HN CH 14 Pregnancy and Breastfeeding Connect
Please match the time frame during pregnancy with the correct term for each developmental stage.
1-2 weeks: zygote 3-8 weeks: embryo 9-40 weeks: fetus
recommended rate of weight loss for nursing mothers
1-4 pounds per month
List the steps in the process of the let-down reflex in order from start to finish A. Oxytocin stimulates release of milk B. The pituitary releases oxytocin and prolactin C. Suckling stimulates nerves in the nipple and areola
1. Suckling stimulates nerves in the nipple and areola 2. The pituitary releases oxytocin and prolactin 3. Oxytocin stimulates release of milk
list the reproductive process in chronological order from top to bottom
1. zygote divides in half to form 2 cells 2. cell number increases to about 128 3. the embryo forms 4. the heart begins to beat, eyes and limb buds are clearly visible 5. the fetus forms 6. most of the organs are formed and movement is experienced
fetus, amniotic fluid, and placenta
11 lbs
Recommendations for omega-6-fatty acid intake during pregnancy are increased to ____ grams per day
13
During the first trimester, the pregnant woman's weight should increase by ______ to _______ pound(s).
2 to 4
during the 1st trimester, the pregnant woman's weight should increase by
2-4 pounds
The ideal are for pregnancy is between _____ and _____ years of age.
20 and 35
when is gestational diabetes most likely to begin during pregnancy
20-28 weeks
Fat intake during pregnancy should fall within _____% to _____% of total calories.
20-30%
fat intake during pregnancy should fall within
20-30% of total calories
what should be included in a food plan for a pregnant woman
2c from the fruits group, 3c from calcium rich foods and vegetable group
second trimester
350-450 additional calories should be consumed
what is the time period for a normal pregnancy
38-42 weeks
blood
4 lbs
maternal fat stores
4-8lbs
what is the recommendation for vitamin D set by the American Academy for Pediatrics for both formula-fed and breastfed infants
400 IU per day from birth until this amount is consumed through food sources
The EER during breastfeeding is an additional ____-_____ calories per day
400-500
about ____ percent of pregnancies are unplanned pregnancies
50%
uterus and breasts
6 lbs
The RDA for folate during pregnancy is increased to ____ micrograms of dietary folate equivalents per day
600
the RDA for folate during pregnancy
600 micrograms of dietary folate equivalents per day
How many calories are required for production of milk?
800 kcal/day
how many calories are required for production of milk
800 kcal/day (additional 400-500 calories per day)
What are the energy needs for human milk production and the Estimated Energy Requirement for breastfeeding women, respectively?
800 kcal/day; 400-500 kcal/day
Polycystic ovary syndrome is characterized by high levels of ____ in the blood A. testosterone B. insulin C. folate D. oxytocin
AB
What are some components of colostrum? A. Growth factors b. Antibodies C. Immune system cells D. Vitamin K and other clotting factors
ABC
During pregnancy, the RDA or AI increases for which of the following vitamins? A. Vit B-12 B. Folate C. Vit K D. Vit B-6
ABD
There is a reduced risk for the following diseases for infants that are breastfed A. Childhood leukemia and lymphoma B. Type I diabetes, celiac disease, and inflammatory bowel disease C. ADDHD and autism D. Obesity and Type II diabetes
ABD
What are some advantages of breastfeeding for the infant? A. Contributes to proper development of jaws and teeth B. Contributes to maturation of the infant's GI tract C. Provides high levels of Vitamin D D. Decreases ear infection
ABD
What factors contribute to edema during pregnancy? A. Placental hormones B. High levels of physical activity C. Increased blood volume D. Intake of iodized salt
AC
Early symptoms of preeclampsia include: A. Edema B. Sleep apnea C. Rise in blood pressure D. Changes in blood clotting E. Excess protein in urine F. Heartburn and constipation
ACDE
What are the major functions of folate? A. Metabolism of amino acids B. Metabolism of fatty acids C. Glucose synthesis D. DNA synthesis
AD
Which 2 minerals are important for normal ovulation? A. iron B. fluoride C. selenium D. zinc
AD
What effect does supplemental feeding of a breastfed infant have on the mother's milk production? A. Supplemental feeding will have no effect on human milk production as long as the mother continues to breastfeed at least twice a day B. Supplemental feeding will cause human milk production to decrease dramatically, even after only a few supplemental feeds C. As supplemental feeding increases, the woman spends less time breastfeeding, resulting in decreased milk production
As supplemental feeding increases, the woman spends less time breastfeeding, resulting in decreased milk production
Why is delivery the most reliable treatment for eclampsia or preeclampsia? A. Delivery decreases the likelihood of birth malformations or trauma to the infant B. Pregnancy-induced hypertension resolves once the infant is delivered
B
Increased calorie intake during pregnancy... A. Prevents neural tube defects B. Supports fetal growth and development C. Contributes to maternal fat storage D. Maintains maternal bone mass
BC
What are some measures a woman can take to counteract known environmental contaminants from affecting her milk? A. Avoid caffeine consumption B. Remove fatty edges from meats C. Avoid freshwater fish from polluted areas D. Wash and peel fruits and vegetables
BCD
What are the adverse health effects associated with iron-deficiency anemia during pregnancy? A. Increased risk for marasmus B. Preterm delivery C. Low-birth-weight infants D. Increased risk for fetal death E. INfants that are large for gestational age
BCD
Iodide needs are increased during pregnancy for prevention of A. spina bifida B. stunted growth C. cleft palate D. learning disabilities
BD
Which statement is true about birth defects rates in the United States?
Birth defects impact 1 in 33 babies born in the U.S.
Which factors contribute to edema during pregnancy?
Blood volume and placental hormones.
oxytocin causes contractions of the muscle-like cells surrounding the ducts of the ___ and the smooth muscles of the ____
Breast and uterus
____ reduces the chances of some allergies, especially in allergy-prone infants
Breastfeeding
____ is a milk that is thick yellowish fluid that contains antibodies and lactobacillus bifidus factor
Colostrum
Which statements are true about colostrum?
Colostrum is the first fluid released from the breast at the end of pregnancy; Colostrum is a thick, yellowish fluid.
folate is important for fertility because of its role in
DNA synthesis
What are the major functions of folate?
DNA synthesis and metabolism of amino acids.
What are some advantages of breastfeeding for the mother? (2)
Decreases risk of ovarian and breast cancer Contributes to earlier recovery from pregnancy
The _____ ____ for _____ provides key recommendation for weight management during pregnancy and lactation
Dietary Guidelines for Americans
The _____ _____ for _____ provides key recommendations for weight management during pregnancy and lactation.
Dietary Guidelines, Americans
Which statement is true about milk-producing cells in the breast?
During pregnancy, hormones from the placenta stimulate the development of lobules.
When are spontaneous abortions most likely to occur?
During the first trimester.
What are the best ways that a pregnant woman can reduce her chances of acquiring vitamin A toxicity?
Eating a balanced diet and prudent use of dietary supplements.
What are the symptoms of pregnancy-induced hypertension?
Edema, rise in blood pressure, changes in blood clotting, excess protein in urine.
The ____ is the developing life form from the beginning of the third week to the end of the eighth week after conception
Embryo
Which of the following is associated with the second trimester of pregnancy for the mother-to-be?
Increased breast weight.
Please list the steps in the process of the let-down reflex in order from start to finish.
Suckling stimulates nerves in the nipple and areola, the pituitary releases oxytocin and prolactin, and oxytocin stimulates release of milk.
What health risks to the infant are associated with smoking during pregnancy
birth defects, childhood cancer, and sudden infant death
which factors contribute to edema during pregnancy
blood volume and placental hormones
Did not use control of the PKU
brain defects
what are the maternal health risks associated with excess body weight during pregnancy
diabetes, blood clots, spontaneous abortion, and hypertension
what are some strategies a pregnant woman can use in order to reduce morning sickness
eat saltiness prior to getting out of bed, avoid fried or greasy foods, and avoid fluid intake in the morning
Many aspects of fetal and newborn health are beyond the parent's control, but parents-to-be can exert some control over...
exposure to harmful chemicals, pre-pregnancy BMI, nutritional status.
what is the recommendation for fat intake during pregnancy
fat intake should increase proportionally with increased caloric intake to maintain 20-30% of calories from fat
which body parts of the fetus are fully formed at the beginning of the second trimester
feet, legs, toes, arms, fingers, and hands
A theory that links nutirtional and other environmental insults that occur during gestation to the future health of the offspring is called the ____ ____ hypothesis
fetal origins hypothesis
The length of pregnancy is measured from the _____ day of the women's last menstrual period.
first
The most critical time period for the development of the fetus is during the _____ trimester.
first
during breastfeeding, a woman may meet her daily needs for omega-3 fatty acids by consuming
fish twice per week/ supplementing diet with fish oil daily
the mother should consume ___ each time the infant nurses
fluid
what vitamin plays a role in the metabolism of amino acids and the synthesis of DNA
folate
vitamin needs generally increase from prepregnancy RDAs/AIs by up to 30% for most of the B vitamins and even greater for vitamin
folate and B6
the healthy people 2020 objective for prevention of neural tube defects includes increasing the number of pregnancies that begin with optimal
folate status
The _____ are the skull bones associated with the soft spot on top of the baby's head.
fontanels
small for gestational age (SGA)
full-term and preterm infants who weigh less than their expected weight for their gestation duration
An excessive increase in blood glucose that occurs during pregnancy is a condition commonly referred to as ____ ____
gestational diabetes
what is offered as part of WIC program
health assessments and vouchers for foods
within 35 days
heart is beating
Physiological anemia during pregnancy is also referred to as ____
hemodilution
physiological anemia during pregnancy
hemodilution
when a mother has poorly controlled gestational diabetes
her infant may have: poor iron status, grow too large for vaginal delivery, and experience low blood sugar after delivery
____ intakes of saturated and trans fat are associated with impaired fertility
high
prolactin
hormone needed to produce milk
which factors contributes to the increased occurrence of heartburn during pregnancy
hormones from the placenta relax GI tract muscles
which milk is thin, watery, and has a bluish tint
human
which population groups are eligible for participation in WIC
income-eligible breastfeeding women, children up to age of 5, pregnant women with nutritional risk, portpartum women, infants
what are the infant health risks associated with excess maternal body weight during pregnancy
increased risk of birth defects and macrosomia
Fluoride, Iron, and Vitamin D
low in human milk
Infants born to mothers with a pre pregnancy BMI of 25 or higher are _____ to experience health problems compared to infants born to mothers of BMI in the range of 18.5-24.9.
more likely
at 13 weeks
most organs are formed and the fetus can move
according to recent research, higher intakes of ____ iron are linked to improved fertility
nonheme
metabolic disorder
phenylketonuria (use of aspartame)
the organ that forms in the uterus during pregnancy, transfers nutrients and oxygen from the mother of the fetus, and removes fetal wastes
placenta
pregnancy induced hypertension
preeclampsia in its mild form toxemia in its sever form
women with PCOS
should consume fewer sugar-sweetened beverages and choose whole grains instead of refined grains
good source of heme iron
sirloin steak
which of the following are true about cravings during pregnancy
some cravings during pregnancy, especially those for nonfood substances, can be very dangerous to the fetus and they are often associated with family traditions and not the needs of the fetus
please list the steps in the process of the let-down reflex in order from start to finish
suckling stimulates nerves, pituitary releases oxytocin and prolactin, oxytocin stimulates the release of milk
what is the RDA for carbohydrates during pregnancy
the RDA for carbohydrates increases to 175 grams per day during pregnancy
colostrum
thick yellowish fluid that contains antibodies and lactobacillus bifidus factor
fore milk
thin in texture, similar to skim milk
what are some substances a woman should avoid/eliminate both in preparation and during pregnancy
tobacco, alcohol, common cold medications, and NSAIDs
birth defects are the presumed cause o many spontaneous abortions and are linked to 20% of infant deaths by one year
true
human milk is sufficient to meet the nutrient needs of the infant for about 6 months
true
which of the following nutrients may help to limit destruction of eggs or sperm by free radicals in the body
vitamin E and C, and zinc
within the first 30 hours
zygote divides
At what point during pregnancy is constipation most likely to occur?
Late in pregnancy.
what are the best ways pregnant women can meet their need for vitamin B through dietary sources
consume animal proteins and consume ready-to-eat breakfast cereals
advantages of breast feeding
contributes to proper development of jaws and teeth, decreases ear infections, and contributes to maturation of the infants GI tract
what are the factors associated with inhibition of the let-down reflux
lack of confidence, fatigue, and nervous tension
Iodide needs are increased during pregnancy for prevention of
learning disabilities and stunted growth
The foodborne illness that poses the greatest risk during pregnancy is caused by ___ ____
listeria monocytogenes
the foodborne illness that poses the greatest risk during pregnancy caused by
listeria monocytogenes
milk producing cells found in the breast are commonly referred to as
lobules
pregnancy over 35
low birth weight and preterm delivery
inadequate prenatal car is associated with three times greater risk of delivering
low birth weight infant
what are some barriers to breastfeeding
medical condition, misinformation, social concerns
cows milk should never be used in infant feeding until the infant is at least
12 months old
How many cups of fluids should a nursing mother drink each day?
13
Recommendation for omega-6 fatty acid intake during pregnancy are increased to _____ grams per day.
13
recommendations for omega 6 fatty acids intake during pregnancy
13 grams per day
Fat intake during pregnancy should fall within ___% to ___% of total calories
20%--30%
According to the American Heart Association, adults should consume no more than ___ mg of cholesterol per day
300
According to the American Heart Association, adults should consume no more than _____ milligrams of dietary cholesterol per day.
300
About how many calories from solid fats and added sugars are allowed during the second and third trimesters? 600 270 360 150
360
healthy people 2020 goals for breastfeeding
82% @ time of discharge 60% @ 6 months 34% @ 1 year
Match the Healthy People 2020 goals for breastfeeding infants.
82%- Breastfeeding at the time of discharge. 60%- Breastfeeding for 6 months. 34%- Breastfeeding at one year.
excessive intake of vitamin ___ is particular concern during pregnancy
A
What is a good source of information that pregnant women can consult to learn about recommendations for weight management during pregnancy and lactation?
A registered dietitian; www.ChooseMyPlate.gov; The Dietary Guidelines for Americans
What are some adverse health events associated with a large fetus as a result of uncontrolled maternal diabetes during pregnancy? A. The infant may experience trauma and malformations at birth B. The infant may be born early C. The infant may be born with protein-energy malnutrition D. The infant may be born with low blood glucose
ABD
What are the risks to the fetus of uncontrolled maternal diabetes during pregnancy? A. A large fetus B. Increased risk of low-birth-weight infant C. Nutritional deficiencies D. Low blood glucose levels in the infant at birth
AD
____ may prevent birth defects by attenuating the damage induced by free radicals A. Oxidants B. Caffeine C. Alcohol D. Antioxidants
Antioxidants
Why is zinc important for male fertility? A. Metabolism of homocysteine B. Synthesis of reproductive hormones C. Function of antioxidant enzymes D. Production of sperm
BCD
What are some factors associated with inhibition of the let-down reflex? A. Maternal obesity B. Lack of confidence C. Gestational diabetes D. Nervous tension E. Fatigue
BDE
True or false: For most women, nausea or "morning sickness" continues throughout the pregnancy.
False
True or false: Pregnant women should not engage in physical activity because it may induce preterm labor or cause miscarriage.
False
The ____ is the developing life form from the beginning of the ninth week after conception until birth
Fetus
Please pair the components of weight gain during pregnancy with they corresponding weight contribution.
Fetus, amniotic fluid, and placenta: 11 lbs. Maternal fat stores: 4-8 lbs. Uterus and breasts: 6 lbs. Blood: 4 lbs.
Please pair the trimester with its recommendation for calorie needs during this time.
First trimester: Calorie needs are the same as in non pregnant women. Second: 350-450 additional calories should be consumed. Third: Around 450 additional calories.
Which of the following is a normal reaction to pregnancy?
Fluid retention due to placental hormones.
What are some common physiological changes that occur during pregnancy?
Fluid retention due to placental hormones; Hormones relax muscles of uterus and GI tract.
Which nutrients are of particular concern for pregnant lactoovovegetarians?
Folate, Iron, B-6, Zinc
The ____ is the fertilized ovum; the cell resulting from the union of the ovum and sperm
Zygote
___ milk is thin in texture, similar to skim milk
Fore milk
The period of intrauterine development of offspring
Gestation
_____ is the period of intrauterine development of offspring.
Gestation
Which body parts of the fetus are fully formed at the beginning of the second trimester?
Hands, Toes, Feet, Arms, Legs, Fingers
______ milk is thick in consistency, similar to cream with a high fat and calorie content
Hind milk
Which statement is true about human milk?
Human milk is sufficient to meet the nutrient needs of the infant for about 6 months.
Which of the following statements are true about prolactin?
Infant suckling stimulates the release of prolactin from the pituitary gland. Prolactin hormone stimulates milk production.
What are some causes of potential problems encountered with breastfeeding?
Inverted nipples, which can be corrected during pregnancy, misinformation.
Congenital hypothyroidism is a birth defect common in developing countries where maternal intake of ____ is deficient A. Vit D B. Calcium C. Iodide D. Folate
Iodide
Cretinism is caused by low ______ status during the first trimester of pregnancy
Iodide
A vitamin and mineral supplement (is/is not) advocated to fill micronutrient needs of the pregnant vegan
Is
_____ is the period of milk secretion following pregnancy.
Lactation
Please pair the correct term with its classification.
Low-Birth-Weight Infant: An infant weighing less than 5.5 lbs. Preterm Infant: An infant born before 37 weeks. Small for Gestational Age (SGA): Full-term and preterm infants who weigh less than their expected weight for their gestational duration. Full-term Infant: An infant born between 38-42 weeks.
The concept of "eating for two" refers more to the increase in ___ and ____ needs as opposed to calorie needs
Minerals Vitamins
What are the factors associated with inhibition of the let-down reflex?
Nervous tension, fatigue, and lack of confidence.
The ____ is the egg cell from which a fetus eventually develops
Ovum
The brain releases the hormone ______ to allow the breast tissue to let down or eject milk from the lobules
Oxytocin
The fetus will be affected by the mother's use of aspartame only if the mother is suffering from the metabolic disorder known as
Phenylketonuria
What are some symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome?
Physical deformities; Mental retardation; Defects in vision; Limited hand-eye coordination.
_____ is the practice of eating nonfood items.
Pica
After birth, the mother produces more _____ hormone so that she can produce milk for breastfeeding
Prolactin
A teratogen's effect on the fetus depends on the dose, ____, and _____ of exposure
Timing Length
What is the purpose of the placenta?
To accommodate growth and development of the fetus.
Which statements are true about cretinism?
The best way to prevent cretinism is to consume iodized slat. Cretinism is a form of hypothyroidism that leads to diminished physical and mental development if left untreated.
What is the purpose of the placenta?
To allow the transfer of nutrients from mother to fetus
What factors contribute to constipation in pregnant women?
The fetus competes for space with the GI tract. Placental hormones slow peristalsis.
What does the USP symbol on prenatal supplements signify?
The supplement meets the standards set by the U.S. Pharmacopoeia.
True or false: Regardless of whether or not pregnancies are planned, women often do not suspect the are pregnant during the first few weeks after conception.
True
a women's weight and nutritional status prior to pregnancy are important factors that affect a woman's ability to conceive
True
List the reproductive process in chronological order from top to bottom.
Zygote divides in half to form 2 cells; Cell number increases to about 128 cells; The embryo forms; The heart begins to beat and eyes and limb buds are clearly visible; The fetus forms; Most of the organs are formed and movement is experienced.
Please pair the organization with its recommendation for breastfeeding.
World Health Organization: Breastfeeding should continue for 2 years with the appropriate introduction of solid foods after the first 6 months. American Dietetic Association: Infants should be exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months, with the combination of breastfeeding and infant solid foods up until one year.
cretinism
a form of hypothyroidism that leads to diminished physical and mental development if left untreated. The best way to prevent cretinism is to consume iodized salt
physiological anemia
a increase in blood volume that dilutes red blood cell concentration
What is the RDA for protein during pregnancy
additional 25 grams per day
Estimated Energy Requirement during breastfeeding
additional- calories per day
preterm infant
an infant born before 37 weeks
full-term infant
an infant born between 38-42 weeks
an increased risk of birth defects, death within the first few weeks after birth, and obesity during childhood
an infant born to an obese woman
a low birthweight and increased risk of being premature may be experienced
an infant born to an underweight woman
low-birth weight infant
an infant weighing less than 5.5 pounds
high blood pressure, gestational diabetes, and difficult deliveries
an obese pregnant woman
lighter placenta and lower nutrient stores, especially iron, may be experienced
an underweight pregnant woman
what are some components of colostrum
antibodies, lactobacillus bifidus factor, immune system cells
third trimester
around 450 additional calories should be consumed
Siblings born in close succession are more likely to be born with a lower ____ ____ than those farther apart in age
body weight
what are some adverse health effects associated with administering supplemental water to exclusively breastfed infants during the first six months of life
brain disorders and low blood sodium
world health organization
breastfeeding should continue 2 years with the appropriate introduction of solid foods after the 1st 6 months
first trimester
calories need to stay the same as nonpregnant woman
within the first 4 days
cell number increases
what medical conditions preclude a woman from breastfeeding
chemotherapy, infant with galactosemia, and HIV or AIDS
what are some common physiological changes that occur during pregnancies
fluid retention due to placental hormones and hormones relax muscles of the uterus and GI tract
In order to prevent neural tube defects, the mother-to-be should consume an optimal amount of ___
folate
In order to prevent neural tube defects, the mother-to-be should consume an optimal amount of...
folate
The Healthy People 2020 objective for prevention of neural tube defects includes increasing the number of pregnancies that begin with optimal _____ status.
folate
The main purpose of the increase in carbohydrates during pregnancy is primarily to prevent ____
ketosis
when should fluoride supplementation be considered for infants
in fluoride is not present in the water, supplementation should be considered after the infant is 6 months of age
for infants younger than 6 months of age, supplemental water
in not recommended
Breast size generally _____ during pregnancy and breastfeeding, which are normal physiological changes.
increases
American dietetic association
infants should be exclusively breastfed for the 1st 6 months, with the combination of breastfeeding and infant solid foods up until 1 year
PCOS is the leading cause of ____
infertility
what are some nutritional problems experienced by infants that are born before 37 weeks gestation
insufficient iron and calcium stores, insufficient fat, and poor ability to suck and swallow
congenital hypothyroidism
iodide deficient
which two minerals are important for normal ovulation
iron and zinc
Fluoride, _____, and vitamin ____ are relatively low in human milk
iron, B-12
Fluoride, _____, and vitamin _____ are relatively low in human milk.
iron, b-12
For infants younger than 6 months of age, supplemental water...
is not recommended.
the main purpose of the increase in carbohydrates during pregnancy is primarily to prevent
ketosis
what are some advantages of breastfeeding for the mother
potential for quicker return to prepregnancy weight, contributes to an earlier recovery from pregnancy, and decreases the risk of ovarian and premenopausal cancer
spontaneous abortion
premature termination of pregnancy that occurs naturally
Smoking during pregnancy is linked to _____ births.
preterm
iron-deficiency anemia
preterm delivery, low-birth weights, and increased risk of fetal death
Dietary Guidelines for Americans
provides key recommendations for weight management during pregnancy and lactation
what are the best ways that a pregnant woman can reduce her chances of acquiring vitamin A toxicity
prudent use of dietary supplements and eating a balanced diet
why is folate so important during pregnancy
red blood cell formation and DNA synthesis
human milk
refrigerator- 3 to 5 days freezer- 3 to 6 months
increased calorie intake during pregnancy
supports fetal growth and development and contributes to maternal fat storage
select all of the reasons zinc is important for male fertility
synthesis of reproductive hormones, production of sperm, and function of antioxidant enzymes
which is more easily absorbed
synthetic folic acid
fetus
the developing life form from the beginning of the ninth week after conception until birth
embryo
the developing life form from the beginning of the third week to the end of the eighth week after conception
ovum
the egg cell from which a fetus eventually develops
zygote
the fertilized ovum; the cell resulting from the union of the ovum and sperm
at 8 weeks
the fetus is formed
lactation
the period of milk secretion following pregnancy
which statements are true regarding the function of the placenta
the placenta exchanges waste products between the mother and the fetus, it releases hormones to maintain the pregnancy and it exchanges nutrients, oxygen and other gasses
fontanels
the skull bones associated with the soft spot on the top of the baby's head
what does the USP symbol on prenatal supplements signify
the supplement meets the standards set by the U.S. Pharmacopeia
hind milk
thick in consistency, similar to cream with a high fat and calorie content
Healthy pre pregnancy weight and adequate _____ ______ during pregnancy are two excellent predictors of pregnancy outcome.
weight gain
what should be avoided during the second and third trimester
weightlifting, horseback riding, and downhill skiing
lean meats and fortified breakfast cereals are a good source of
zinc
compared to the needs of nonpregnant women, the RDA for ___ is increased during pregnancy.
zinc, iodide, and iron
