallucinations. Any apparitions she had seen were apparently fictitious, and she exaggerated her symptoms in order to avoid further beatings.

What was the reaction to Harsnett's sceptical publication?

Harsnett started a pamphlet war that prompted a wider debate about witchcraft and possession This led to Darrell himself to respond to Harsnett with the provocatively titled A detection of that sinful, shaming, lying, and ridiculous discours of Samuel Harsnett (1600) John Deacon and John Walker, two ministers who had Puritan sympathies, questioned whether exorcism was a miracle and whether it was even possible in their pamphlet Dialogicall discourses of spirits and divels (1601). They argued that the Devil was unable to possess people, as only God had this power, and new bodies could not be created to do the Devil's work, as God would not allow this. They demanded proof from Darrell that he had the power to carry out exorcisms. Darrell responded in The Replie of John Darrell to the answere of John Deacon and John Walker (1602), where he repeated that he had witnessed all of the possessions that he claimed to have seen. This pamphlet war was important, not only in revealing disagreements about the honesty of Darrell's patients, but in questioning the entire possibility of demonic possession and its cure by prayer and fasting. Darrell, however, still had much support. Joseph Hall, who became Bishop of Exeter and Norwich, wrote that Darrell did indeed perform exorcisms through his godly devotion, and that his critics were motivated by jealousy. The scepticism of Harsnett, Deacon and Walker was still a minority option.

How did Harsnett's religious beliefs impact his views on witchcraft?

Harsnett's own religious beliefs are contradictory and difficult to ascertain but could explain why he was so keen to attack beliefs on witchcraft. He was accused as a young minister of being sympathetic to the Catholic Church, and in 1596 he supported Peter Baro, a professor at Cambridge who had shown Arminian (Catholic leaning protestants who rejected the Calvinist idea of predestination) tendencies. This may explain his immediate dislike for Darrell, a Puritan. Bishop Bancroft, with whom Harsnett worked closely, was also acknowledged to be a member of the Arminian faction. Despite this, in his criticism of Darrell and in his A Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures (1603), it is clear that he was deeply anti-Catholic and he lays sole blame for witchcraft accusations at the Catholic Church.

What discoveries did Galileo publish in 1610?

He published Siderius Nuncius (Starry Messenger) in 1610 and used his telescope to identify a number of new discoveries: He found a number of features on the Moon that he claimed were similar to those found on Earth, such as mountains and seas, and used this to argue the moon was not made up of a mysterious element unknown to man, as previously thought. He concluded the natural motion of the Moon was circular around the Earth. He used a telescope to discover the moons of Jupiter, showing the Earth was not unique in having a moon, and proving not everything only orbited around the Earth. He discovered new stars, questioning the notion that there were a finite number of fixed stars, supporting the Copernican idea that the stars cannot be set on a fixed sphere but must be spread throughout space.

Why was Holt sceptical about witchcraft?

Holt was inevitably influenced by the changing intellectual climate, and although there is no evidence that he read sceptical works, the works of Webster, Beaumont and Bekker would surely have been known to him. Holt was sceptical about the legal proceedings surrounding witchcraft but was also becoming more sceptical about the existence of witches in itself. Holt required more evidence than just a Devil's mark or the word of a bitter neighbour in order to judge a case, raising the threshold of evidence required in witch-trials.

What was the impact of John Gaule on the Witch-trials?

Hopkins and Stearne faced a setback when a local clergyman, John Gaule, objected to their presence in his community. But Hopkins was then invited to help identify witches in the Norfolk port of King's Lynn and the surrounding villages. Stearne investigated reports in Ely. However in the spring of 1647 Hopkins attended the Norfolk assizes and was surprised to be subjected to hostile questioning about his activities by suspicious officials. His written defence The Discovery of Witches was published in May 1647. John Gaule was the minister of Great Staughton and was aware his parishioners were increasingly blaming witches for their misfortunes, while he believed it was their own sins to blame. Gaule published his criticisms in his Select Cases of Conscience touching Witches and Witchcrafts in 1646. In the book, he affirmed the existence of witches and approved of witch-hunting BUT criticized the methods of Hopkins and Stearne. He stressed that witchfinding should be carried out in a meticulous and cautious way and even alleged the craze for witchfinding had become idolatrous. He complained that people in East Anglia were praising witchfinders more than God.

Who was John Lowes?

Hopkins and Stearne often investigated the accusations separately. Over 120 were examined in Suffolk. One of the accused was 80yr old Royalist parishioner John Lowes, who had spoken in defence of Ann Annson (who had previously been accused of witchcraft) claiming she was as much of a witch as he was, which was interpreted by his parishioners as a confession of guilt. Hopkins subjected him to the swimming test in the moat at Framlingham Castle, where he floated, and after an intense investigation he confessed to having made a pact with the Devil and keeping several familiars. He also admitted to sinking a ship off the port of Harwich, which resulted in the deaths of 14 people, and he admitted to killing cattle with witchcraft.

Why ddi the trials begin to decline?

Hopkins became ill and died, Stearne continued on for longer but he too eventually stopped Opposition to the trials grew after a Clergyman was accused and arrested Hopkins and Stearne didn't actually have the authority to find witches outside Manningtree where they had received their commission The growing cost of the trials also led to their decline. Imprisonment was a vast expense and as more witches were detained it became increasingly hard to afford to feed them all. The assizes were also expensive, as were the executions themselves. In Suffolk, churchwardens and overseers of the poor were instructed to collect a new levy to pay for the searching and trying of the witches. The fees demanded by Hopkins and Stearne also became controversial. With funds still required to finance the war effort, witch-hunting bagan to be seen as an unnecessary luxury. Officials became increasingly sceptical of Hopkins and Stearne. In Hopkins Discovery of Witches he defended himself, answering the questions he had been asked at the 1647 Norfolk Assizes

Who was Matthew Hopkins?

Hopkins followed continental ideas about witches (e.g. the diabolic pact), it is also likely he read Daemonologie. He had a particular interest in the devil's pact and sexual relations between witches and the devil. He was the son of a Puritan Minister, however after his father died his mother remarried, likely to the Minister of Manningtree and so this is likely the reason Hopkins came to be in Manningtree. He came from a rich family but as the 3rd son he wouldn't inherit the estate from his father and so began learning a trade. However he did come in to some inheritance and established himself as a gentleman in Manningtree → as an outsider to the town he may have been seen as a neutral figure to judge the witch-trials. Hopkins believed he was being threatened by witches but is protected as the son of a Godly Clergyman. He held deep religious beliefs and may have seen the Civil War as a battle between God and the Devil → by witch-hunting he could help God to win. Hopkins and Stearne would be paid a fee for hunting witches, which could be as much as £23 per town for a few days work. Although Hopkins and Stearne wrote their own defences of the witch-hunt and claimed they only charged 20 shillings per town. Hopkins wrote a book on witch-hunting called The Discovery of Witches, the cover included the line 'Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live' from Exodus (22.18) → strong link with religion.

How did the Boy of Burton case start?

In 1596 a 14yr old boy named Thomas Darling was out hare-hunting with his uncle, Robert Tone, when he got lost and came across a strange woman in the woods and had a disagreement with her. When he returned he fell ill and the following day began having fits and hallucinations. His fits became worse when passages from the New Testament were read to him, which led the doctor to believe he was bewitched. From the boy's description his neighbours identified the woman as one of the witches of Stapenhill, either 60yr old Alice Gooderidge, or her mother, 80yr old Elizabeth Wright. Darling may have blamed her for his fits because he already knew of her reputation as a witch. Alice Gooderidge was brought to his house in April and Darling immediately began to fit and scratch at her face. Gooderidge claimed she had met the boy in the woods and was stern with him because she mistook him for another boy who had once played a trick on her, but she had never practiced witchcraft.

What was the impact of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II on the Bamberg trials?

In 1630 Georg Heinrich Flock, a Bamberg Councillor, was accused of witchcraft and fled to Nuremberg. However his wife, Dorothea, was then arrested. Flock appealed to Ferdinand, stating their particular concern for her health and that of her newborn child and questioning the legitimacy of the legal process. Renewed proceedings against Dorothea Flock in April 1630 led to her relatives to appeal directly to the pope and the emperor again. Ferdinand and the pope requested von Dornheim stop the trial and requested that all documents relating to the trial should be sent to the imperial Holfrat (equivalent of English Privy Council) to be reviewed. On hearing that the letters were on the way from Ferdinand, von Dornheim rushed the trial through and had Dorothea executed before they could arrive. This renewed protests from her relatives, who sent letters to Ferdinand claiming the trial was illegal and contrary to religious law. They questioned the proceedings on the grounds that: Flock was not able to question the testimony of her accusers to hire a lawyer, because the trial was conducted in secret The Carolina Code 1532 required judges to establish the credibility of witnesses and stated that confessions taken through torture should only be permissible in court if supported by other evidence → this was not the case Complaints began reaching the Imperial Chamber Court in Speyer. Von Dornheim decided to send two of his witch-commissioners, Dr Harsee and Dr Schwartzkonz, to the Diet of Regensburg, to present a defence of the witch trials. However in August Ferdinand sent a letter to von Dornheim, criticising the trials, and began looking further into the witch-trials in Bamberg. However it was a letter from Georg Wilhelm Dumler that arguably led to Ferdinand acting to stop the witch-trials. Dumler stated that several hundred respectable people had suffered as a result of torture and the leaders of the witch-commission were easily led by false accusations and that the trials were breaking the rules of the Carolina code. June 1931 Ferdinand announced he was to punish those responsible for the Bamberg trials. He appointed Dr Anton Winter as a new director of the witch-commission and decreed all future trials be conducted according to the Carolina Code. Furthermore he forbid the confiscation of property. Despite this Von Dornheim remained in Bamberg and refused to release those he held in custody.

What did Mackenzie write about witchcraft in Laws and Customs of Scotland in Matters Criminal?

In 1678 Mackenzie published Laws and Customs of Scotland in Matters Criminal, where he conceded that although he believed that witchcraft was possible, most of the people accused were not genuine witches. Mackenzie put forward a number of arguments against continued witch-hunts. He accepted that true witches deserved punishment, but also laid blame on the careless people who found innocent people guilty and sent them to their deaths. He stated that he believed in the traditional view that witches were people who had been deceived, but were not necessarily evil and deserving of harsh punishments. He doubted the devil offered riches to people, as most accused witches were destitute. Doubts the role of the Devil → moving back to the old idea of witchcraft - Maleficia as opposed to working for the Devil. See's witchcraft as a less serious, dangerous, evil crime. Normal legal procedures were not followed in witchcraft cases, as the crime was seen as exceptionally evil. Mackenzie disagreed with this, and pointed out the fact that suspected witches often gave false confessions as a result of torture or sleep deprivation.

How did legislation around witchcraft lead to an end in trials?

In 1737, the government finally repealed the 1604 Witchcraft Act in both England and Scotland. There was little opposition to the decision in England but in Scotland, where belief in witchcraft was still relatively widespread, a number of clergy protested. A new Witchcraft Act was passed at the same time, specifically aimed at punishing fraudulent cases, with a maximum penalty of one year's imprisonment. Importantly this Act declared that magic and witchcraft were not real.

How did Ferdinand become Holy Roman Emperor in 1619?

In May 1916 four Catholic representatives of the Holy Roman Emperor arrived in Prague to meet with the recently dissolved assembly of the Bohemian Protestant estates. Bohemia (neighbouring state of Bamberg) had been under the control of the Habsburgs (current HRE monarchy) since 1526 however Protestants in Bohemia enjoyed increased rights and more autonomy than in many other states under Rudolf III (Emperor and King of Bohemia 1576-1612). However in 1612 Rudolf was succeeded by his younger brother Matthias and, due to pressure over his lack of enthusiasm for the Counter-Reformation, Matthias was succeeded by his cousin Ferdinand in 1617. Ferdinand then became Holy Roman Emperor in 1619.

How did Bambergs economy impact the witch-trials?

In addition to this, there was huge inflation in the Holy Roman Empire at this time. Silver from America had been relatively well supplied until around 1610, when imports began to decline. Across the Empire non-silver (especially copper) currency was utilised. Additionally the gold florin (used as a reserve currency across Europe) had reduced in gold content → as money lost its real value and poor weather resulted in crop failures, the price of goods increased. The people in Bamberg had little understanding of economics - to them inflation was seen as maleficia. Those accused of witchcraft in Bamberg and beyond were more likely to live along trade routes and so more likely to engage in financial conflict with their neighbours. Magaretha Eissmennin admitted that after extensive coin clipping (clipping the edges of a coin to reduce its precious metal content in order to reduce the value of the coin or use the metal for other purposes, such as making counterfeit coins), money had lost its value and she was forced to turn to the Devil. Kunigudta Rindterin confessed that she entered into a relationship with a rich man in order to avoid poverty, but her accusers interpreted this as a pact with the devil. Margaretha Gussbacherin prostituted herself to a man in a black feather hat (seen as a diabolical pact) to free herself of poverty and suffering.

Why could it be argued that the witch-trials were a sexist act against women?

In the context of the Thirty Years War anyone who deviated from orthodox Catholic practices were labelled as heretics. This included women whose sexual behaviour deviated from that expected (prostitution often rose when there were lots of soldiers around etc. but this also partially originated from the Protestant belief that priests should not necessarily live lives of celibacy - Catholic priests were supposed to remain celibate but those who broke their vows blamed women of using witchcraft to seduce them), people whose political views or attitude to the war deviated from those of the Catholic authorities, people who had an existing reputation for healing, fortune-telling or sorcery, or members of the upper class (under Prince-Bishop Von Dornheim a law was exploited, allowing for the confiscation of witches' property, and therefore upper classes were disproportionately targeted). There were strong gender roles in place at this time - Women had largely domestic roles, however during wartime these gender roles are disrupted, challenging traditional ideas about masculinity etc. With the men away fighting women had to work outside the home, giving them increased power. Some historians claim that witch-trials were used to put women 'back in their place'.

What was the Massachusetts Bay Colony like?

In the early 17th Century two British Colonies emerged on the East Coast: in Virginia, where the first British settlement was created at Jamestown in 1607, and in Massachusetts to the North, first settled in 1620. In Virginia and later the colony of Maryland, Catholic refugees were welcomed. The first settlers to arrive at Massachusetts on the Mayflower in 1620 were Puritans and established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 on Puritan principles as a Theocracy (no separation between church and state). Every aspect of life in Massachusetts followed strict, religious principles and the clergy were highly respected. Like the Puritans involved in the East Anglian witch-hunt of 1645-47 they were particularly mindful of the Devil and acts of maleficium.

What is the fourth section of Harsnett's publication about?

In the fourth section, Harsnett goes to great lengths to discredit Somers' fits. He says that the superhuman strength Somers was supposed to have displayed during his fits was nothing extraordinary, and there was no evidence that Somers became fluent in Greek, Latin and Hebrew during his fits, as Darrell had claimed. When Somers fell into a supposed fit in front of Harsnett he was asked questions in Greek but laughed in response. When he was asked questions in Latin, he gave a few basic words.

What was the second section of A Candle in the Dark about?

In the second section, Ady explains that the original scriptures have been misinterpreted, particularly by Catholics, in order to justify witch-hunts. He emphasises this with a number of examples of idolatry and corrupt priests from the Old Testament, who he directly compared to Catholic priests. He also notes that Catholics were the first to kill for religion and that this is unchristian. The 16th Century Danish theologian Hemingus is criticised, as well as the French philosopher Jean Bodin, who claimed that torture was acceptable in witch trials because rumours about witches were almost always true. Andreas Hyperius, the Flemish theologian, also comes under fire. Ady claims that these writers were Popish (Catholics) although both Hemingus and Hyperius were actually Protestants.

What was the reaction to Scots publication?

In the short term the book did more harm than good. King James VI of Scotland, who would become James I of England in 1603, ordered all copies of the book to be burnt. He wrote a response, Daemonologie (1597), which stated his clear and unwavering belief in witches. In the introduction, he even mentions Scot by name, and denounces him as unchristian.

Who was Increase Mather and what was his impact on the trials?

Increase Mather, Cotton Mather's father, was a well-respected Puritan minister and president of Harvard University. He published his sceptical work Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits Persecuting Men in September 1692. While not rejecting the notion of witchcraft, Mather used his extensive knowledge of scripture and knowledge of recent history to argue that genuine cases of witchcraft were rare and much of the evidence used at the trials were dubious. Mather also made a number of sermons that were supportive of the trials themselves, but deeply critical of the use of spectral evidence. As Mather had such a wide following and was well respected across Massachusetts, godly Puritans began to heed his warnings and the number of accusations started to slow down dramatically. Increase Mather's scepticism about the use of spectral evidence led him to start discussions with a number of influential officials in Massachusetts, including Governor William Phips.

What were Locke's views?

Inductive reasoning: - Humans are not born with any knowledge and knowledge can only come from experience. - Experience is the most important source of human knowledge. Philosophical and Biblical Constitutionalism. Government formed by social contract. Published Two Treatises of Government (1689), advocating constitutionalism - Government should be controlled to an extent by the people. The Government's duty is to protect the people's natural God-given rights (Life, Liberty and Property) but sovereignty resides in the people and the power of the government can be limited. The people have a right to revolution if the Government are not defending the rights of their citizens. Believed that sovereignty resides in the people and that the power of the Government can be limited.

Who was Isaac Newton?

Isaac Newton (1643-1727) invented the reflective telescope using his research in to the spectrum of light. His work in astronomy, mathematics and physics then built on that of those before him, including Kepler. He had been elected as a fellow of the Royal Society in 1672 and became President in 1703. In 1687 he was able to present his views on planetary, Earthly motion and universal gravitation in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). The book is most famous for establishing that the force propelling planets in orbit around the Sun is the same force acting to keep people and objects on the ground on Earth - gravity

What was the impact of the Pendle Swindle 1634?

It is much debated whether the Pendle Swindle caused an increase in scepticism as it was seen how easily fraudulent claims could lead to the convictions of innocent people and therefore more evidence was needed than was usually used in trials, OR whether the outcomes of the trials were a result of already increased scepticism because it is unlikely the women would've been acquitted if it wasn't for concerns about the legitimacy of the evidence leading to further inspection by the Privy Council.

What was the impact of James II in Massachusetts?

James II succeeded Charles II in 1685, which caused upset amongst Puritans due to James' Catholic sympathies. James was able to administer all of the New England Colonies as the Dominion of New England, governed by Sir Edmund Andros. Andross was unwilling to include well-established local Puritans on his council, making him extremely unpopular. Additionally he attempted to fulfil the late Charles II's wish for Church of England services to be delivered in Puritan churches, introduced new taxes (particularly focusing on import and export duties, this especially angered people in Massachusetts as they had no previous tax laws, although was necessary as the colony was becoming a drain on the English Exchequer), declared land-ownership titles issued under the now defunct Massachusetts Bay Colony void (requiring Puritan landowners to pay fees in order to take back ownership), and restricted the number of town meetings that could be held.

What were the Goodwin Possessions?

John Goodwin was a mason from Boston. He and his wife had six children and the entire family were devout Puritans. In the summer of 1688 the eldest child, 13yr old Martha, accused the family laundress of theft of some bed linen. Mather wrote in his book Memorable Providences relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions how he was convinced the linen was somehow used to practice witchcraft. The laundress was the daughter of Mary Glover, who Mather calls "an ignorant and scandalous old woman in the neighbourhood". He notes that, before he died, even her husband had complained she was a witch.

Who was John Junius?

John Junius' case is one of the best recorded from Bamberg. Junius had served as mayor for 20 years but shortly before his arrest in June 1628, his wife had been executed as a witch. He was also implicated by Georg Hann and his family. Junius recorded his torture in a letter to his daughter - he explains that he was entirely innocent but eventually confessed under fear of further torture.

How did the Demon Drummer of Tedworth case start?

John Mompesson was a landowner and JP who lived at Tedworth on the Wiltshire-Hampshire border. He also acted as a commissioned officer in the county militia and in March 1662 he intervened in the case of a drummer and ex-soldier, William Drury, who had been fraudulently attempting to raise alms (donations of money or food) for the poor with a forged pass and using his drum to draw attention for his cause. The fraud was discovered when he demanded money from a constable who became suspicious. Mompesson reviewed the pass and could see that the signatures from the JPs were forgeries. Under law these passes were essential for people travelling from parish to parish (like Drury) in order to avoid punishment as a vagrant and so Drury was arrested and his drum confiscated. He was later released but the drum was sent to Mompesson's house in April and the next month his family experienced a series of unexplained disturbances. Thumpings were heard in his house, as well as the sound of the drum playing military marches, the sound of scratching and what sounded like a dog panting. Strange lights were seen and sulphurous smells detected (the smell of sulphur was linked with the brimstone associated with the devil). Objects were thrown around rooms, beds raised in the air and the family's horses mysteriously injured. On Christmas Day a Bible belonging to Mompesson's mother was found buried beneath the hearth ashes. This continued for a number of months, even when Drury was jailed in Gloucester on a charge of pig stealing, and the house became a local attraction with people visiting in order to witness the disturbances for themselves. Even representatives of King Charles II were sent to investigate. Interest became even more intense when it was rumoured that Drury had confessed to a fellow inmate that he had bewitched Mompesson.

Who was Kepler and what did he contribute to our understanding of the Universe?

Kepler (1571-1630) published Mysterium Cosmographicum (Cosmic Mystery) in 1596 where he asserted his strong religious faith by insisting the universe was perfectly designed by God. Kepler supported Copernican theory but kept quiet to avoid controversy and began working for Brahe in 1600. He was able to use Brahe's data (using it to disprove Brahe who followed the belief that all orbits were perfectly spherical) and even became the Imperial Astronomer for the Holy Roman Emperor after Brahe's death in 1601. Kepler published Astronomia Nova (New Astronomy) in 1609, which laid out his first two laws of planetary motion. Kepler provided a physical explanation based on his own observations and those of Tycho Brahe rather than mathematical conclusions. Kepler's mother was accused of witchcraft in 1617 and imprisoned in 1620 and Kepler's output slowed as he dedicated extensive time and energy to defending her and securing her release in 1621. Kepler did release Harmonices Mundi (Harmonies of the World), in which he established his third law

How was Kepler impacted by religion?

Kepler was deeply religious - he concluded that the relationships between heavenly bodies that he had discovered were so perfect that they could only have been made by God. The most important impact of Kepler's discoveries however, was the shift from a belief in constant circular and linear motions always taking place in the universe, to a realisation that this was not the case. In the absence of invisible spheres somehow propelling the planets, questions were raised about what caused them to move.

Who was Thomas Ady?

Little is known about the life of Thomas Ady, other than the fact he published three books. He lived in south-east England and a document recording his marriage ceremony in 1634 suggests that he lived most of his life in Essex. His marriage record also states that he was a renowned doctor. He states in print that he had familiarity with events in Essex and Suffolk, and witnessed in person witchcraft trials in Bury St Edmunds (most likely orchestrated by Matthew Hopkins). Nothing is known of his education, although his son studied at Cambridge and became a lawyer. His status as a doctor would suggest Ady was highly educated.

How did family links impact accusations in Bamberg?

Many witches were accused due to being related to other witches. It was common that one member of a family was accused and then the rest of his family were accused and tried alongside them. Georg Hann, the Cathedral Chancellor, was arrested following the execution of his wife and daughter in 1628. He came under suspicion after he petitioned the imperial high court to intervene in the cases of accused women in Bamberg. The execution of his wife and daughter helped the authorities to convince others of his guilt. His son and daughter-in-law were then condemned after they protested the treatment of Hann and his wife. Conrad Merlein and Conrad Orter both had senior positions on the town council in Zeil and were both executed November 1626. Two months later Orter's wife and daughter were arrested and the following year Merklein's daughter was arrested, along with Orter's son in law. Merklein's daughter was executed and her two sons, as well as two of her servant girls, were arrested. By 1629 the Merklein and Orter families had been virtually wiped out.

Why was Mary Glover accused?

Mary Glover was a typical outsider, she was a catholic and only spoke Gaelic. Mather claims that when confronted with her daughter's apparent theft, she swore at Martha Goodwin and soon the girl was afflicted by fits. Mather describes the first suffered by Martha, one of her sisters and two brothers, a doctor, Thomas Oakes, was called and concluded that only witchcraft could be to blame for the first because all of the children were afflicted by pains in the same parts of their bodies at the same times, even though they were not in the same rooms.

What happened in the interrogation of Mary Glover?

Mary Glover was arrested and a search of her house revealed that she had been making dolls out of rags stuffed with goat hair. She admitted to using the dolls in witchcraft and when one was given to her in court, the Goodwin children fell into fits and screamed out in pain. Mary Glover was unable to recite the Lord's prayer correctly and ultimately confessed to being in league with the Devil. Mather interviewed her in person, although had to rely on an interpreter. He failed to rid her of the Devil and convert her to Puritanism, and she was given an execution date in November 1688, although she told Mather this would not end the children's misery. After she was hanged, the children's fits continued . Mather took Martha Goodwin to his home in order to exorcise her but her fits once again resumed before eventually stopping again. Ultimately all of the Goodwin children appeared to be cured. During Mather's interview with Glover she had apparently named other witches who had assisted her in bewitching the children. Mather never released their names because he believed that women who made a pact with the devil were inclined to lie. It is clear, however, that the pattern of accusations and symptoms experienced by the children bore a resemblance to those found at Salem in 1692. Through the Salem trials, Mather preached that the evidence of a witch should never be used to charge another suspect because the Devil may have been attempting to incriminate innocent people.

What happened after Increase Mather and Governor Phips returned to Massachusetts from England?

Mather and Phips only returned to Massachusetts when the craze had already started, and there is no doubt that Phips supported the accusations wholeheartedly at first, ordering the prisoners to be put in chains and creating the Court of Oyer and Terminer. Phips was quick to appoint William Stoughton his lieutenant governor as chief judge at the trials, and Phips may well have viewed this as a mistake in hindsight. Stoughton was unrelenting in his pursuit of witches and took the lead in demanding that spectral evidence be heard. It is clear that Phips' relationship with Increase mather influenced his decision to close down the court, and his attempt to give a reprieve to Rebecca Nurse demonstrates his softening position. After weeks of careful consideration, Phips closed down the Court of Oyer and Terminer in October 1692 and released those who were still under investigation. As was common in both England and the colonies, those who had spent time in jail still had to find the money to cover their fees and one woman, Margaret Jacobs, had to wait in prison until another citizen paid them. Titubas life, as well as that of her husband John Indian, was spared but she remained a slave and was sold to a new master.

Why might Mompessons evidence not have been reliable?

Mompesson's dislike for Drury may have been exacerbated by Drury's career as a Parliamentarian soldier in the Civil War (1642-46). When he was first interrogated by Mompesson (who fought for the Royalists in the war), Drury presented a forged warrant claiming he was seeking alms for disabled soldiers. After the Restoration of the Monarch 1660, only Royalist soldiers were eligible for financial aid and Drury claimed to have been a military drummer in a Royalist regiment commanded by Mompesson's friend. It later turned out that Drury had served for four years in the Parliamentary army and it is likely that Mompesson knew this. Additionally it is clear from letters sent by Mompesson that his explanation for the events were shaped by neighbours and visitors and not necessarily his own experiences. To begin with his letters show that he was mystified and originally suspected a burglary, until a minister visited the house and suggested that the Devil may have been responsible. After a neighbour came to the house explaining they had heard stories of fairies leaving money in people's shoes, a letter from Mompesson revealed that the sound of jingling money was heard in the house.

What was the impact of the English Revolution (in which William of Orange became King) in Massachusetts?

News of the Revolution reached Massachusetts in April 1689, and the colonists of Boston revolted against Governor Andros. 18th April 1689, rebellious militia began arresting officials in and around Boston and surrounded Andros' residence at Fort Mary. The rebels declared that they were supporters of William of Orange and had no choice but to act in the face of the rumoured popish plot by Andros, originally appointed by James II. Andros fled and eventually in October 1691 Massachusetts was given a new charter and renamed the Province of Massachusetts Bay. Although King William was Protestant he wanted to maintain control of Massachusetts and did not want it to fall back in to religious rule, so enforced new laws. Voting eligibility was based on property ownership rather than religious denomination, all officials were appointed by the Crown rather than elected and the Governor could block any laws passed by the Council.

What did Newton argue in Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy 1687?

Newton demonstrated that Kepler's laws of planetary motion could be proven mathematically. He questioned the long accepted view first proposed by Aristotle that physics on Earth worked differently to the rest of the Universe. Explained centrifugal force (the force that appears to act on an object moving in a circular pattern, causing it to move away from the centre of its path) Developed a theory of acoustics, whereby sound varied depending on the density of the medium through which it passed. He also proposed three laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation

What was Newton's Theory of Universal Gravitation?

Newton's theory of gravitation was able to show that the planets are pulled towards the gravity of the sun (disputing Kepler's theory that they were pushed from behind in order to continue in orbit). The natural path of the planets forms a circular orbit because just enough force is placed on the planet by gravity.

How did the Pendle Swindle Start?

November 1633 ten year old Edmund Robinson came home late one evening and claimed his lateness on a very strange story - he had been out gathering berries when he saw two greyhounds. He tried to get them to chase a hare but when they wouldn't move he beat them with a stick and one turned into a witch and the other in to a boy. The witch then turned the boy in to a horse and took Edmund to a house with a barn full of witches. There were around 60 witches in the barn having a feast. Edmund ran and the witches chased him for a while, until he came across a boy with cloven hooves (a sign of the devil) and fought him. The boys father then began taking him from village to village for 3 months to stand in churches and point out the witches he had seen. About 20 people were imprisoned and put on trial in February 1634 as a result of the boys accusations. One of the accused was Jennet Device, accused of using witchcraft to kill Elizabeth Nutter, the wife of William Nutter. Jennet had been a key witness in the 1612 Pendle Witch-trials when she was just 9 yrs old. However in the past 20 yrs elite views had began to become more sceptical about witch-trials.

What did Bacon argue in Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human?

Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human (1605) where he argued that empirical knowledge, learnt from experience and observation, is the most superior form of knowledge. He states that if men begin with certainties, they end with doubts, but if they begin with doubts and observe known facts, they will end with certainties.

How did scepticism lead to a decline in witch-trials in Bamberg?

One reason why the Witch Craze began to decline is that people became sceptical about the trials. In early 1627, complaints about innocent people being executed for witchcraft began to be made in both religious and imperial courts. Von Dornheim issued a proclamation in 1627 stating that those who gave false testimony at witch trials should be flogged, and this proclamation was renewed in 1628 (suggesting that the authorities were aware not all accusations were genuine). However von Dornheims decision was likely reactionary, only concerned with protecting his inner circle → a series of accusations of witchcraft had been made against Forner and others in his administration.

What other Children were involved in the accusations?

Other children were also involved in the accusations, including Ann Putnam, Mary Walcott, Mercy Lewis and Elizabeth Hubbard. Ann Putnam was the eldest child of Thomas and Ann Putnam. Their family was one of the most influential in Salem Village and were instrumental in spreading the accusations. 12yr old Ann was friends with Elizabeth Parris and Abigail Williams and in March 1692 claimed she was possessed and began showing similar symptoms. Her name is mentioned over 400 times in the court documents and she played a leading role in the prosecution at the trials. She apologised for the part she played in the craze in 1706 claiming she was deceived by the Devil when she made her accusations. Mary Walcott was 18yrs old and one of the first to suffer fits. Her aunt, Mary Sibley, decided to use counter-magic against some of the suspects, especially Tituba. Mercy Lewis was 19yrs old and accused and gave evidence against 8 people in the trials. Her parents had been killed in an Indian attack, which Mercy had probably witnessed, and she was sent to live as a servant with Reverend George Burroughs (who would later be executed at the Salem trials after her evidence). She was also sent to the household of Thomas Putnam before the trials, where she became friends with Ann Jr. and Mary Walcott. Elizabeth Hubbard was 17yrs old and acted as one of the leading accusers. She testified against 29 people, 17 of whom were arrested and 13 of those were hanged (of a total of 19 who were hanged in the trials) and 2 died in jail.

How did the judicial system contribute to the witch-trials in Bamberg?

People believed witches were to blame for their misfortunes and the accused were often found guilty under the judicial system - the Carolina Code 1532 allowed torture to be used against witches in the Holy Roman Empire, and the accused were also responsible for all the expenses of the trial and their execution, resulting in a huge amount of land and goods being confiscated.

Why were the Bamberg trials so extensive?

Personalities - Forner and the Prince Bishops von Aschhausen and von Dornheim encouraged the witch-trials The members of the witchcraft commission used torture and often demanded 100 names of accomplices from suspects, causing the trials to spread quickly. The authorities in Bamberg had a lot of control over their own judicial system and so could use torture etc. with limited consequences Property confiscation led to high-profile individuals being prosecuted. The most intense phase of witch-hunting coincides with the Edict of Restitution of 1629 in which Ferdinand II called for the conversion of Protestants to Catholicism Increasing power was centralised in the hands of the Prince-Bishop and the structures that had kept him in check, such as the local council and the cathedral chapter were neutralised and placed under the control of the bishop and his agents.

Who was Governor Phips and what was his impact on the trials?

Phips was born in Maine in 1651 to a moderately prosperous family of fur and weapons traders. He gained royal favour and was knighted by James II in 1687 at the age of 36. He returned to Boston where he met Increase and Cotton Mather and briefly acted as Provost Marshal General for New England. He was baptised in Cotton Mather's church in 1689 and began to take religion much more seriously than before. Some historians have suggested that his sudden conversion may have been to gain favour with the influential Mather family. Either way, he was deeply influenced by their interest in witchcraft around this time. From London he worked with Increase Mather to renew the Massachusetts Bay Colony charter and Mather used his influence to place Phips in the post of Governor under the new charter.

Who was Plato?

Plato (427-347 BC) Idealist Wanted a 'Republic' based on the "ideal" state, sees human selfishness as the problem - goal is social unity More theoretical, not about what we observe but how we think about it because the physical world is always changing

Who was Von Dornheim and what was his impact on the Bamberg trials?

Prince-Bishop von Dornheim was instrumental in causing the spread of the Bamberg Witch-hunt - he even became known as the Hexenbischof (witch-bishop). He was a fierce opponent of the reformation and a champion of the Counter-Reformation. He took personal responsibility for the investigation into witchcraft in Bamberg and hired a number of people to assist him. His vicar general, Frederick Forner, was indispensable to von Dornheim and his legal adviser, Dr Ernst Vasolt, acted as an interrogator. Property confiscations helped to ensure that the wealth of the treasury, and that of von Dornheim personally, increased dramatically as a result of the trials. In 1627 von Dornheim had a Drudenhaus, or witch-prison, built to contain 30-40 suspects. The walls of the prison were covered in biblical texts and suspects could be tortured there with von Dornheim's personal consent. Smaller prisons were also constructed in other, smaller towns in the bishopric.

Which trials may have influenced Scot's work?

Prior to Scot's work being published, a number of high-profile witch trials took place at Chelmsford in Essex. One of the suspected witches, a beer brewer named John Samon, was accused and acquitted in 1561, 1570 and 1572, before he was convicted in 1587 of using witchcraft to commit murder and kill a cow. In 1566 three women were charged, with one being sentenced to hanging, one to a year in prison and one was acquitted. Another hunt in Chelmsford occured in 1582 and was driven by JP Brian Darcy, who favoured harsh continental style punishments. This hunt resulted in 14 arrests and two executions. Scot was clearly influenced by these trials, in an area he knew well, and although he ultimately believed that witches existed, he disapproved of the terrible effects of the hunts.

What did Ptomely contribute to our understanding of the Universe?

Ptolemy (100-170 AD) put forward the Geocentric Theory that the Earth was the centre of the Universe and the Sun and all other planets orbited around it. He used maths to suggest that planets move on an epicycle, but to make the calculations work he had to assume that the epicycles did not move around the Earth but around another point not far from Earth.

What does Robin Attfield argue about the work of Bekker?

Robin Attfield has argued that Bekker was much more influential than many historians give him credit for. Within the first two months of The Enchanted World being published in Holland, 4000 copies were sold. The fact that it was soon translated into German, Italian, French and English also underlines its significance. Bekker's publication also prompted a number of pamphlets to be produced in reply, criticising him for causing a decline in witchcraft beliefs. Attfield counts 131 contemporary Dutch works concerning Bekker, resulting in Bekker losing his job as a minister. He was put on trial for blasphemy and spreading atheism, but was acquitted. If his influence in Britain was limited, he seems to have genuinely worried German witch-hunters, who were still burning witches at the beginning of the 18th century. A number of German towns banned the book.

What was religion like in Salem?

Salem and the wider community of Massachusetts had been governed as a Theocracy so religion was at the heart of everyday life. The Puritans who had settled there saw themselves as God's chosen people and were concerned with seeking signs of God's approval and the presence of the Devil. The Scientific Revolution was largely ignored by the Puritan authorities in Massachusetts and they preferred to interpret crop failures, fires, illness and hallucinations as the work of the Devil. Anyone who did not conform to the Puritan ideal was viewed with suspicion, including non-English European settlers, Indians, beggars and especially women. The majority of the accused in the witch-hunt were women and in the eyes of the Salem Puritans, women were inferior to men, which the preachers reinforced in their sermons. In the Bible, Eve had been tempted to eat the forbidden fruit of knowledge in the Garden of Eden and this set a precedent for women to be more easily tempted by the Devil.

Who was Samuel Harsnett?

Samuel Harsnett was deeply suspicious of the Boy of Burton case and the work of the supposed exorcist John Darrell. Harsnett had first-hand experience of the case and was present at the examination of Darrell and George More. His book started an important debate about the nature of witchcraft. Harsnett was born in Essex in 1561, into a relatively humble family, and gained a degree from Cambridge. Like Reginald Scot, Harsnett was probably all too aware of the dubious Chelmsford trials that took place when he was growing up, and became deeply religious as a young man. He was ordained as a minister in 1583, and returned to Cambridge to study divinity. Harsnett rose through the ranks of the clergy to become Bishop of Chichester (1609), Bishop of Norwich (1619) and ultimately Archbishop of York (1629), but when he was involved in the case of John Darrell he was working as chaplain to Richard Bancroft, Archbishop of London (3rd most senior clergyman in Church of England).

What did Scot argue about the existence of witches?

Scot argued that the accused witches fell into four categories: Those who were innocent, falsely accused out of malice or ignorance. Deluded, malevolent, half-crazed persons, who had convinced themselves that they were in league with the Devil and made absurd confessions to that effect, but who were actually incapable of harming anyone. Genuinely maleficent witches, who injured their neighbours secretly, however not by supernatural means but by the use of poison (but still believes they are witches). Cozenors and impostors - the wizards and charmers who gulled country folk by falsely pretending to heal diseases, tell fortunes or find lost goods. Keith Thomas argues that Scot does believe in the existence of witches, however Scot believes it's more rare than is generally believed and he disputes the idea of the Devil's pact. Hugh Trevor Roper on the other hand is unconvinced of Scots belief in witchcraft.

Who was Reginald Scot?

Scot came from a Kent gentry family and was extremely well read. He took a particular interest in magic and witchcraft and was particularly influenced by the Dutch physician Johann Weyer's De Praestigiis Daemonum (On the Illusion of Demons), published in 1563. Scot was a member of the Family of Love, a radical Protestant sect that rejected many traditional Protestant and Catholic practices, such as infant baptism. Their core belief was that nature controlled events on Earth on a daily basis, rather than God, and they showed particular contempt for the Catholic Church. Many members of the Family of Love were wealthy, high-profile figures and they usually remained members of the Church of England in order to avoid prosecution. Scot made a clear connection between fraudulent witch-hunts and the Catholic Church.

What did Scot argue in his book?

Scot had to self-publish his book because it was too controversial, and he begins it by claiming that disturbances are all too often attributed to witches where there is no evidence, and other explanations are possible. Throughout his work he made number of key points about suspected witches: He doubted the more far-fetched charges brought against suspected witches, such as cannibalism. Taking direct influence from Johan Weyer, he claimed that women who genuinely believed they were witches could have been suffering from melancholia or delusions. Witches who did harm to animals or people did so through natural means, such as administering poison. He devotes a significant proportion of the text to discounting magic tricks disguised as supernatural phenomena, and the fraudulent individuals who carried them out. He includes the sacraments of the Catholic Church in his list of magic tricks, which he believed heightened fear of witches. The inquisition of the Catholic Church is given much of the blame for the cruelty handed out to suspected witches.

Why was Scot sceptical about the existence of witches?

Scot was sceptical because he was so devoted to a belief in the 'supernatural unknown' - a common belief in intellectual circles (and in the Family of Love) was the idea that undiscovered elements of nature contained many mysteries that could explain unknown phenomena. For example, it was accepted that healing could be done at a distance, or that plants and stones could have hidden properties that had not yet been discovered. Because Scot was so committed to this belief in a wide range of apparent natural phenomena that he was able to discount witchcraft as an explanation for mysterious events. Influenced by Weyer, Scot argued that a belief in witchcraft was not compatible with views put forward in the Canon Episcopi, a medieval text that informed religious law in Europe. The text acknowledged that witchcraft was not real, and cases of witchcraft were simply cases of deception. Finally, it seems that for most of his life Scot lived on his family estate in Kent and so most social contact in his life was with his tenants, who would have likely been strong believers in witchcraft. As an educated man (studied at Oxford) he found it difficult to rationalise their beliefs and when he saw children being used as witnesses at the Chelmsford trials, his view that most trials were held on very dubious foundations was affirmed.

What was The Discoverie of Witchcraft by Reginald Scot?

Scot's The Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584) is recognised as the first major work of English scepticism (although his rationalist style of criticism was already in fashion in other areas of study). King James' Daemonologie was written as a response to Reginald Scot's The Discoverie of Witchcraft, disputing his sceptical ideas.

What was the impact of Scot's work?

Scot's work was said to have made a big impression in the magistracy and the clergy, despite not being reprinted in England until 1651. It influenced the works of Samuel Harsnett and John Harvey and even those who did believe in witchcraft accepted a lot of what Scot explained on the subject of counterfeits and fraud. However most educated people did not fully support his argument and many saw denying the reality of spirits and supernatural intervention as tantamount to atheism. Furthermore judges were not influenced by ideologies such as Scot's work and a denial of the possibility of witchcraft to end the witch-trials, as much as by a "heightened sense of the logical difficulty of proving it..." → judges were not necessarily more sceptical about the existence of witches but about the burden of evidence required to prove witchcraft. Scot probably did not have a huge influence on the judiciary himself, however he does encourage more people to produce sceptical publications. However his work also led to the publication of King James' Daemonologie which may have increased witchcraft prosecutions.

Who was Sir John Holt?

Sir John Holt served as Lord Chief Justice from 1689 to 1710 and acquitted almost a dozen witches as a result of his critical approach to evidence and his suspicion of supernatural events. He made a name for himself as a rational and sympathetic judge, however he was not the first judge to become renowned for his scepticism. Holt was born in Oxfordshire in 1642 and began training as a lawyer in 1660. He was called to the bar in 1663 and was well liked by James II, becoming Recorder of London (effectively the chief judge in the City) in 1685, as well as being knighted. He played an important part in the negotiations over the transition of power from the Catholic James II to the Protestant William III in 1688-89 and was appointed Lord Chief Justice by William in 1689. A record of his career is preserved in Francis Hutchinson's A Historical Essay Concerning Witchcraft (1718).

Why were there social tensions between Salem Town and Salem Village?

Social tensions emerged in Salem Town and Salem village. Together they made up a community of more than 600 people. The majority of accusers came from the village, which was largely agricultural and made up of well-established and staunch Puritans. Those who lived in the area closest to the main Ipswich Road and Salem Town itself were likely to have more contact with the outside world and were less reliant on agriculture, as well as being less driven by religious belief. Many of these families established themselves as merchants and it is possible that jealousies could have driven accusations due to the poor harvests. Attempts had been made by residents of Salem Village to gain independence from Salem Town, but as the Town relied on the agricultural produce of the Village this was fiercely resisted by the authorities in the Town. The conflict between the two groups was based on differing visions of how communities should be run → the more old-fashioned, agrarian-based Puritan group in the village were concerned with public goodwill, whereas the emerging merchants in the Town were concerned with private interests. One of the most prominent families in Salem Village were the Putnams, who were heavily involved in the accusations. They were also leaders of the movement towards separations and were opposed in this by the Porters, the richest family in Salem. The Porter family had a number of business interests in Salem Town and wider New England. They made an attempt to stop the witch-craze when it started but many of their allies soon found themselves under suspicion.

How far did Witchcraft trials continue in to the 18th and 19th century?

The 1751 case of John and Ruth Osborne, who were pursued by a mob, was not an isolated incident and occasional cases were recorded well into the 19th Century. Gentleman's Magazine reported in 1785 that a suspected witch volunteered herself for the swimming test, and was found to be not guilty. In 1825, Isaac Stebbings of wickham-Skeith, Suffolk, endured the swimming test several times until the local clergy intervened and stopped the investigation. In 1863, an elderly Frenchman living in Essex was suspected of witchcraft as he made a living as a fortune teller. He was subjected to the swimming test and died a month later from inflamed lungs. Bridget Cleary of Clonmel, Ireland, died in 1895 after her family and neighbours became suspicious that she was possessed by fairies. She was held over a fire and suffered significant burns. Her husband was found guilty of manslaughter.

What was the impact of the English Civil War on the trials themselves?

The Assize Courts were disrupted by the Civil War. They couldn't travel across the country as they had done before due to the dangers of war and as a result justice was often left to local magistrates or by individuals appointed with only limited legal experience. July 1645, the Earl of Warwick (a senior Parliamentarian) was commissioned to oversee the Essex summer assizes in Chelmsford, despite having limited legal experience. He therefore relied on the help of county magistrates Sir John Barrington, Sir Martin Lumley, Sir Henry Holcroft, Sir Henry Mildmay and William Conyers. He sentenced 19 women to hang. Assizes at Bury St Edmunds were suspended due to troops being mobilised to engage Charles' forces at Huntingdon. Prisoners already condemned were immediately executed and those awaiting trial were sent back to their cells. John Godbolt, a Sergeant-at-law (barrister) was eventually commissioned for the trials. As a result of this breakdown in legal trials, local councillors were willing to pay Hopkins and Stearne for what appeared to be legitimate legal advice and their ability to find evidence for courts, resulting in an English record of 42% conviction rate.

Why was torture used in the Bamberg trials?

The Carolina Code 1532 allowed the use of torture under law and as a result it was used extensively in witch-hunts. A network of informers was created and a witch-prison was built in order to carry out torture. Confessions obtained under torture were permissible in court and defendants were denied many basic legal rights. Torture devices used in the trials included Thumbscrews (toes were also crushed) The strappado (where the victim was suspended in the air and left elevated with heavy weights attached to the victim's body for several hours at a time) Burning of a woman's hair Whipping (in conjunction with other methods of torture) Kneeling on a piece of wood covered in metal spikes Food containing excessive salt and pepper given to victims, who were then deprived of water A small room with spikes on the floor was used to stop the victim sleeping

What was the impact of the English Civil War in Suffolk?

The English Civil War led to a breakdown of traditional authority and general destruction, leading to heightened poverty etc. and therefore, arguably, creating the conditions in which witch-hunting is most desirable. Suffolk was a largely Parliamentarian area and although the area saw little actual fighting, it did feel the effects of so many men leaving to fight (up to around 20%) → in the trial of Margery Sparham it was recorded that she had been left alone and vulnerable when her husband went to fight in the war. Men leaving to fight resulted in a shift of traditional power → women were becoming increasingly involved in life outside of the home... In Wingfield, Westhorpe and Stradbroke, some of the 'witches' discovered were connected with radical Puritan Sects that viewed women equally to men.

What was the economy like in Salem?

The First Indian War left the economy of Massachusetts ruined, with half of New England's towns attacked and the important Massachusetts settlement of Springfield entirely burnt to the ground. However, a population growth rate of three percent per year and the establishment of new towns meant that the settlers livelihoods were not completely destroyed. However taxes were raised under Sir Edmund Andros due to need for military assistance from England in the 1680s. A series of Navigation Acts had a negative impact on trade and the economy in the colonies. The first was passed in 1651 and other modified versions were issued in 1660, 1662 and 1673 and according to the original Act goods imported to England and its territories had to be carried on English ships. This was designed to remove the Dutch monopoly on trade across northern Europe and North America and required that all crews of English ships had to be at least half English by nationality. Further Acts stipulated that goods being transported from the colonies to any destination had to travel to England first. Massachusetts possessed a strong fleet that had a reasonable amount of independence, and when captains of the fleet ignored the demands of the Acts, they were reprimanded → this rebellious behaviour was part of the reason Charles II and James II tried to centralise control of the colony. The Acts reduced the amount of money and resources that went to Massachusetts as they were directed towards England and it became virtually impossible to ship grain to England. As a result many farmers in and around Salem had to diversify. The Dutch had generally offered the best shipping rates for fish caught out of Salem, however with the use of Dutch ships now illegal, fishermen had to pay higher fees to transport their product to England.

What was the Royal Society?

The Royal Society - it was not until the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 that the political climate was suited to the formation of a more formal and recognised organisation, and Charles II's interest in science inevitably contributed to the swift royal charter given to the Society. It was formally proposed in November 1660, at a lecture by the architect Christopher Wren, and was established in July 1662. It met once a week and its membership included men from all areas of intellectual study. The society was divided into a number of committees, each responsible for a different area of study. Most early experiments followed Bacon's method in all areas of intellectual endeavour, but it was only after 1684 that the Society dedicated itself solely to scientific pursuits. The Royal Society was very well respected, due to its Baconian aim to gather all knowledge about nature. It has been argued that the Society gave a strong impulse to the inductive view of Science. "It is our business in the first place to scrutinise the whole of nature and then in course of time to hammer out a more solid philosophy" - Henry Oldenburg, Secretary of Royal Society, 1663. The Society encouraged foreign scholars as well as English ones to share their discoveries, and from 1665, these were presented in the first scientific journal, Philosophical Transactions. This sharing of information was extremely useful to scientists who were able to use each others theories and discoveries to complete their own. The Society also created a model which would be followed by groups on the continent. The aim of the Society was to carry out work that was beneficial to the public good and so there were regular public demonstrations. Wealthy supporters gave funding to the Society. As a result, science was part of the public consciousness by the early 18th Century. It was no longer viewed with suspicion and had been greatly supported by Charles II.

What was Kepler's Second Law?

The Second Law is that planets do not travel at a consistent speed; the speed of the planets varies as they circle the sun - when they are closer to the Sun they will move faster and will move more slowly when they are further away

What was the impact of the Thirty Years War in Bamberg?

The Thirty Years War had a massive impact on Bamberg. Foreign armies became involved in the war with nearly 150000 Swedes and 100000 Danes, as well as Dutch, Scottish and English fighting for the Protestant cause. After the French joined in 1635 the war became less a war of religion and more about politics. The presence of large armies led to famine due to soldiers requisitioning food and plundering towns and villages for supplies. Young men and boys were forcibly conscripted by both sides. Debts from war increased to 800000 florins by its end and during the war the authorities had little choice but to levy high taxes. This, combined with crop failure and inflation led to an increased fear of witches as misfortune was present everywhere. The impact of the Thirty Years War on the witch-trials is much debated. It is disputed whether the war caused an increase in witch-trials or merely correlated with it and it was other reasons that increased the witch-trials. Some historians even argue that the war disrupted witch-hunting.

Where and how was the Demon Drummer of Tedworth case reported?

The case appeared in two newspapers at the time, Mercurius Publicus and The Kingdom's Intelligencer, which were both widely read in London and accessed by many of the gentry in the counties and some educated tradesmen and farmers. Mompesson's name is mentioned in these reports, although not in Joseph Glanvill's more detailed A Blow at Modern Sadducism, In Some Philosophical Considerations about Witchcraft (1668). [Sadducees are a group of Jews who strongly reject some Christian ideas including resurrection of the dead and the existence of the Devil. Glanvill sees the Sadducees as evil and immoral.]

What was the impact of Harsnett's work?

The case of Darrell has been interpreted by historians to be one of factional fighting within the Church, as Darrell was a Puritan and Harsnett a Church of England conformist; however, the arguments of the Puritans Deacon and Walker suggest the truth is more complicated than this. Church of England trying to promote a middle way at the time → wanted to prosecute the extremes of Catholicism and Puritanism. Harsnett's work aims to reassert the authority of the Church of England. Harsnett was told by Bancroft to write the pamphlet. However not only was it from a place of Church Politics but it also caused people, particularly more moderate clergymen (not the extremes of Catholics or Puritans), to become increasingly sceptical about witchcraft and especially demonic possession → moderate anglican church stops doing exorcisms. King James supports the end of the exorcisms - how much are his views influenced by Harsnett's work and how much is it James changing views that cause a change in Church policies as opposed to Harsnett's work? However does not change the views of Puritans/change ideas about demonic pact, therefore influence is limited. The impact of Harsnett's work on church policy has a wider impact on the laity (ordinary people). The historian Keith Thomas argues that the entire controversy centres on whether prayer and fasting were accepted methods of exorcising spirits. In Puritan circles, these methods were widely used, but among the senior clergy they had long since been rejected.

Who was Jane Wenham?

The case of Jane Wenham became famous as the last formal trial of a suspected witch in England. Wenham was from Walkern, near Stevenage and had a long-held reputation as a witch. He nickname was the 'Wise Woman of Walkern' and at over 70 years old a number of stories had been circulating about her in the years before her March 1712 trial. A typical story relates to the accusation that she bewitched a farm labourer, Matthew Gilson, who refused to give her a small amount of straw. Wenham was said to have cursed Gilson, who proceeded to run down the road begging people for straw and stuffing his shirt with manure. When Gilson's employer publicly voiced the allegation, Wenham reported him to the local JP, Sir Henry Chaucey, and the farmer was fined one shilling. However Wenham was not satisfied and was alleged to have promised to get justice in another way. The farmer's daughter and livestock then fell ill.

What was the impact of the Jane Wenham Case 1712?

The case of Jane Wenham took place at a time when witchcraft convictions were extremely rare, so it is surprising that the Jury found her guilty. However Walkern was a village of approximately 500 people, including a number of upwardly mobile farmers, and a large number of Dissenters (members of non-established churches, outside of the Church of England). She was very poor, as evidenced by her stealing of turnips and straw, and Walkern did not have adequate provisions for the poor, so it is no coincidence most of her accusers were relatively wealthy. Sir John Powell, the judge in the case, was clearly unimpressed with the witnesses and the evidence put before him and it is likely he was influenced by recent sceptical cases and publications, leading him to acquire a royal pardon for Wenham. Crucially, Powell was an outsider, originally from Gloucester, and so able to approach the case in a rational and objective way, realising that many of the witnesses had personal grudges against Wenham. Therefore this case may not be representative of beliefs across England at this time. Wenham's case, like the career of Lord Chief Justice Holt, is mentioned in Hutchinson's An Historical Essay Concerning Witchcraft (1718). Hutchinson met Wenham after the trial, and reported that she was not guilty. He did however state that supernatural phenomena were plausible, but that the most far-fetched accusations could only be thought up by fools.

What happened in the case of Sarah Murdock?

The case of Sarah Murdock (1701) is perhaps Holt's most famous and although he acquitted the suspected witch, he was met with fierce opposition from her neighbours. The case had already been dismissed by an assize judge resulting in an angry mob surrounding Murdock's house and so the case was put before Holt. A number of neighbours testified in defence of the accuser, Richard Hathaway, claiming that he had been unable to eat and went temporarily blind after Murdock bewitched him. However Holt was prepared to put the accuser on trial for fraudulently claiming witchcraft, showing how serious his scepticism was. Richard Hathaway was exposed for fraud and sentenced to a year in prison.

How did Glanvill become involved in the Demon Drummer of Tedworth Case?

The case was brought to Glanvill's attention after it had become notorious and he visited the house in January 1663 in order to investigate the spirit. He claimed to have heard noises himself, and spent time speaking to eye-witnesses. Many of those he spoke to claimed that William Drury was responsible and using witchcraft to control events from afar. Drury was found guilty of theft in April 1663 and sentenced to deportation. Glanvill wrote that the disturbances stopped immediately, but that Drury was able to escape while being transported to Virginia because he was able to use his supernatural powers to raise storms by sea. He escaped while his ship was still on the Severn Estuary but was recaptured and tried for witchcraft at Salisbury. He was acquitted but again sentenced to deportation for theft. The disturbances began again and continued for several years. Glanvill attempted to persuade the Royal Society (a society founded in 1660 to promote the advancement of science and rational thought) that the study of witchcraft could be carried out and cases proved to be true by approaching them in a rational, scientific way, and many within the society favoured his approach. Glanvill see's eye witness accounts having seen the outcome of witchcraft acts as enough evidence. However changing threshold for evidence needed to prove witchcraft, people beginning to need tangible evidence. Just the outcomes are no longer enough, there needs to be a link to witchcraft - need to be able to prove it was a witch who killed the dog/made the noise... not an illness/child messing around...

What were witch-trials like in Salem before the start of the 1692 trials?

The first official witch to be executed in the colonies was Alice Young, who was hanged in 1647 in Connecticut. 27 more were hanged before the Salem trials of 1692, although many more were subject to whipping, fines or exile, although only around 100 cases had been heard in the 50 years preceding the Salem trials, and the suspected witch was usually someone who was already resented by neighbours. In the Salem trials more than 200 people were accused of practising witchcraft and 20 were executed as a result.

What does the first section of Harsnett's publication argue?

The first section includes a survey of the people Darrell claimed to have exorcised, and an account of Harsnett's interrogation of Darrell. He claims that Darrell immediately called into question the reliability of the witnesses, something Harsnett says all guilty men will do. He then goes into detail about how Darrell was able to convince people that William Somers was possessed, and claims that Darrell is actually immoral and sinful because, in his hobby as an amateur musician, he has played blasphemous songs.

Why did Charles II want more control over Massachusetts?

The first settlers to arrive in Salem set sail from England in April 1630. One of the earliest voyages included Governor John Winthrop and nearly 800 colonists. Winthrop carried with him a colonial charter stating that the colony was a possession of the Crown. At the time Puritans were being prosecuted in England and as a result around 10000 Puritans migrated to Massachusetts between 1630 and 1642. The colony's economy became stronger in the mid 1600s due to increasingly successful trade in fur, lumber and fish, leading to a growth of a merchant class. However as an overwhelmingly Puritan area, with a Puritan government, the colony was becoming resistant to Charles II's attempts to allow the Church of England to establish itself in the colony. Residents in Massachusetts were required to pay taxes to the Puritan Church and, although it wasn't compulsory to be a member, you could only vote for local officials if you were a member of the Puritan Church and non-puritans could be banished for spreading dissent. Charles II wanted to extend royal influence over his colonies and attempted to revoke the Royal Charter in 1678 and 1681 and consolidate all New England Colonies into one in order to centralise control. However the charter was not formally annulled until 1684 as a result of resistance from the Puritan authorities.

What sceptical publications were written in response to Glanvill's A Blow at Modern Sadducism, In Some Philosophical Considerations about Witchcraft (1668)?

The first substantial sceptical response to Glanvill came from John Webster, a preacher and doctor, who published The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft in 1667. Webster hoped the book would impress the Royal Society, and the publication was approved by its Vice-President, Sir Jonas Moore. Webster claimed he had been informed by reliable sources that the entire case was fraudulent and that Mompesson was responsible for the noises heard in the house. The case was attacked again in The World Bewitched (1692-94) by Balthasar Bekker, which inspired further criticism in John Beaumont's Historical, Physiological and Theological Treatise of spirits, Apparitions, Witchcrafts, and other Magical Practices (1705). Beaumont's view was that Mompesson's servants may have been responsible, and he recounts a rumour that two young women who worked in the house carried out the disturbances in order to scare Mompesson's mother. Mompesson's letters reveal his anxious state of mind after his servants claimed that if they left their employment, no one else would want to take their place, giving them control over him.

Give some examples of accused witches in the Salem trials

The first three witches were outcasts or from the margins of society. In such a godly society, their low social standing was easily associated with the Devil. Other accused witches included: Bridget Bishop, an independent minded woman, who worked as an innkeeper, running an establishment where drinking and gambling took place and wearing clothes that Puritans disapproved of. She was the first to be tried and executed. Reverend George Burroughs was the only Puritan minister executed at the trials. As one of the 3 ministers who served before Samuel Parris, Burroughs became involved in local conflicts, and borrowed money from the Putnam family that he was unable to pay back. Martha Carrier is revealed in the court documents to be unsubmissive and of contentious spirit. She was accused of causing a smallpox epidemic through witchcraft two years earlier. Rebecca Nurse was an older and well-respected member of the community and many of her friends and neighbours even signed petitions claiming her to be innocent, but the testimony of the girls was too convincing. She was initially found not guilty but the Jury was asked to reconsider and she was found guilty. She was given a pardon by Governor Phips but men from Salem persuaded him to change his mind and she was executed in July 1692. Susannah Martin was a 67yr old widow, accused by the original girls as well as 15 of her neighbours, although she maintained her innocence until the end. She had a previous history of witchcraft against her and was in an ongoing court dispute over her father's will.

What does Hugh Trevor-Roper argue about Webster's work?

The historian Hugh Trevor-Roper, in his influential The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century: Religion, the Reformation and Social Change (1967) discounts the importance of Webster's work. He argues that the origins of Webster's work can be found in the work of Weyer (published 1563) and Scot (published 1584), and that the intellectual debate had not progressed since then. Instead he argues the witch-craze declined because the power of the clergy over people's lives decreased in Protestant countries. It was no coincidence that witch-hunts continued for longer in Catholic countries, where the power of the clergy was stronger.

Who was Samuel Parris?

The hunt began in the winter of 1691-92 in the household of Samuel Parris, the Puritan minister of Salem. Parris was born in London but migrated to Boston where he attended Harvard University and after a career as a plantation owner moved to Salem to enter the ministry. He followed 3 other ministers who had failed to impress the congregation and immediately faced problems with his congregation, as an outsider he found it difficult to settle their disputes. Shortly before the witch-hunt began the town refused to pay his wages after he purchased unnecessary items for the Puritan meeting house, further strengthening the towns animosity towards him. Parris's preaching widened the divisions already existing in Salem. Shortly before his own daughter and niece reported being bewitched, Parris delivered a sermon claiming the church was under siege by the Devil, who was being assisted by wicked men in the community. The wicked men he referred to were his opponents in Salem.

What was the reaction to Copernicus' Theory?

The idea that the Earth was not the centre of the Universe angered the Church. Only a handful accepted the Copernican Theory and before 1600 only four came out in print in favour of it and only ten thinkers accepted his theory as physical truth, many even believed it was not supposed to be taken literally as it seemed impossible that the Earth could be moving and contradicted biblical accounts that stated that the Earth stood still. In 1616 the book was banned by the Catholic Church and added to their Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books). Scholars could access an edited version of the book although it was not removed from the Index until 1758. Giordano Bruno was even arrested, partially for his support for Copernican Theory.

What was the impact of the Demon Drummer of Tedworth Case 1662?

The importance of the case lies in the fact that it was revisited in a number of works over ensuing decades, not that doubts were raised at the time of the disturbances (it appeared to be national consensus that supernatural forces were to blame). As the great thinkers of the age began to approach witchcraft with a more critical eye, they became suspicious of Mompesson.

What did the introduction of Harsnetts publication argue?

The main argument is summed up in the introduction, where Harsnett makes it clear that the practice of misleading people through magic is nothing new and can be traced back to ancient times. He also criticises the Catholic Church, and states that Catholic priests claim to carry out miracles as easily as a squirrel can crack a nut. He claims that because Catholics are so quick to perform tricks and miracles, such as those apparently carried out through the power of holy water, making the sign of the the cross in order to perform a blessing and carrying out communion with bread and wine, they believe that rituals can solve any problem. The chief trick played by Catholics, however, is done when they claim to cast out devils through prayer and exorcism, which is also a form of ritual. Any casting out of devils can only be done by God, and anyone who attempts to take credit for God's work is heretic and a fraud.

Who were there most likely to be accused?

The majority of the accused were women with only around 20% being men, many of whom had connections to accused women before they became involved themselves. The first three witches to be accused were Tituba, Sarah Good and Sarah Osborne. Sarah Good was a social outcast, accused of hurting children. She was 40 years old and although she originally came from a well-off family she was destitute after making poor investments and not marrying into money. Her entire family were homeless and had resorted to wandering the streets begging. At her trial, even her own husband and daughter testified against her although her sentence was delayed due to pregnancy. She denied being a witch at first and accused Sarah Osborne of afflicting the girls. Sarah Osborne was a well-established widow with a relatively high social standing, but she lived openly with an unmarried Irish indentured servant named Alexander Osborne and attempted to remove the children she had with her deceased husband from her inheritance. Her behaviour was not what was expected in Salem society.

What was the impact of the end of the Civil War?

The re-establishment of traditional authority also led to a decline in witch-hunting. The majority of fighting ceased when Charles surrendered to the Scots in Newark in May 1646 and East Anglia was safe enough to receive the assize judges more regularly, leading to more witches being acquitted. Members of the gentry were able to return to their estates in East Anglia and began to re-establish their authority, disturbing the Puritan-dominated pursuit of witches. The end of the Civil War meant some relief to the suffering of the population, although harvests continued to be poor, and as a result there was less need for scapegoats and people became less fearful.

How did literature change as the Witch-craze came to an end?

The repealing of witchcraft legislation in England in 1736 meant that sceptical publications were no longer needed to convince the authorities that change was necessary. In the public imagination however witchcraft was still very much alive. In literature, witches were increasingly referred to in the realms of fiction rather than fact, but a number of writers continued to show support for witchcraft after the last trials. The founder of the Protestant Methodist Church, John Wesley (1703-91), wrote in 1768 that to disbelieve in witches was to disbelieve the teachings of the Bible, and was critical of the intellectual climate that had encouraged the repealing of witchcraft legislation. Despite Wesley's beliefs the vast majority of learned individuals accepted the rationalism that came with the age of science and reason.

What social status was the most likely to be tried in Bamberg?

The social status of accused witches in Bamberg was remarkable - higher social groups were extensively targeted, likely due to the law allowing the confiscation of a witches possessions. The most notable individual tried was John Junius, Mayor of Bamberg. Hans Langhans, Mayor of Zeil was also tried and confessed after torture in 1628 that be had been baptised by the Devil and admitted to being responsible for the frost that destroyed the wine crop 1615-16. 17 different well-respected households on the Lange Gasse, the main street through the centre of Bamberg, became victims. 10 members of the town council or mayor's office were also executed and at least 20 relatives of town councillors were found guilty. In total around half of those accused in Zeil were either local officials or their relatives. As well as obvious financial advantages for the Prince-Bishop from property confiscations, many of the high-status individuals were accused due to their opposition to the trials. Georg Eder, for example, was executed, despite being the son of a well known Catholic reformer at the imperial court. Eder was a passionate supporter of the Counter-Reformation but he was a vocal opposer to the witch-trials and so Catholic officials saw him as aiding the devil → there was a widespread belief that public officials who failed to persecute witches effectively were witches themselves. The law in Bamberg allowed for the confiscation of witches' property, encouraging the persecution of the upper classes. Victims were responsible for all of the costs of their trial and imprisonment, including paying the staff. As a result witch-hunting had positive benefits to the economy in Bamberg, paying lawyers, coachmen, rope-makers, blacksmiths, tavern owners...

What economic problems were there in East Anglia?

The witch-hunt appeared in the context of economic crisis, heightened by the Civil War. England was in the middle of a mini-ice age and the wet summers and freezing winters led to regular crop failures and disease affecting livestock. In 1646 the price of wheat rose by 20%. Many Puritan preachers interpreted the economic situation as a punishment from God. There were also economic problems for the poor caused by enclosure of common lands and inflation. In East Anglia, landlords were increasingly tempted to evict tenants and enclose land in order to gain more profit by focusing on one particular agricultural product. Wealthy residents were expected to pay poor rates to support the poor, but some saw this as subsidising lifestyles that they viewed as feckless. Since the start of the Civil War the price of livestock had increased by 12% and grain by 15%. Horses were regularly confiscated by soldiers and food was consumed in vast amounts by the armies. This drove up prices but wages did not increase. 1643 a new tax was introduced by Parliament to meet the increasing cost of war.

How did religion impact accusations in Bamberg?

There was a strong anti-Protestant theme in the witch-trials → from 1628 officials began examining parish records for individuals who failed to receive Catholic communion and were then reported to the official commission on witchcraft. Many of these then fled from Bamberg - Albert Pfersmann, whose wife, mother-in-law and sister-in-law had all been executed, fled to Hungary; Johann and Georg Kauwer, whose parents had been executed, fled to Rome where they presented the Vatican with a complaint against the Prince-Bishop. Margarethe Weltzin, whose friends and relatives had been burned, escaped to Vienna where she petitioned the imperial court.

Who was Thomas Hobbes?

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was the son of a Vicar. He was a philosopher who, despite working for Francis Bacon for a time, used a more deductive approach to human understanding. He advocated a strong government led by a single leader in his book Leviathan, published in 1651 (a clear reaction to the recent execution of Charles I and beginning of the republican rule). Two of his other great works of philosophy were published later in the 1650s; De Copore (On the Body) in 1655 and De Homine (On Man) in 1658. In all of his works, Hobbes' focus on deductive rather than inductive reasoning is clear. When he travelled around Europe in the 1630's and 40's, he met a number of continental philosophers, including Descartes. Although he disagreed with many of Descartes views, they shared the same opinion that knowledge should be based on certain indisputable principles. He believed Bacon's inductive method was too experimental, never provided secure, irrefutable knowledge, and believed an element of doubt can always exist when some observed facts cannot be explained.

What does Thomas argue about the impact of the Scientific Revolution on belief in witchcraft?

Thomas argues that magic and science originally advanced side by side as the magical desire for power had led to experimentation and created an intellectual environment which led to scientific discovery. For example many scientific discoveries were originally believed to be magical - before gravity was fully understood it was considered to be a magical force. However as the scientific age began to develop, scientific discovery destroyed many of the assumptions on which alchemists and magicians had rested their speculations. For example the Royal Society disproved by experiment the idea that insects could be spontaneously generated. Ultimately Thomas argues that it was science that caused the decline in the belief in magic. Furthermore new scientific and philosophical methods led to new ways of thinking which disproved magical beliefs. "There is no certain knowledge without demonstration" - Samuel Butler. For example William Harvey dissected a frog which was believed to be a Witches' familiar in order to prove that the frog had no supernatural features and was in fact just an ordinary frog. Not only did this help lead to a decline in witchcraft belief, it made the prosecution of witches almost impossible due to the requirement for solid evidence. Even if people did still believe in witchcraft they could not physically demonstrate that a person was a witch and so they could not be prosecuted - spectral evidence would not be accepted, "Charms, spells and ancient prophecies could offer no resistance to this type of investigation". Thomas argues that science created change and "These various developments thus robbed the old magical systems of their capacity to satisfy the educated elite", however he also suggests that change was slow due to religion. Religious beliefs could contradict scientific discovery (for example Copernicus' theory of Heliocentricity) and slow down their acceptance. This particularly slowed the change in beliefs in the uneducated working class, who did not understand science but religion played a large part in their lives. "The implications of the scientific revolution could take a long time to make themselves fully felt."

Who was Tituba?

Tituba and her husband, John Indian, worked as household servants for the Parrises. Tituba first became involved in the witch-hunt when Mary Sibley, Mary Walcott's aunt, approached her and John asking them to make a witch's cake in order to counter the possessions. The cake included the urine of the afflicted children and was fed to the Parris family dog, who was then supposed to sniff out any witches that had bewitched the girls. This did not work and the first became worse. Samuel Parris became suspicious and field charges against Tituba, triggering the witch-hunt. Tituba and her husband were of mixed Caribbean and African heritage and it is known that Tituba was purchased as a slave in Barbados. It is likely that Mary Sibley turned to them for magical assistance because they brought magical practices with them from the West Indies. It is likely that Tituba played a role in looking after Elizabeth and the other children and it has been suggested that the stories she told them from her homeland were tinged with tales of demonic possession and Voodoo, and may have played a part in forming the fantasies of the young girls. According to surviving accounts, Tituba confessed quickly to a pact with the devil and named other witches. She recalled that the Devil was a white man dressed in black, who made her sign his book. She also claimed that she had flown through the air using a pole and that the other witches changed into animals. Despite the emphasis placed by historians on Tituba's role influencing the girls there is no mention in the courtroom documents of her teaching the practice of fortune telling to the girls. The technique they used was already common in New England, and was viewed by Puritans as a devilish practice. Tituba also said she was beaten by Samuel Parris and forced to confess to witchcraft.

What were the East Anglian Witch trials?

Took place under 1563 Witchcraft Act (despite 1604 Act being in place) Mainly led by Matthew Hopkins and John Stearne Around 700 were accused or faced trial between 1645 and 1647. Between 100 and 400 witches were executed - accounting for roughly 20% of all witch executions in England. The conviction/execution rate was exceptionally high with 42% of those accused being executed. Despite this witch-hunting was actually dying out in England at this time. Around 80% of those accused were women. East Anglia was a strongly Puritan region at this time - key Parliamentarian AND Puritan/Calvinist stronghold during Civil War Courts in Essex had been becoming less interested in trying witches until the Civil War.

What did Tycho Brahe contribute to our understanding about the Universe?

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) became the imperial astronomer for the Holy Roman Emperor in 1597. He proposed a compromise in which the Earth was still stationary at the centre of the Universe and was orbited by the Sun, but all other planets orbited Sun. In 1572 Brahe had observed a new Supernova and published his findings, causing a problem for astronomers following the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic view of the universe, as it went against the established view that the universe was uniform and could not change. Brahe also published findings about a number of comets he had observed in 1588. He concluded that they existed outside the atmosphere of the Earth rather than inside it, as had been the established view and the path that was taken by these comets must mean that the idea that all heavenly bodies were controlled by perfect spheres was incorrect. He showed that planets moved independently through space and did not always follow exactly the same paths, removing the requirement for spheres. This meant that an entirely new explanation was needed in order to understand the movement of celestial objects.

Which dubious cases influenced Webster and his book The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft?

Webster comments on the Pendle Swindle of 1634, and claims that Edmund Robinson was instructed by his father to bring charges against the accused witches. Rather than being baseless speculation, Webster actually met Robinson when he was curate at Kildwick church in Yorkshire and was able to see first-hand a doubtful case. After noticing that his congregation was disturbed by the boy's presence, Webster went to see him at the house where he was staying and found him with two other men, presumably his uncle and father. The men refused to allow Webster access to the boy, but when he saw Robinson again in public, he was able to speak with him and ask him if his story was true. The boy was hastily taken away by the two men. Webster also cites the case of Roland Jenks from 1577. Jenks was a Catholic bookseller from Oxford who was in prison in 1577 for selling Catholic literature. At his trial, Jenks was said to have uttered a curse, and within a few days hundreds of people, including members of the Jury and two Judges suddenly died. In reality, this was probably an outbreak of typhus, but two theories were put forward at the time. The first was that there was some sort of poisonous vapour rising from the prison and the prisoners themselves, and the other was that Jenks himself was responsible through sorcery. In Webster's account, he blames Jenks, but denies witchcraft was responsible, instead attributing blame to the use of natural poisons. He argues that all accusations of harm done by witches could be ascribed to natural causes.

What was the impact of Webster's publication?

Webster never became a thinker of any significant stature, but his work was relatively well received and he engaged in public intellectual debate through pamphlets and books. The Oxford academic Seth Ward wrote a response to Webster's criticism of educational methods, as did John Wilkins, one of the founders of the Royal Society. The editor of Joseph Glanvill's works, Henry More, added a response to Webster's views on witchcraft when he published Saducismus Triumphatus in 1681. Webster also wrote on chemistry, mineral and metals, and was taken seriously by many members of the Royal Society. His methodical approach reflected the dawning of the new scientific age, and his thorough use of evidence, some of which was first-hand, meant that his credibility set him apart from many of the other sceptical authors.

Who was John Webster?

Webster worked as a doctor but made a name for himself as a preacher. Born in Yorkshire, in published works he suggests he had a familiarity with Cambridge University, although there is no evidence of him attending in the university registers. In 1634 he became the curate of Kildwick church. Before his ordination in 1632, he studied chemistry and medicine at Gresham College and became interested in the scientific method. During the Civil War he worked as a chaplain and surgeon in the Parliamentary army, and by 1648 he had left the Church of England and had become a nonconformist. After the Civil War he preached at a number of Yorkshire churches, and engaged in public debates about the role of university education and astrology. He was living in Clitheroe in 1657, and in 1658 the Republican government seized his books, presumably because his religious views did not conform to those of the government, and he gave up preaching for medicine. It was around this time that he began preparing The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft, which was completed in 1673 but not published until 1677.

What did John Webster believe about witches?

Webster's attitude was similar to that of Thomas Ady, and he agreed with Ady that beliefs that are not founded in the teachings of the Bible should be rejected. As with many sceptical publications, The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft was written in response to other authors who claimed that witch-hunts were legitimate. In this case, Webster intended to rebuff Joseph Glanvill, who had claimed that the Demon Drummer of Tedworth was genuine, and Meric Casaubon, the son of French intellectual Isaac Casaubon, who moved to England from France. Casaubon was a leading figure in the intellectual world after the Restoration of Charles II, and wrote in defence of the dominant view that witchcraft was genuine. Webster's central belief was that witches did exist, but that they were not able to command supernatural powers. They did carry out evil acts, but they did this using their own power and did not have assistance from the Devil. He was critical of the Demon Drummer of Tedworth case, and stated that the original complainant, John Mompesson, was responsible.

What is deductive reasoning?

Working from axioms (things that are self evidently true) we make deductions. If our reasoning is sound these lead to conclusions that must be true E.g. We know all angles in a triangle add up to 180oC and if we also know that two of the angles are 60oC then therefore the third angle must be 60oC. Been around since Aristotle. 2 Premises lead to a certain conclusion (provided the 2 premises are correct). Top Down - generalisations used to find specifics If the conclusion is false one of the premises must have been wrong (although wrong conclusion can still be drawn when considering new discoveries). CERTAINTY. E.g. I think therefore I am - What can think must exist, I am thinking, therefore I must exist.

How many witches were accused and executed in France?

10 000 + Accused 5 000 + Executed

How many witches were accused and executed in the Roman Empire?

100 000 + Accused 50 000 + Executed

How did witch hunting vary across Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries?

1420-1520: witchcraft panics in Germany, France and elsewhere, encouraged by a wave of demonological literature. 1520-1560: sporadic episodes of small-scale witch-hunting in various parts of Europe. 1560-1630: large-scale witch-hunts in central and western Europe. 1630-1770: the decline of witch-hunting in central and western Europe.

What was religion like in 17th century England?

1534 Act of Supremacy (Henry breaks from Catholic Church) leads to dissolution of monasteries 1536-1541 (Henry needs more money due to fighting wars in Europe and Abbeys tended to be very rich). Whaley Abbey in Pendle had provided charity to local poor however was closed down by Henry, allowing Puritans to move into the area and began clamping down on Catholicism and witchcraft. During reign of Protestant Edward VII that England becomes officially Protestant. However under Mary I England becomes a Catholic country again and Protestants are prosecuted BUT succeeded by protestant Elizabeth I who prosecutes Catholics. James I (Protestant but married to a Catholic) then succeeds Elizabeth and follows a moderate anti-Catholic path until Gunpowder plot - begins prosecuting Catholics more strongly. Lancashire gained a reputation as a shelter for Recusants (people who refused to swear allegiance to the English church).

What was the 1542 Witchcraft Act?

1542 Witchcraft Act had made it a felony to conjure spirits or practice witchcraft, enchantment or sorcery, in order to find treasure, to waste or destroy a person's body, limbs or goods, to provoke unlawful love, to declare what had happened to stolen goods (link with fraud - stealing and hiding goods then using "witchcraft" to find and restore them to their owners, for a fee), or for any other unlawful intent or purposes. Witchcraft clearly seen as acts of maleficia as opposed to relations with the devil etc.

What was the 1563 Witchcraft Act?

1563 Witchcraft Act made it a felony to invoke evil spirits for any purposes (whether maleficium involved or not) but was more lenient than the 1542 Act - witchcraft, enchantment, charming and sorcery only deemed capital felonies if they actually resulted in the death of a human victim. Killing animals or maining humans only led to a year's imprisonment and quarterly appearances in the pillory (stocks), but did become a felony on a second offence. There was also a reduced penalty for magic to find treasure and lost goods or to provoke unlawful love, punished for on a second offence by life imprisonment and forfeiture of goods.

How many witches were accused and executed in England?

2000 Accused 1000 Executed

Who was Anne Koldings?

23rd July 1590 a letter from a spy of the English statesman Lord Burghley stated that the Danish Admiral, Peter Munk, had demanded that about 5 suspected witches, who were alleged to have used witchcraft to disturb the voyages of James and Anne, be taken to Copenhagen. Anne Koldings, one of the suspected women, was interrogated and possibly tortured (despite this being illegal in Denmark). She gave up the names of five other women who were involved, one of whom was the wife of the Borgmaster (the principal magistrate of a Danish town) of Copenhagen. All of the women ultimately confessed to raising a storm to sink Anne's ship and sending demons to pull the ship under the waves. Koldings said that the women participated in meetings at the house of Karen the Weaver. Koldings was burned at the stake and at least 12 other women were executed. The authorities of Denmark initially looked for other reasons to explain the fate of the fleet before turning to witchcraft - Christopher Valkendorff, the minister of finance, was initially accused of providing an inadequate and poorly constructed fleet, but he turned the blame to the witches.

How many witches were accused and executed in Scotland?

3069 Accused 1337 Executed

What was Malleus Maleficarum?

A crucial change in the way witches were identified came with the publication and popularity of Malleus Maleficarum (The Hammer of Witches) by two members of the Inquisition (the Inquisition was a Spanish group who questioned heretics against the Catholic faith) - Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger (considered respected intellectual elites of the time) in 1486 which argued that witches held a covenant or pact with the Devil (the diabolical pact). Kramers book could offer an explanation for why more women were tried as Kramer explicitly explains why he believed women were more likely to be witches and the title of the book uses the female latin version for the word witch (Maleficarum rather than maleficorum). Kramers book was written to warn of the danger of witches and give advice on how to find and defeat them. The book was originally written in Latin but it went through dozens of editions, including a shorter, German manual to help magistrates who were less educated.

What was Lutherism?

A form of protestantism based on the teachings of reformist Martin Luther. In 1517 Luther published Thesis 95, condemning the sale of indulgences (paying the church to get into heaven) by the Catholic church. He taught that all you needed to get into heaven was faith in God (justification by faith). Luther also believed in 'real presence' at the Eucharist (i.e. the Holy Spirit is present in the bread and wine during mass but it is not actually Jesus's body and blood - transubstantiation - as the Catholic Church believed)

Who was Agnes Sampson?

A local, elderly woman with a reputation as a midwife, healer and cunning-woman was a relatively typical suspect for witchcraft, other than the fact she was reasonably well educated. She was accused of witchcraft by Gilly Duncan in the North Berwick Witch trials. King James himself interrogated her after officials discovered the Devil's mark on her body. She was put in a 'witch's bridle' (a device to keep her mouth open to prevent her from reciting charms), cords were tied round her limbs and twisted as a form of torture and she was kept awake for several days and nights to force her into a confession. She was also shaved a probed to look for Devil's marks, taking away her dignity. After this and the excruciating pain of torture she began to confess to anything that was asked of her (including sailing across the sea in a sieve, meeting the Devil in the form of a dog and causing the storms that delayed the royal crossing from Denmark). Apparently Agnes also told James the exact words he and Anne said to each other on their wedding night in Oslo.

Why was a lot of the evidence in the trials unreliable?

A lot of the evidence given in the trials is not particularly reliable - most of it came from Jennet Device (who was only 9yrs old at the time) and her brother James. It also included a number of cliches, suggesting they were agreeing to or repeating things others, such as Nowell, had told them. Both James and Jennet implicated their mother, Elizabeth, who had apparently made a voluntary confession. Her confession included being responsible for murdering John Robinson and Robinson's brother, James → Robinson had apparently accused her of having an illegitimate child.

What happened in Alizon Device's confession?

Abraham Law, the son of the supposedly bewitched peddler, John Law, reported the incident of his father's death to Nowell, accusing Alizon Device. She was then interrogated by Nowell (likely with torture) and confessed, as well as elaborating on her story and accusing others of witchcraft. She explained her grandmother (Old Demdike) had attempted to persuade her to take a familiar and she was promised the familiar would giver her anything she desired if she allowed it to suckle from her.

What happened to religion in England after Edward VI died?

After Edward died in 1553 he was succeeded by his Catholic half-sister Mary I, who set about reforming religion in England, rejoining the Roman Catholic Church. She heavily prosecuted Protestants, having over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake during her five year reign.

What happened in the trial of Alice Nutter?

Alice Nutter - unusual among the accused due to her high-status, however Potts explained that although the Devil usually seduces poor women through promises of riches, he could seduce wealthier women with promises of revenge against their enemies. Nutter was charged with the murder of Henry Mitton and James, Jennet and Elizabeth Device gave evidence she was present at the Malkin Tower meeting. Judge Bromley arranged an identity parade where Jennet Device picked out those present at the Malkin Tower from a line up - she picked out Alice Nutter, sealing her fate. Although Alice still refused to confess she was found guilty and was not helped by her influential family or associates.

What happened in the trial of Alizon Device.

Alizon Device - John Law, Alizon's victim, was present at the trial and gave evidence against her. Alizon repeated her original confession and asked for forgiveness but when asked if she could restore him to health she stated she was unable to, and that if Demdike was still alive she would be able to help him. Alizon was found guilty.

How did the accusations start in the Pendle Witch-trials?

Alizon Device was the first to be accused in the Pendle Witch-trials. She had been out begging, in March, when a peddler refused her money, she cursed him and he promptly fell to the ground unable to move. It is likely he had a stroke, possibly due to coincidence or due to raised blood pressure from the upset of being cursed at. However Alizon believed she had bewitched him and, once he had been carried to a nearby Inn, she rushed to his bedside, begging for forgiveness. The Peddler's son reported Alizon to the local magistrate, Roger Nowell (a Protestant). Alizon confessed to everything, but also accused Old Chattox, a local wise-woman and the rival of Alizon's grandmother. Old Chattox in return accused Alizon's Grandmother, Old Demdike.

What did Alizon accuse Old Chattox of?

Alizon explained the rivalry between her grandmother and Old Chattox. She claimed they were both witches, but Chattox had committed more heinous crimes including: Chattox was guilty of murder through witchcraft - she had cursed Alizon and her friend, Anne Nutter, for apparently laughing at her. Three weeks later, Anne Nutter died. Chattox had a rivalry with John Moore of Higham. Moore had accused Chattox of turning his ale sour, after which she made threats against him and his son became ill and died. Alizon also witnessed Chattox holding a clay image of a child, who she assumed represented Moore's son. Hugh Moore of Pendle died after accusing Chattox of bewitching his cattle. One of Chattox's daughters, Elizabeth, had once requested some milk from John Nutter for her mother. Chattox began to use the milk to recite a charm and, on witnessing this, Nutter's son kicked over the can containing milk. The next day one of his cows became ill and died.

What happened in the trial of Anne Redferne?

Anne Redferne - Old Chattox's daughter was tried for her role in the death of Robert Nutter, however was unusually found not-guilty. She was the only one of the original four detained not to confess to witchcraft. However she was found guilty of murdering Robert's father, Christopher Nutter.

What was Calvinism?

Another form of Protestantism led by reformist John Calvin, Calvinism acted as a sort of middle way between Lutherism and Zwingli. Calvin taught that there was not real presence in the Eucharist BUT through the sign of breaking bread and drinking wine, Jesus draws us to join him in heaven. Calvin preached Predestination, i.e. it was predestined whether or not you would get into heaven, not based on consequences of your actions. People used this theology to explain witchcraft - witches would break their covenant with God and make pacts with the devil instead. John Knox is attributed with importing Calvinist theology to Scotland.

Who was tried in the Pendle Trials?

Aside from the 11 men and women (including Elizabeth, Alizon and James Device, Old Chattox, Anne Whittle, Alice Nutter...) already arrested by Roger Nowell, other suspects joined them in the trial. A woman from Padiham was detained by Nicolas Bannister, as well as five women and two men from Samlesbury and one from St Helens.

What was the 1534 Act of Supremacy?

At the beginning of the 16th Century, Britain was an overwhelmingly Catholic country. However after Martin Luther published Thesis 95 condemning the sale of indulgences (paying the church to get into heaven) in Germany in 1517, the Protestant movement began spreading across Europe. In 1534 Henry VIII broke from the Roman Catholic Church in the Act of Supremacy after the Pope refused to grant him divorce. Although the new church of England still followed Catholic teachings, this split provided opportunity for Protestantism to grow in England.

How did the Privy Council Act to stop the witch-trials?

August 1597 the Privy Council acted to stop the trials (some argue due to the Aitken Scandal) by revoking commissions issued to local courts and taking back its power to judge individual requests from towns to prosecute for witchcraft, due to complaints of innocent people being tried. From then on the Privy Council considered each request for a commission to hold a witch trial and issued commissions only to groups of men to prevent individuals acting prejudicially. As a result cases were reduced to isolated incidents.

What was Bamberg?

Bamberg was a small state in what is now Germany, but was part of the Holy Roman Empire. The different states within the Empire had different levels of freedom and different religions. If a town or city was given the status of an Imperial City, there enjoyed relative freedom, only reporting to the Holy Roman Emperor, and local courts were given a remarkable amount of freedom. Between 1623 and 1632 around 900 accused witches were executed in Bamberg, from a mixture of social backgrounds.

What was witch-hunting like in Scotland in the 1600s?

Between 1603 and 1625 there were around 20 trials a year in Scotland, involving 450 people, and around half of those accused were likely executed. However there were no major witch-hunts until 1649. The 1649-1650 witch-hunt followed a poor harvest as well as political and religious turmoil after the defeat of the Scottish Army in the Second English Civil War. Furthermore the radical Kirk Party, attempting to create a 'Godly Society', rooting out witches and criminals, were rising in power. The 1649 Witch Act encouraged local Protestants to find witches. 600 people were accused of witchcraft and over 300 executed., most of them tried in temporary courts. In 1661-1662 another major witch-hunt occurred in which over 660 people were tried. The Privy Council or Parliament had approved all of the trials and many cases were heard before the same judges. The same men were also hired to search for Devil's Marks in many of the cases. However once again the Privy Council ended the hunt by limiting commissions and cracking down on torture - two witch-hunters were even prosecuted for fraud in their work of pricking witches.

Why was there a personal feud between the Chattox's and the Nutters?

Chattox had a previous reputation as a possible witch. In 1595 Christopher Nutter and his sons, Robert and John, had been travelling back from Burnley when Robert became unwell. At this time the Chattox's were living as tenants on their land and Robert insisted he had been bewitched by Chattox and her daughter. His father was sceptical about witchcraft and did not believe him, however Robert died returning from Chester shortly after and soon after his father became ill and also died. On his deathbed Christopher insisted he had been bewitched but did not name any individuals. John, the surviving son, would later give evidence against Old Chattox in the Pendle witch-trials.

What happened in Demdike's confession?

Demdike's confession contained many of the familiar traits of witchcraft confessions. She referred to an inability to invoke the name of Jesus to protect herself after a meeting with her familiar (links to stories of witches being unable to recite the Lord's prayer), allowing a familiar to suck from her, and described making an effigy of a person in order to bewitch them. Demdike then turned her attention to Old Chattox - she claimed she had seen her and her daughter Anne making clay figures (used to bewitch people). Chattox admitted she had given a man her soul around 15 years earlier and was promised in return that she would want for nothing and would be able to take revenge on any people who had wronged her.

Why might Gilly Duncan have been accused of witchcraft?

Duncan began healing quite suddenly, having never done it before (It is believed Agnes Sampson may have taught her), and had some success with patients making miraculous recoveries. Neighbours began whispering that supernatural forces were to blame. She worked as a maid-servant for the local deputy bailiff, David Seaton, who decided to question her on her newly acquired skills as well as why she had been stealing from his house and disappearing for days at a time (it was also suspected that Duncan may have been having an affair with Seaton, so this could be a reason behind the accusation).

What happened after Gilly Duncan was accused?

Duncan was questioned by David Seaton, however remained silent throughout the questioning and so she was tortured with 'Pilliwinks' (thumb screws) and cords around the head (jerked about to 'rattle the brain'). However Duncan continued to deny being involved in witchcraft and so Seaton searched for a 'Devil's mark'. When one was found on the front of her throat, Duncan confessed to witchcraft, stating her cures had been the work of the devil. She was sent to prison where she began to name other 'witches' (around 70 witches were accused in the trials, including many upper class women) and claimed that Richard Graham and the Earl of Bothwell had asked her and the other witches to try and raise storms to sink the King's ships. Details of the trials were published in Newes of Scotland (1591). Gilly Duncan accused various other locals as witches after her confession, including Agnes Sampson, John Fian and Euphemia Macalzean.

What happened in the trial of Elizabeth Device?

Elizabeth Device - contrary to Chattox's calm, reserved appearance in court, Elizabeth had to be taken from the courtroom kicking and screaming. She was presented by Potts as extremely ugly and confrontational - when her daughter, Jennet, came to give evidence she cursed at her, making her cry and had to be taken away. She was charged with the murders of John and James Barley and Henry Mitton. Jennet's evidence was well rehearsed and confident - it is likely Nowell may have told her what to say, and the charms she repeated were a mixture of traditional folklore of witches and Catholic hymns and prayers.

What was the impact of the Gunpowder Plot on religion in England?

Elizabeth I died in 1603 and was succeeded by James I of England (James VI of Scotland). James is a Protestant but feels he needs to prove it, leading to moderate prosecutions of Puritans and Catholics (slightly strengthening but largely continuing prosecutions from Elizabeth's reign). However James' conviction against Catholics after the Gunpowder Plot when a group of Catholics were found guilty of plotting to blow up Parliament and kill the King. In 1612 the Central Government sent out a commission to find Catholics and prosecute those who refused to take Protestant communion.

What was enclosure?

Enclosure was the closing off of common lands by the lords that owned them/the land they were on (often illegally). The Lords could then charge peasants what they wanted for use and choose what they wanted on their land (i.e. if sheep farming became desirable as the price of wool went up Lords would stop renting to crop farmers and begin renting to sheep farmers). It caused farming to become more efficient (which was better for the Lords, however meant there were less jobs leading to unemployment and poverty) and also led to more people moving to the cities, as well as unemployed vagrants travelling the countryside in search of temporary work.

Who was Euphame MacCalzean and why was she accused in the North Berwick Witch trials?

Euphame MacCalzean was a rich heiress married to Patrick Moscrop - David Seaton's brother in Law. MacCalzean was involved in a number of personal feuds with relatives - she had been born illegitimate but was legitimised by her father in 1558, preventing her Uncle, Henry MacCalzean, from taking her very large inheritance. Furthermore MacCalzean and her husband received far more in her Mother-in-laws inheritance than David Seaton and his wife had, causing Seaton to feel jealous of her and therefore he may have encouraged (through torture) his servant, Gilly Duncan, to accuse her during her trial (in fact at Duncan's execution she swore her accusations of Euphame MacCalzean and Barbara Napier were all lies which she had been persuaded by David Seaton, and others, to tell). MacCalzean was accused of attempting to cause the death, by magic, of her father-in-law John Moscrop, allegedly trying to kill her own husband (with whom her marriage had never gone smoothly), killing her husband's sister's son and her uncle Henry MacCalzean's daughter Lilias, bewitching Mary (sister of royal favourite James Sandilands of Slamannan) and Mary's intended husband (Joseph Douglas of Pumfraston who she allegedly wanted one of her own daughters to marry instead). "So vital was Seton's part that one can describe a major dimension of this famous case as Seton Vs MacCalzean" - Louise Yeomen.

What is the 'functional' argument for the reasons for the existence of witch-hunts?

Functional - Social and economic (increase in population, rising prices, reduction in real wages, increase in % of population living in towns, increase in capitalism, break up of villages...), the role of the weather and the mini ice age (poor harvest, crop failure...), disease and plague, Class conflict, personal and social reasons (selfish motives e.g. to gain property), by-product of misogyny (e.g. women healers threatening the male medical community...)

What was religion like in the Holy Roman Empire?

German towns became very divided in terms of religion due to the Protestant reformation. After Catholic Emperor Charles V gained victory over a Protestant confederacy in 1548 it was established that the religion of the ruler should be the religion of the region. Therefore a majority of one religion could be ruled by a minority of another religion within a region. Although Catholics, Calvinists and Lutherans generally lived together harmoniously, the balance was easily upset. In Germany Catholic regions were ruled by Prince-Bishops, who were often extensive witch hunters however in Catholic Spain, where the Inquisition was involved in hunting witches, relatively few were actually executed, and in Protestant Scotland and Sweden witch-hunting was also prolific. Therefore there appears to be no link between Catholicism or Protestantism and witch-hunting, however there is a link in countries where there is religious discourse. In Germany political and judicial authority was fragmented, meaning panics could easily start. The Reformation and Counter-reformation led to Germans fearing the Devil's work around them and mistrusting people who did not have the same religion.

What was the Carolina Code?

Germany had limited legal framework against witches. The Carolina Law Code, passed by Charles V in 1532, specified justice should remain a local matter and it was often cited to justify the work of witch hunters (although actually contained little guide to witch-hunting). Furthermore it allowed the torture of witches.

What was the Peace of Ausburg?

In 1555 the Peace of Ausburg was signed → leaders of the Holy Roman Empire states could only be Catholic however the people could choose to be Catholic or Lutheran (but NOT Calvinist).

What was witch-hunting like in Denmark?

In the late 16th Century Denmark had a long history of medieval suspicion and legal action against witches (although actual witch-hunting arrived relatively late). Suspected witches had a remarkable amount of state protection after laws were passed in 1547 to ensure fair trials. Torture was not allowed and testimonies from disreputable individuals were excluded from trials. In 1576 further reform was carried out, guaranteeing appeals against local court decisions could be carried out in the high court in Copenhagen. Danish trials rarely made reference to a satanic pact. Despite this there were a number of high-profile witch-hunts that undoubtedly influenced events in Scotland. During the Protestant Reformation High profile clergy began labelling those who opposed them as witches and the Lutheran Bishop, Peter Palladius, also encouraged 'good Christians' to speak up if they suspected someone of witchcraft (he reported 52 witches burned in just one hunt, after each confessed the names of others when they were found guilty). The events in Denmark reinforced Scottish prejudices - for example in 1576 Bessie Dunlop was accused of witchcraft in Ayr and was charged with conversing with the Devil, who had invited her to become Catholic. Bessie confessed under torture that the ghost of a soldier had assisted her in healing animals and finding stolen goods.

How did witches relate to the Devil?

It was believed that the Devil himself would visit the witch, wooing her with promises of gifts (e.g. money - explains why poor women often accused) and seal the bargain with her by touching her and leaving a blemish (The Devil's Mark e.g. birthmarks, moles, warts, scars...) and then might visit her and ravish her at night. OR the Devil would send a familiar (the Devil's advocate, or the Devil himself in a different form), often animals e.g. cats, dogs, toads etc. who would touch her/suck her blood and leave the Devil's Mark. Familiars or imps had been seen to belong to cunning folk for many centuries (harmlessly) but would now appear, urge the woman to make a pact with the devil and promised to make them rich/take away want... if they took out their revenge on someone else. Familiars could be passed on to witches children.

What happened in the trial of James Device?

James Device - James was showing signs of severe weakness and illness at the trial, unable to speak or stand. He was charged with the murders of Anne Towneley and John Duckworth. He had previously made a very detailed confession and Jennet was also called to give evidence against him. He was also charged with the murders of John and Blaze Hargreaves, to which he pleaded not guilty, however Jennet was brought in again to give evidence. Judge Bromley called the jury to consider the verdicts on Chattox, Elizabeth Device and James Device and all three was found guilty.

How did King James' early life impact his views on witchcraft?

James was still a relatively inexperienced monarch (he assumed power at the age of 17 in 1583 and so was only 24 at the time of the Berwick Witch-trials). As a child he witnessed a lot of political crisis - his father (Lord Darnley) was murdered when James was only 8 months old. His mother then married James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, (it was assumed either Hepburn and/or James' mother Mary had been responsible for Lord Darnley's death). Mary then abdicated to James after an uprising against her and fled to England, however she was then imprisoned and executed after Queen Elizabeth thought she was plotting to overthrow her in 1587. This upbringing led James to become paranoid about plots against him. Furthermore he was brought up as a Calvinist but Scotland was still very divided over religion. In 1589 he discovered Catholic George Gordon was plotting to assist Spain in an invasion of Scotland, however James appeased his Catholic Lords as they provided a degree of balance against the radically Protestant Kirk. However James became increasingly attracted to ideas of the (Catholic) antichrist at work in Scotland.

Who was Jennet Device?

Jennet Device was only nine years old at the time of the witch-trials. However she was taken to court to testify against her family. Her accusations eventually led to 10 executions. Jennet and her brother James both testified against their mother, Elizabeth, and described the party that had happened at Malkin Tower, claiming it was a gathering of witches and accusing many local people of being there. However Jennet also denounced her brother. Jennet probably believed in witchcraft but didn't really understand the implications of what she was doing. It is likely she had been convinced by Nowell to say what she did. She recited charms she had apparently heard her mother chant, a mixture of Catholic texts and old folklore.

Who was John Fian?

John Fian, a schoolmaster a few miles from North Berwick, was arrested December 1590 with 20 counts of witchcraft and high treason. When he was initially imprisoned he claimed he had entirely renounced the Devil, but the evening after he had done this, the Devil came to him and told him he would never be able to escape his clutches and that he would take him under his control when he died. Fian was then able to escape for a short time however was recaptured and tortured under command of the King. Fian refused to confess even under heavy torture, however it was believed that if a witch refused to confess it meant the Devil was particularly entrenched in their soul. John Fian was not a typical witch (he was a well educated male) but may have been accused due to his affairs with a number of married women and mistrust in him from his local community due to his ability to read Latin and Greek (many locals were illiterate).

How did the trials work?

Judges would travel around the country to carry out trials and when they arrived in Lancaster on 16th August. Sir James Altham, appointed Baron of the Exchequer 1606, was well respected, orthodox Protestant, who had risen quickly in the reign of James I and probably held similar views to the King on witch-hunting. It is speculated he may have consulted a copy of Daemonologie during the trial. Sir Edward Bromley had also risen quickly to become a Serjeant-at-law and a Baron of the Exchequer, as well as being knighted, in 1610, and had been educated in the calvinist tradition. He was well trusted by the King - he had been appointed mediator with the House of Lords over proposals of a union between England and Scotland. It appears Bromley was hoping to be promoted to a job closer to London → both the judges were concerned with gaining the King's favour and positive convictions for witchcraft may have helped them do this. Each witch was asked in turn whether they believed themselves to be guilty, all but one pleading 'not guilty'. On the surface Assize courts seemed relatively fair but the defendants were not allowed to prepare a defence and they may not have known the exact charges against them until they were read out in court. Although both judges were renowned as rational men, they were still prepared to accept dubious evidence and confessions, likely made under torture. Altham had also recently been accused of sending and innocent woman to the gallows for witchcraft at the York assize on evidence given by 9yr old Jennet Device. The cases were divided between the judges with Roger Nowell acting as prosecutor, and Thomas Potts recording the trial.

What was the Kirk-State Commission 1592?

June 1592 Privy Council set up a joint body between commissioners from the Kirk and the Government to tour Scotland, addressing social and religious issues, including witchcraft. At this time the Kirk was rising in power, while the King was exceptionally weak, and so the measure was passed in response to pressure from the Kirk. It promoted witch-hunting, sending commissioners around Scotland with the authority to empower local leaders to investigate witchcraft. Scots were encouraged to inform on people they believed to be witches - inside every church was a box in which anyone could post the name of a person they suspected with details of their crimes. This system tempted people to make accusations against people they suspected of witchcraft and also their enemies.

What were the Scottish Courts like?

Justiciary Courts - Based in Edinburgh but cases from all over Scotland could be heard here (although a disproportionate number were from the counties surrounding Edinburgh). Approximately 55% of those tried in Justiciary Courts were executed. Circuit Courts - Courts held in various counties across Scotland BUT using judges from the central courts. Just 16% of those tried in these courts for witchcraft were executed, suggesting the presence of central judges had a substantial negative impact on guilty verdicts for witchcraft trials. Local Commissions - Local, ad hoc courts commissioned by the Privy Council or Parliament to try witches in the areas they were arrested. These courts were not staffed by professionally trained judges from the central courts but by local landowners and magistrates. The Execution rate in these courts was disproportionately high with approximately 91% of those tried being executed.

Why did King James travel to Denmark in 1598?

King James needed to produce an heir and was also under criticism for not having married before (and his close relationships with his favourite men of the court). In 1598 he married 14yr old Anne of Denmark, she tried to set sail for Scotland 3 times but each time was pushed back by storms. The Danish Admiral, Peter Munk, (perhaps afraid of being accused of negligence) said he could not recall ever witnessing storms as dangerous and attributed them to witchcraft. James ordered his cousin, Francis Stewart, Earl of Bothwell and Admiral of Scotland, to travel to Denmark to fetch his wife. However after Bothwell submitted his estimated costs for the trip to the Chancellor, the plans were rejected as too expensive and so it was decided James would travel to Denmark himself.

How did might have the way of life in the 16th and 17th centuries contributed to the belief in witchcraft?

Lack of adequate healthcare and understanding. Very low life expectancy and high mortality rates. Mental illness not recognised - often led to accusations of witchcraft as people didn't understand mental issues, e.g. old women with dementia might be thought to be witches because of their nonsensical ramblings being mistaken for curses etc. People did not trust doctors and for illnesses most people went to the local wise-woman or apothecarist for a cure. BUT very fine line between 'good magic' and witchcraft. People routinely experienced disaster - fires, plagues, disease, illness, poor harvest, death of livestock, loss of child, milk drying up... Worst harvests in 1555 & 1556 coincided with an influenza epidemic, killing 6% of the population. People didn't understand why and the main explanation was the supernatural and maleficia - witches committed evil supernatural acts on behalf of the devil. Drunkenness was a big problem in Early Modern People - working class people often used drinking, gambling etc. to escape the problems of everyday life.

What does Larner argue about the severity of Scottish witch-trials in comparison to English witch-trials?

Larner argues that Scotland suffered more severe witchcraft due to differences in the legal system (Inquisitorial Vs Pragmatic) and that witchcraft was centrally controlled so therefore prosecutions could be used for political purposes. She also argued religion (Calvinist theology) was important in Scottish witch-trials (ideas of pacts with the devil etc. as opposed to maleficia). She argues that the reason for the relative severity of the Scottish witch-trials was not to do with weather or poverty - the witch-trials tended to take place in richer and less 'wild' areas of Scotland.

How did the accusation of Agnes Sampson exacerbate the North Berwick Trials?

Magistrates believed that Sampson was a leader of the coven of witches and as a result the accusations began to move away from North Berwick, towards Edinburgh - Sampson had travelled a lot and mixed in high social circles as a healer and midwife. She accused Barbara Napier (a friend of Bothwell), royal courtier Richard Graham (taken into custody in 1590 as a magician, who also knew Bothwell, and according to the earl's testimony at his own trial in 1593 had once tried to sell him a ring containing a familiar spirit), and Effie McCalyan (well respected daughter of Lord Cliftonhall). Sampson also wrote to Bothwell during his trial (but the letter was given to the King, contributing to his mistrust of Bothwell).

What was the Aitken Scandal?

Margaret Aitken, 'the great witch of Balwery', from Fife, claimed to be able to spot other witches just by looking into her eyes, and so she was brought from town to town to find other witches and sent many women to their deaths, until she was exposed for fraud (she was presented with the same person two days in a row and claimed they were a witch one day, innocent the next).

What happened in the trial of Margaret Pearson?

Margaret Pearson - this was the third time Pearson had been on trial as she had previously been accused of both murder and witchcraft. She was accused of killing a horse belonging to Mr Dodgson. She was found guilty however only sentenced to four days of public humiliation in the pillory.

What was Newes from Scotland?

Newes from Scotland published in London in 1591 describes some of the Scottish witch-trials. It was effectively propaganda to make King James of Scotland appear a good and strong leader as Elizabeth, the Queen of England was ageing and had no heir. Scotland and England remained separate countries until 1707 but in 1603 James became King of England and Scotland.

Why did widespread persecutions continue in and around North Berwick up until 1597?

North Berwick Witch-hunt 1590-91 was followed by a period of relative quiet in terms of witch-hunting. However in 1595 three suspected witches were sent to Edinburgh from Caithness after allegedly fraternising with the Earl of Bothwell. A number of witches were reported to have been burned in Merse, along the Scottish Border. 1596, trial of Alison Jollie held in Edinburgh after being accused of hiring a witch to kill her neighbour BUT found not guilty. King James also attended the trial of Cristian Stewart, who was accused of murder through witchcraft. March 1597, Janet Wishart was tried for witchcraft in Aberdeen. The Witch-trials were over by October 1597 but had spread across Scotland leading to around 400 accusations, and approximately 200 executions, from Aberdeen to Fife, Perthshire, Glasgow and Stirlingshire. Local officials had taken the law into their own hands, causing the trials to spread quickly - The Aberdeen Dean of Guild was commended by the town council for his ability to hunt witches.

What did Nowell discover about the Malkin Tower Meeting?

Nowell discovered the meeting had three objectives: Secure the release of the four women imprisoned at Lancaster Castle by blowing up and murdering the gaoler (links with Gunpowder Plot) Carry out a ritual to name Alizon Device's spirit (however not carried out as Alizon was detained so could not be present) Protect Jennet Preston who had been accused by the Lister Family and recently released after being on trial at York.

Why did the Pendle Witch-trials spread?

Nowell prepared to send Alizon Device, Anne Redferne, Old Chattox and Old Demdike to Lancaster Castle, and the investigations could have ended there, however a week later a meeting was held at Malkin Tower, resulting in a number of others being brought under suspicion. Another JP, Henry Hargreaves, visited Malkin Tower, the home of the Devices, in April and discovered a clay image and some teeth from the graveyard at Newchurch, with the help of James Device. James was under suspicion but was assisting the authorities with their enquiries. The two men then crossed the county border into Yorkshire and visited another suspect, Jennet Preston, so James could identify whether she was present and the Malkin Tower meeting. Nowell and another magistrate, Nicholas Bannister, examined Elizabeth, James and Jennett Device in order to find out about the Malkin Tower meeting. Jennet was only nine years old but her evidence proved crucial in unravelling the supposed coven. She explained that James had stole a sheep to be eaten at the meeting and had killed it at their house. She said around 20 witches were present but could name only six - James revealed more names when he was interrogated. Potts collated the names given by the Device family into a list of those present at 'the Great Assembly and Feast'.

Who did Nowell take statements from?

Nowell took statements from a number of witnesses including: Margaret Crook, Robert Nutter's sister, who spoke about her brother's quarrel with Anne Redferne and his belief she had bewitched him John Nutter relayed the events of 18 years previously, when his father was apparently killed by witchcraft James Robinson (probably a servant of the Nutters) gave evidence that the Chattox's were well known witches.

What was the 1591 Commission?

October 1591, Privy Council established a commission to inquire into witchcraft cases, using torture if necessary, although gave power to only 6 commissioners. The impact of the commission is difficult to determine with some historians arguing it demonstrated the states wish to control the direction of prosecutions and maintain anxiety about witchcrafts, while others argue the commission was limited by its locality and was actually an attempt to wind down the trials around Edinburgh.

What happened in the trial of Old Chattox?

Old Chattox - the most senior witch on trial, following Demdike's death, Chattox was charged with the murder 18yrs previously of Robert Nutter (she was not charged with the deaths of John Device, Anne Nutter or Hugh Moore, despite Alizon's claims). She pleaded not-guilty however she knew she had no hope of being reprieved and broke down, acknowledging the evidence against her was true, asking for God's forgiveness and his mercy on her daughter, Anne Redferne.

Why was there a personal feud between the Devices and the Chattox's?

Old Chattox and Old Demdike had fallen out many years before the Pendle Witch-trials over the theft of 20 shillings worth of grain from Alizon Device (Demdike's granddaughter). Alizon claimed she had seen Anne Redferne (Old Chattox's daughter) wearing a stolen cap and band. Soon the two families were trading various accusations of theft and slander. Old Chattox (seen as the more powerful of the two cunning women) was offered a settlement from Alizon's father, John Device, promising to pay her a yearly tribute of grain. This payment appeared to have been settled every year until his death a few years later.

Who were the Devices?

Old Demdike (Elizabeth Southern) was an old wisewoman around 80 years old, living in a hovel known as Malkin Tower with her family. Her daughter, Elizabeth Device, was said to have a facial disfigurement, causing her to be mistrusted in society. She had three children, Alizon, James, and 9 year old Jennet. Elizabeth's husband had died and Jennet was an illegitimate child. They lived in desolate poverty, living by begging and stealing.

Who would typically be accused of witchcraft?

Older women often lived on their own and were supported by the Parish through taxes on the rest of the community → this led to people blaming old women for taking their money, leading to hatred and accusations of the elderly being witches. Although there were regional differences (e.g. Bamberg where the majority of the accused were high status men or Salem were they were generally younger people and children) considerably more women were accused of, and executed for, witchcraft than men, and the majority were 50+. The children of 'witches' were also vulnerable to accusations and the majority of witches were from the lower social orders. Elites were more likely to be accused once the witch-hunt had got underway. People at the time believed that outward beauty reflected inner virtues (looks represented personality) and, as old women were often considered ugly (i.e. due to wrinkled skin, crooked backs, grey hair...) people believed they were impure, even evil.

What happened on Good Friday 1612?

On Good Friday 1612 Elizabeth Device threw a party (Protestants should have been in church) and her son, James, stole a sheep to feed the guests. Everyone at the party was arrested and accused of witchcraft and they also accused more witches, leading to 8 more arrests, including the arrest of Alice Nutter, a lady of high social status but also a Catholic. Nowell arrests Alizon, her mother (Elizabeth), Old Demdike, Old Chattox and Chattox's daughter, Anne, believing that it would please the King. Old Demdike died in Prison before the trial, but Jennet Device, Alizon's youngest sister, was taken to court to testify against her family.

Why did King James write Daemonologie?

One argument about why James wrote Daemonologie was that he wanted to reassert his control over Scotland - he was a very insecure King (His father was killed, probably by his mother, when he was a baby and his Mother, Mary Queen of Scots, then fled to England where she was locked up and Executed by Elizabeth I. James' wife, Anne, was brought up a Lutheran but converted to Catholicism, undermining James with the Kirk (Calvinist) and therefore it could be argued that Daemonologie was published to combat this. The King was already beginning to think about becoming the King of England and so Daemonologie may have also been published to help this (England was also Protestant at this time and so James wanted to appear a good Protestant leader)

Who were the first to be arrested in the Pendle Trials?

Only Alizon was detained at first - her mother was searched for a Devil's mark and a mark was found on her left side that had been present for 40 years, however she and her son, James, were allowed to go free. Three days later Old Demdike and Old Chattox were called for questioning, along with Anne Redferne (Chattox's daughter).

What does Pavlac argue about the severity of Scottish witch-trials in comparison to English witch-trials?

Pavlac argues that the reason for the severity of the Scottish Witch-trials was that local officials got carried away as a result of immature government structures (e.g. officials trying to find and execute witches to please the King). He also cites the use of torture in Scottish witch trials to get 'confessions' from the accused, as well as the importance of Calvinist theology in Scotland. However he believed that the socioeconomic situation (Scotland poorer than England) did impact the severity of the trials.

What was the economy like in Pendle at the beginning of the 17th century?

Pendle's economy was essentially pastoral agriculture (animals e.g. cows and sheep) although there was also some cloth milling and some of the women in Pendle (including Old Chattox) worked carding in textile mills. Cows were very valuable and Chattox, Anne and Demdike were all accused of using maleficia to kill cows. Chattox was also accused of using maleficia to kill John Nutters cow. In 1399 the Land in Pendle Forest went to the King and then in 1509 rents went up 30%, increasing further due to inflation. Land was leased from landowners (in this case the King) to copyholders for long periods of time (~100 years), who would then let the land on to the subtenants to farm the land. Subtenants and their employees tended to be among the poorest in society, however when rents went up, Copyholders would pass the costs onto the subtenants by increasing their rents. In 1607 the Freeholders (landowners) began demanding 12 years rent upfront and so again the copyholders pass the costs on to the subtenants.

What was the role of Thomas Potts in the Pendle Witchtrials?

Potts was the Clerk of the Court and produced an account of the trial in his book The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches, which the Judges had ordered him to write in order to make the trial public. Judge Bromley checked and corrected the manuscript before it was published and both Judges took close interest in the production of the account (perhaps thinking it may help them gain the favour of the King). Potts' dedicated the book to Thomas Knyvet - the man who had been credited with apprehending Guy Fawkes in 1605. Potts' had been brought up in Knyvet's home and so it is likely this impacted his views of Catholics and witches. The book provided an account justifying the trials and also protected the reputations of Potts, Bromley and Altham and could enable them to advance their careers. Although Potts' account was written for a purpose and it is likely he edited the truth in order to make the account more interesting, it is still a relatively accurate portrayal of what happened.

What was religion like in Bamberg?

Principality of Bamberg founded in 11th century to aid the spread of Christianity in Germany. From 1242 its bishops became prince-bishops and became an important centre of the Roman Catholic Church. Counter-Reformation began in the second half of the 16th century led by Prince-Bishops across the Holy Roman Empire. It gained momentum through the influence of the Jesuit order (a Catholic order approved by the Pope in 1540). Jesuit churches were founded in cities across the empire and the message from the Clergy was fiercely anti-protestant. In the parish church of St Michael, Zeil, Bamberg, there is a ceiling painting showing the Catholic Church victorious over Protestant heretics. The connection between Protestantism and witchcraft is clear and furthermore the fact it is in a painting shows the genuine concern of the time. Some Protestant areas did refuse to renounce their faith and resisted the Counter-Reformation. When Johann Gottfried von Aschhausen was appointed Prince-Bishop of Bamberg in 1609 he prioritised the conversion of Protestant parishes to Catholicism. He imposed fines on Protestant Parishes, restricted supplies of wood, sent in Catholic troops, exiled dissidents and even rounded up and arrested Lutherans. Protestants could also face imprisonment in Bamberg tower.

What was Newes From Scotland?

Published 1591 in England. May have been written in an attempt to make James appear a moral and Christian leader, fighting against the evils of the Devil and Witches, in order to advance his right to the English throne. Gave descriptions of many of the key witchcraft trials that took place in North Berwick.

What was Daemonologie?

Published in Scotland in 1597 (England in 1603). Written by King James to illustrate that witchcraft, demonology and other 'devilish arts' exist, as well as how witches could be found and how their crimes should be tried and punished. It was also written in response to Reginald Scot's The Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584), which criticised the persecution of witches due to his scepticism of their existence. James expressed the necessity of torture in witch-trials and stressed his role as the earthly adversary of the Devil and Witches. He claimed they were unable to destroy him because he had been placed on the throne by God and also that God would never allow the innocent to be accused of witchcraft. Furthermore he expressed that the only suitable punishment for witchcraft was execution because witches would never be able to leave the service of the Devil until they were dead. The book was written as a dialogue between two speakers - Epistemon (science), who is sceptical of the existence of witches and Philomathes (knowledge) who is certain of their existence. James believes there are two types of magic → Necromancy (normally performed by high churchmen, especially Catholic, but accidentally/means no harm) and Sorcery/Witchcraft (a form of black magic performed for malevolent purposes - Maleficia).

Who was Roger Nowell?

Roger Nowell was a local magistrate, central in conducting the Pendle witch-hunt. He was an experienced JP (Justice of the Peace) and a local landowner (unlikely to be sympathetic to impoverished tenants). Nowell had also been High Sheriff of Lancashire and had very strong connections with high-profile Protestants. It has been speculated he was familiar with William Perkins' Discourse of the Damned Art of Witches (1608), which promoted the idea of witchcraft including a pact with the Devil, and also with King James' Daemonologie.

How do Scotland and England vary?

Scotland suffers more severe witch-hunting in terms of numbers and views of witches (3069 accused and 1337 executed in Scotland compared to 2000 tried and 1000 executed in England [less accurate figures - probably far lower], despite having smaller population). Scottish witch-trials were often organised from the centre (government judiciary, as opposed to individuals accusing other individuals). In England witch trials were fairly small scale and sporadic (probably only around 50-600 witches executed between 1542 and 1735. In Scotland however there were probably around 1000 executions between 1563 and 1735 (despite population being much lower - most witch trials also occurred in the Southern and coastal parts of Scotland, where infrastructure was in place to find and try witches).

What did Alizon accuse Old Demdike of?

She recounted three other examples of Old Demdike's witchcraft: Demdike had a reputation as a folk healer and so John Nutter had asked her to heal his sick cow. However the cow died and Alizon concluded Demdike had bewitched it. Alizon once acquired some milk begging. She left the milk in the house where Demdike was lying in bed and when she returned half an hour later there was a quarter pound of butter in it, despite Demdike never having left the bed. Demdike (who was blind) had asked for assistance leaving the house one night and the following morning the daughter of a local farmer, Richard Baldwin, became ill and died a year later. Alizon admitted to Nowell she had heard her grandmother cursing Baldwin.

Did religion effect belief in witches?

Strong link between religion and witchcraft - people often believed witches made pacts with the devil (people were also suspicious of people of different religions e.g. Protestants Vs Catholics). However there appears to be no correlation between numbers of witches accused/executed in Catholic vs Protestant countries

What began the North Berwick Witch-trials?

The 'confession' (under torture) of Gilly Duncan, who was reputed to have unnatural healing abilities, began the persecutions of the North Berwick Witch-trials.

What was the 1604 Witchcraft Act?

The 1604 Witchcraft Act was the first of the acts to link witchcraft with the devil and was a lot stricter than earlier acts. It reasserted that invocation of evil spirits and using witchcraft to kill was a felony but also made it a felony if the victim was only injured and replaced life imprisonment by death as a penalty for the second offence of the lesser kinds of magic. It also made it a felony to take up a dead body, or part of one, and to consult, covenant with, entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or wicked spirit.

What was the Bothwell Plot?

The Bothwell Plot - Francis Stewart (5th Earl of Bothwell) was James VI's cousin and was a pretender to the throne (felt he had a right to be King). However initially James felt he could trust him and he became a military commander and joined the Privy Council (King's personal advisors), rising to the office of Lord High Admiral of Scotland. However in 1583 he was involved in a plot to oust the royal favourite, the Earl of Arran, and was put under house-arrest for a short time. Then in 1587 he openly criticised James for failing to prevent the execution of his mother, Mary Queen of Scots. In 1589 he was found guilty of treason as part of a group believed to be conspiring to seize the King, however his sentence was deferred. Although it is unlikely Agnes Sampson knew Bothwell, she confessed that he had asked her to divine (predict/foretell) how long James would live and what would happen after his death and encouraged her to send her familiar to kill the king. Richard Graham also confessed Bothwell was part of the conspiracy. Furthermore Bothwell had been the one to suggest that James travel to Denmark in person to collect his new wife, Anne, and therefore James suspected that Bothwell was involved in the storms that attacked his ships. Bothwell was arrested in 1951 and was summoned before the Privy Council but denied any involvement and so was held at Edinburgh Castle to await trial. He escaped in June but was found guilty in his absence. That December he attacked Holyrood Palace but was repelled by James' guards. James tried many times to capture Bothwell but was unsuccessful, however captured many of his associates and feeling the pressure Bothwell entered Holyrood Palace in July 1953, seeking pardon from James, who tried to flee, apparently remarking they could kill him but could never take his soul (showing he feared Bothwell's power as a magician). However Bothwell persuaded James of his innocence and was unanimously acquitted by the Jury. However the following month, James withdrew his pardon, fearing Bothwell's growing power, and sent him into exile. Bothwell attempted one last unsuccessful uprising before withdrawing to the English border and then mainland Europe.

Who were the Samlesbury Witches?

The Samlesbury Witches - Three witches from Samlesbury, Jennet Bierley, Ellen Bierley and Jane Southworth, were unconnected to the Pendle witches but their trial was also recounted in Thomas Potts book. They had been accused by a 14yr old girl of practising witchcraft, however the case was thrown out of court because the girl was exposed by Bromley to be unreliable and apparently under the influence of a Catholic priest.

How did King James' become involved in the North Berwick Witch-trials?

The confession of Agnes Sampson caught James' attention because it provided explanation for the terrible storms on his and his wife's crossing from Denmark. Sampson also stated that the Devil had told her the King and all of Scotland would be destroyed. James approved of torturing witches to get a confession and even took part in the interrogations himself. Furthermore he promoted the idea that witches actively worshipped the devil. He was obviously interested in witchcraft (he wrote Deamonologie in 1597 and was also involved in the publishing of Newes from Scotland 1591, and, alongside the Berwick Trials, James was involved in the Bothwell plot of 1593 and the Gowrie plot of 1600). James' 1604 Witchcraft act made the use of conjuring and witchcraft against the King, punishable by death, showing that James saw witchcraft very personally. James was also able to use the trials to assist his political cause - by presenting himself as a godly protestant (e.g. in Newes of Scotland, published in England) he could advance his right to the English Throne.

Did King James have an interest in witches before his trip to Denmark in 1598?

There is no evidence that James was interested in witchcraft before 1590 and there were few books on witchcraft and magic printed or imported to Scotland, although it is likely James attended a performance of a play called Flyting around 1580, which contained some references to fairies and witches, as he quoted from it in an essay he wrote in 1584. The Witchcraft Act of 1563 did forbid anyone the use of witchcraft or sorcery, or to consult with anyone claiming to be a witch but even the wording of the act treated the existence of witchcraft with skepticism. Witches are referred to as abusers of the people rather than genuine Devil worshippers - most Scots saw witchcraft as a fraudulent practice. Before James' voyage the Act was rarely strongly enforced - in 1573 an order was given by the General Assembly of the Kirk (Scottish Church) that witches simply repent for their sins, and shows no interest in executing them. However James would not have been entirely ignorant of continental notions of witchcraft and James would have been aware of a case tried in 1552 where references were made to a diabolical pact with the Devil.

How could witches be identified?

Therefore one way of identifying a witch would be to look for a Devil's Mark but witches were often identified before that e.g. through social isolation, appearance... Witches could then be identified by scratching the marks to see how much they bled, a swimming test (if they floated they were a witch and would be executed, if they sank they were not but would inevitably drown anyway), reciting the Lord's Prayer in full (if they made a mistake, common under pressure, then they were accused of being a witch) or watching (depriving of sleep). Other methods of torture were also used and would effectively force people into confessing to Witchcraft.

Who was Thomas Potts?

Thomas Potts (Protestant) recorded the Pendle Witch-trials and dedicates his book to Thomas Knyvet (who helped prevent the Gunpowder Plot - trying to impress the King). This creates a clear connection between witchcraft and Catholicism in England. Lancashire in particular was known for harbouring many Catholics.

How did the way witches were viewed begin to change in the 15th and 16th centuries?

Throughout the Middle Ages, there had been a belief in the working of magic with the intent to do harm (maleficium/maleficia). E.g. causing illness, death, disease etc. in a person, a member of their family, their livestock or their crops. This had been associated with sorcerers but in the 1420s, a new word began to emerge in Germany (Hex/hexe meaning witch) and the word for sorcerer (zauberer/zauberin) began to go into decline. The term 'witch' was much more pejorative - a more dangerous kind of magic had emerged. The way in which the devil was viewed also changed around the 13th century, becoming seen as more evil (i.e. depicted with horns etc. rather than looking like an ordinary angel) - this could be seen to link with the changes in the way witches were being viewed also.

Who was Zwingli?

Ulrich Zwingli was another important Protestant reformer. His main concern was idolatry in the Catholic Church (worshipping saints e.g. through images and statues - Zwingli followed Exodus 20:4 'No images but God'). He also disagreed with Luther on beliefs around the Eucharist, seeing the bread and wine as a symbol of Jesus but not believing the Holy Spirit was present.

What economic problems might've increased belief in witchcraft in 16th century Britain?

Very big rich-poor divide. Most land owned and rented out by rich landlords or owned by communes as common land. However in this period common land began to decline (due to enclosure) so more people had to rent land. Taxation system unfair - when taxes increased landlords simply passed on the costs to their tenants by increasing rents, widening the rich-poor divide. Inflation was very high in the 1500s - devaluation of currency in 'The Great Debasement' 1544-1551.

What was religion and witchcraft like under Prince Bishop Von Aschhausen?

Von Aschhausen invited Jesuits to settle in Bamberg and founded Catholic schools. He sent uncooperative priests to a prison known as the "Priests' Vaults". In 1610 he issued a new ordinance to punish anyone found to be practising magic, in response to Protestant rebellions in nearby Bohemia. He also stated sorcerers and fortune tellers were at work in Bamberg, contrary to the laws of the Catholic church and Holy Roman Empire. Despite this the Bishop's visitation report 1611 stated blasphemous practices, including fortune-telling and spell casting, were still being carried out in Bamberg. Protestant Preachers were often found being harboured in the same regions where evidence of occult practices were found, enhancing the link between Protestantism and Witchcraft in the eyes of the Catholic authorities. In 1617 there were 107 witches tried in Bamberg. Witch-trials declined in 1619 after a group of moderates on the local council claimed that, with war breaking out in the neighbouring Bohemia, the authorities could not afford the luxury of chasing phantoms. However opposition to witch-hunting was removed with the election of von Dornheim as prince-bishop in 1623.

What happened to religion in England after Henry VIII died?

When Henry VIII died in 1547, he was succeeded by his 9 year old son, Edward VI, who had been brought up Protestant. Edward was too young to rule himself and his Pro-Protestant advisors effectively took control of the country, effectively making England a Protestant country.

What happened to religion in England after Mary I died?

When Mary died in 1558, her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I succeeded her and reversed Mary's religious reforms. The frequent changes in England's 'official' religion led to confusion, fear of prosecution and large regional differences based on the beliefs of communities and their willingness to enforce the monarchies rulings.

How did religion differ across the British Isles?

While England went through frequent changes in religion in the early modern period, Ireland remained mainly Catholic and Scotland was largely Calvinist (a form of Protestantism)

How might've King James' trip to Denmark influenced his belief in witch-craft?

While in Denmark James met a number of scientists and philosophers including astronomer Tycho Brahe, theologian Niels Hemmingsen (who had written Admonitio de Superstitionibus Magicis Vitandis [Avoiding magic and Superstition] in 1575, a book on magic and related subjects. He accepted that witches were able to carry out acts of maleficium but denied that a pact with the devil could take place), with whom he discussed Calvinism at length (it was shortly after this that Calvinism really began to develop in Scotland), and a number of courtiers who held strong beliefs in group witch trials. James and Anne sailed back to Scotland as part of a fleet, the journey was perilous and one ship was lost. Some began to blame witches. When members of the Danish court made a visit to Scotland a few months later, James' conviction against witches was further strengthened in conversation with leading courtiers. Historians Christina Larner and PG Maxwell-Stuart have suggested that it was James' meeting with theologian Niels Hemmingsen that may have fired his belief in witchcraft, however other historians such as Thomas Riis have disputed this idea.

Why might there have been less witchcraft convictions in England and Scotland than in other European countries?

Witch trials took place in the secular courts under the Witchcraft Statute passed by the Scottish Parliament. In those courts where there was a presence of centrally trained judges the execution rates for witchcraft tended to be far lower than in local courts. In England virtually all witchcraft prosecutions were conducted by central judges (mainly in circuit courts) and so it is not surprising to find that conviction (and execution) rates were exceptionally low in England by European standards (although the strict prohibition of torture in England probably had a larger impact on this). In France for example the majority of witchcraft trials took place in local courts and the execution rate was far higher than in England (but lower than in Germany) however trials could then be appealed to the regional parlements (essentially central courts). In the Parlement of Paris the dismissal rate for witchcraft trials was 36% and only 24% of cases were confirmed. The Parlement of Paris refused to sentence witches to death on the basis of confessions extracted under torture (although the personal isolation of the judges from the cases as well as greater scepticism of witchcraft may also have impacted the dismissal rates). The other eight provincial Parlements in France were not central institutions and had a much less lenient record of prosecuting witches.

How did laws on witchcraft vary in Scotland and England?

Witchcraft became a statutory crime in England in 1542 and in Scotland in 1563. They were both repealed at the same time in 1735 because England and Scotland had merged into one country.