Holocaust History and Memory Final Exam

Modes of Holocaust representation in film/TV: Documentary, historical fiction, biopic

many different modes portrayed ex. Documentary mode (using real evidence to tell its story), can be considered a secondary source. Mode of historical fiction, programs present a fictionalized story of people who lived through the Holocaust, the story is fictional. Mode of biopic is a hybrid of the two, main characters are based on real historical figures, but events of their lives are highly fictionalized to emphasize drama.

The Producers

mocks the taste of Hollywood audiences.

Criticisms of Trial

most common thought was that they were given sentences that were too light and not enough for their crimes. Others felt that the US, Soviet Union, England, and France should be put on trial. England (the bombing of desdrine), US (bombing of Japan), Soviet Union (Molotov-Ribbentrop act) The lack of vocabulary that people had to talk about what had happened.

Holocaust Denial

not concerned with ethically or respectful engaging with the Holocaust, will either deny that it happened or that the reports were exaggerated.

Attacking Anne Frank

one of the main targets for deniers, which some deniers sought to prove was a hoax. The diary is an important piece of evidence to attack because it is symbolic and people who only encounter the Holocaust through the diary and the only piece of evidence or primary source that they have engaged with. If they could disprove Anne Frank, they would prove their case. What basic did they claim? Anne Frank wasn't an innocent child like she was portrayed in the film, wanted to be a serious writer. Point to parts of the diary said that there would only be one version if it was real. Make claim that Meyer Levin was the one who wrote the diary in the first place and the court settlement was hush money to keep quiet about the origins of the diary.

Truman Directive

passed in 1945, protorized the application of DP's witnesses the existing immigration quotas. The quotas were small, so it didn't really make a dent in terms of funneling the Jews into the DP camp. 22,000 survivors were brought over but didn't make a dent overall. In 1947, Truman asked congress to pass a law to allow more Jews into the US. Some congressmen were hesitant, cold war was starting, congress believed that since so many of them had spent time in Soviet Union that they would bring communist ideas into the United States.

Displaced Persons

people at the end of the war that weren't at their homes and were trying to find their next destination. People that the Nazi's had taken from their homes during the occupation of Europe. Eastern Europe Jews were forced out of their homes and forced to do work, prisoners of war, most of them weren't Jewish. Included in this group were the 60,000 Jews that had been liberated from concentration camps. Most of them knew where they were going, most of them wanted to return to their homes and cities, within 6 months most of them had done so and returned home. However for the Jewish DP's, the situation was much more uncertain, most of the surviving Jews came from Eastern Europe were Jews had never been fully interrelated. They were fairly certain that their families had been killed, some of them went back to towns found out that their families were killed. Believed that they wouldn't be welcomed back, felt that they had no reason. Many of the Jewish DP's refused to go back to their countries of origin.

Yad Vashem (lit: a hand/monument and a name)

premier Holocaust museum in Israel. Wanted to commemorate the Jews in the Holocaust since 1942. They decided to name their memorial Yad Vashem in 1942. The name comes from Isaiah, 56:5, verse about memorialization. Because of WW2 and the war after Israel became a state, so a committee wasn't established until May 1953 to get started on the Museum. The committee saw the memorial as a way to commerate the victims of the Holocaust but also as a justification for the state of Israel. Built the museum on the same mountain as Herzl, the founder of modern Zionism. The exhibit is dimly light, jiggered and leads downward as the events become more intense, no windows. At the end of the exhibition they overlook the capital city of Jerusalem.

Funk

president of German national bank, was in charge of confiscating Jews property, during the Holocaust one of his jobs was to deposit the hold for the Jews teeth. Instead of taking responsibility, he claimed that he did everything in his power to help the Jews and while he never shot or killed a Jew, he was a part of it.

Max Gaines

published the first comic book, his idea was to take comic strips from newspapers and put it in books. Better access to comics. Was published in 1933 and 1934 to help family survive the Depression. Comic books were invented during a time of war and turmoil.Gaines comic books were a huge success, especially among young people.

"Banality of Evil"

question of how somebody as ordinary as Adolf Eichmann could commit such horrible crimes. Evil doesn't have to be fanatical but human beings are capable of doing these crimes.

Polin: The Museum of the History of the Polish Jews

recently in 2013 a new museum opened in Warsaw and isn't aimed at preservation. What's on the exhibit isn't all original but created to tell a story. As a way to counterbalance the memorials that are at the sites of the atrocity. They thought that so many tourists came to find out about Jewish history were these sites relating the Holocaust and didn't learn about the Jewish culture that exists before the Holocaust and the culture that was built after the Holocaust. Learned about how Jews died in Poland, but not how they lived in Poland. Include the Holocaust as just a chapter of this museum.

Crimes Against Humanity

referred to atrocities against any civilians or own citizens as well as any persecution on religion, race or political difference

Kielc Pograms

refugee center, and 150 survivors were living in the shelters in Kielce. In July 1946, rumors began to spread along the non-Jewish population that the Jewish people were kidnapping non-Jewish children. ON July 4, 1946 it led to a pogrom, violent attack on the survivors. 42 of the survivors including women and children had been murdered. News of the event traveled quickly, many decided that they needed to leave Poland. More started to travel to the DP camps in Germany.

Claude Landmanns Shoah (1985): Aging of survivors, no narrative voice-over, length

remains a groundbreaking documentary, well regarded. Convention of Holocaust films had changed, holocaust survivors were aging and were elderly, more difficult to find glamorous young survivors. As the survivors aged it became clear to people that the survivors weren't going to be able to live forever and be able to hear these stories, it was more important to know record these stories before it would be too late, and they would lose this information. It had no narrative voice over at all. Language plays an important part, the camera faces the survivor, the camera records the voices of the survivor and focuses on the survivor's face and reaction. Important in understanding the history of the Holocaust. Thinking about language and the effect of having. Groundbreaking for its length (almost 10 hours), he wasn't going to pare down the film and make it a reasonable length, was able to include testimony of many different survivors and perspectives. Many of his survivors offered testimony's in the place that they experienced it or remind them of where the traumas took place. Having them do this was questioned to be ethical.

Stanley Milgram's Obedience Experiments

social psychologist, Milgram was a Jewish American working at Yale in the 1960s. Milgram was highly disturbed by what happened in Nazi Germany and wanted to know how it was possible for so many ordinary people to be convince to participant in these crimes. In a series experiments hired two actions, a scientist (authority figure) and a learner, experiment on learning and memory. Actor would scream, beg to stop shocking him and would pretend to lose conscience. At some point during the experiment, the participant would question the scientist if it was really okay to do this, the scientist would encourage them to keep on doing this, they wouldn't be held responsibility, it was essential that they continued. In the end, 65% of the subjects followed through with the entire experiment and they continued giving the electric shocks. Even though the subjects who refused to give the shocks didn't say that the entire experiment should be stopped or follow through on the learner. Milgram concluded that it was human nature to submit to authority, even when authority figures encourage them to do something bad, extending findings to Nazi Germany. Made the claim that most of the predators of the Holocaust weren't monsters but acted as most would in their situation.

Historical Commissions

survivors began documenting what they had been through. Collected as much documentary evidence relating to the Holocaust that they could find. Recorded eye witness testimony from the people in the DP camp. Collect Uniforms, songs, stories, complied list of people that had been killed. Goal was to publish the genocide on an international scale, hope it would convince nations like the US to allow the DP's into their countries. Those who were Zionists, hoped it would convince the world to give them a place. In 1947, still no movement where the DP's were going to go.

Life is Beautiful

tells the story of Guido an Italian Jewish jokester, his wife and his son. First half is the story of Guido and Dora falling in love. Shows how he uses humor to deal with Italian Semitism. Makes fun of Aryan body in the school and the horse that was vandalized. Second half of the film the second half, using humor to help his son. Film received many honors but seem as controversial. Whether or not the film was effective in helping audiences think of the Holocaust in new ways that help extent the humanity of the people who survived it. See the humanity of the people who lived through the Holocaust. In Italian, most successful movie. Film came out in 1997, audiences in the United States had already seen a lot of Holocaust films, documentary footage. Most of them have never seen a comedic film that was directly about the camps. Wanted to dehumanize viewers from what they expected to see. DE familiarize with what they expected to see from this film, left them much more vulnerable to what would happen latter in the film. Never made fun of Jewish suffering during the Holocaust, depicted the way they use humor to cope with the suffering.

President's Commissions on the Holocaust (1979)

the US government didn't have a plan to construct a museum until the 70s when discussions began. What changed? Holocaust awareness was growing in the 60s and 70s, because of the role of television would have in publishing the events of the genocide. The trial of Adolf Eichmann was on TV. In 1978 there was a hit mini-series called Holocaust, starring Meryl Streep, bring the genocide to the public. BY 1979, Jimmy Carter established a president's commission, was chaired by Elli Wiesel. The committee recommend that the state create a museum on the National Mall. After fundraising they finally opened in 1993.

Hanna Bloch Kohner "This is Your Life": patriotism, product placement, narrator

the directors didn't present Hanna as a tragic figure but as a person who had overcome adversity, to become a glamorous Hollywood housewife. Assures her that she doesn't look like a survivor and that she has been through so much. Not supposed to view someone who is scarred but someone who has put the past behind her. American patriotism is a major theme and Edwards credits the US for extending a hand to the Jews and she has shown unwavering loyalty. Her husband had tried to get her a visa to the US but because of the immigration policy she couldn't get in. Relationship with the United states was much more complicated then how it was portrayed in the show. Wanted the United States to be seen as a savior. The product placement that occurred throughout the program, the beginning of the show mentions that there wouldn't be commercial interruptions so Hazel would pay for it. Ex. Hazel Bishop stage, TWA airline, the bracelet. Show wasn't to show how horrible her life was but how she overcame everything. She doesn't really get to tell her story, it is being narrated. She had become the typical and ideal feminine woman since the war

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

the placement of the museum holds symbolically signification. Interior has an important message, much of the interior is rough and industrial. Meant to remind people that the Holocaust and mechanisms of mass murder were a product of modern industrial society. Warning that progress doesn't always equal progress but can lead to bad. Building plays with natural light, most of the building doesn't include windows and doesn't allow light, at the end you end up in the Hall of remembrance with small windows that face the Washington and Jefferson memorial

Ideological Approach of Yad Vashem

the placement offered an ideological message that the Jews wouldn't be safe until they had a land of their own. Since its founding of 1953, its had a number of expansions. Built in 1957, the Achieves that had been collected in the DP camp, the library and the administration. In April 1961, they built the Avenue of the Righteous Among the Nations. In 1965, they dedicated a synagogue, and in 1973, they added a museum. In 1978, they created a children's museum. The Museum was reconstructed in 2005. The state of Israel represents the only way the Jews can live in light and in freedom.

Genocide

they didn't use this word during the trial, the concept of genocide was only a few years old and had been invented in 1945. Was coined by Raphael Lemkin, who tried to get the trials to accept this word as one of the crimes. He felt that the world needed to criminalize the Nazi's.

Jerry Siegel and Joe Schuster

two fans of Gaines, both from Cleveland and Jewish, friends and shared a love of comics. Siegel liked sci-fi stories, Schuster was good at art and they published work after Highschool.

Raphael Lemkin

was a Polish Jew who had become a scholar of linguistics and international law, in 1939 as Germans invaded Poland, he fled to Sweden until 1941, and then emigrated to the United States. Once he arrived he joined Duke University and consulted for the government on international law, after the war he discovered that his entire family had been murdered by the Nazi's. He was personally affected, in 1944, he published a book, Axis rule in occupied Europe, analyzed what was going on. In this book he coined the term genocide. The term should be used to refer to the extermination of an entire nation or ethic group. He felt that the category committed against an individual wasn't enough and what the Nazi's had done was larger. After the war he devoted his life to genocide and to make genocide an international crime. Tried to do this through the United Nations.

Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963)

was a famous German Jewish philosopher, escaped Germany before the genocide, played a big role in helping the public ravel the nation that the Nazi's weren't monsters but people like everyone else. She covered the trial for the New Yorker, and wrote the book, Eichmann in Jerusalem. In the book the main issue is the idea

Inflicted Insights

when people are forced to recognize their own flaws

Jack Kirby and Stan Lee

2 of the most famous cartoonists in 1960s, both had jewish last names. Stan Lee- Black Panther and Jack Kirby- Captain America. In 1963 they worked together to create the X-men- human beings mutated to have superpowers andwere ​hunted down for powers and to be killed

Dr. Emanuel Ringleblum

In Warsaw in 1941, led a secret group of scholars and leaders of the community in a project where they collected documents and testimonies from the people imprisoned.

Critiques of Obedience experiments

came under a good deal of criticism, questioned the ethics of the experiment. First, many people said sorts of experiments cause subjects too much anxiety and emotional distress. Milgram said they were sweating and getting stressed and upset when they believed they were hurting someone else. Second, led to inflicted insight when people are forced to recognize their own flaws in the participation in the experiment. Critiques argued that it's not fair to make them recognize something horrible about themselves when that's not what they signed up for. Need to get consent beforehand.

Crimes Against Peace

crimes undermined the self determination of a sovereign nation, or violated international treaties

Early Holocaust documentaries

even though they depict stories that are true and based on real evidence, the choices that the directors make are highly interpretive. A lot of those choices became conventions that changed over time. In "This is Your Life" followed a very different set of conventions. Documentaries was also created for the purpose of florescence and gathering evidence of Nazi crimes. As Allied troops freed camps and saw what was happening, they made a point of filming what was discovered there to prove to the world that these reports of propaganda and these crimes actually took place. Years after WW2, footage was shown to American public and European in the form of news reels, shown before feature films at theaters. In addition to news reels a complication of footage that the army took was made into a standalone film called Nazi Concentration camps. Submitted as evidence during the Numberug trials and focused on authorities and deaths.

Memorial

is anything that is meant to remind people about a certain event, when we think about memorials we usually think about something large and permeant, ex. Statue or museum. Can be a historical archive, a book (fiction or nonfiction), can be an inscription or dedication, song, film. Attempts to archive and memorialize the Holocaust was happening during it. Anything engineered to remind the public about a certain event, as long as it is produced with that goal to remind audiences, museums have been one of the most public imitations

Limits of obedience/conformity experiments

one can't begin to understand the Holocaust with talking about race. Most Holocaust education focus on racial hatred and its effects. In 1980, conformity was considered to be the main lesson of the Holocaust. Neither project offers strategies for combating injustice, teach that its human nature to submit to conformity but need to give them strategies to fight against those pressures.

Exhibit Mirroring Evil

shown in New York, exhibit was extremely controversial, protestors, the curators defended it. Many critics asked, why the Jewish museum encouraged people at this show to think about the intention of the predators instead of the suffering of the victims.

Allan Schechner: It's the Real Thing: Self Portrait at Buchenwald

1993, photo of the artist drinking a coke around starving Holocaust camp. Comment of society's obsession with fitness and dieting as something beautiful, many ways people don't choose to be thin but are forced to by starvation. Is it appropriate or respectful?

Tom Sachs, Giftgas Giftset

1998, the piece created canisters of the gas that was used to kill the Jews at the gas chambers, but branded then with designer labels, Hermes, Chanel, Tiffany. Commenting on the history of corporations, many big corporations such as BW Huge Boss, Nestle Chocolate Company, who used slave labor from the prisoners of the concentration camps. Many clothing companies that use sweat shops, a way to show how people admiration of certain brands can mask abusive that are happening inside of the company and that create these luxury items. Critique way of people who follow brands blindly.

Ratification of Resolution 260

20 nations would have to ratify it to become international law. The United States would have to be one of the 20 nations, the world's most powerful nation. In 1951, 20 member nations of the UN did ratify it but the US didn't. It had to go to the US senate, there was a good amount of debate over whether it was a smart move. The southern democrats were against supporting it, they feared that if they ratified this resolution that it could be used to make their own persecution of Black Americans into an international crime. Many lobbied the Senate to ratify it. Lemkin died in 59 and the US still hadn't ratified it.

David Duke

A Holocaust denier and grand wizard of the klutz clan, white supremacist, elected to the House of Representatives in 1992, achieved political power, best known leaders of white supremacist groups. His books basically account the various ways that he believes the Jews are trying to destroy the white race. He is regularly invited to other countries to lecture and keynote speaker in conferences, one of main organizers of white supremacist rally in Charlottesville, endorse Trump. Have been some that have been able to gain political power and legitimacy.

Meyer Levin

American journalists in 1951, was serving as a war correspond came across the French translation of the diary. One of the first journalists to see what had been happening in Europe. He saw the potential to teach the wider world about the Holocaust and the people who had been murdered. Talked to Otto and how to reach the American audience. Translated and then brought to the American Market in 1952. Levin wrote a glowing review about the diary in the front page of the New York Times book section. Asked Otto Frank to have permission to adapt the diary for the stage (play). Other play writers asked him for rights. Otto Frank reed Levin's script and showed it to some Broadway producers that he was working with and they told him that the version wasn't going to work, it was too depressing and too Jewish. Felt it would be more successful as viewed as human suffering. Otto Frank seemed to agree with the producers. Otto Frank rejected Levin's version of the play.

Holocaust Documentaries from 1950s

American radio and tv stations started paying more attention to those who survived. After Truman passed displacement act that allowed Jews into the country, citizens became in contact with people who had survived. Radio asked them to tell their stories. Survivors livening in the US appeared on radio and news programs. Almost all of these programs delivered similar messages that the nightmare had finally ended, and these survivors could and would overcome the pain of the past, now that they were free citizens of the United States. Message of overcoming adversity and trauma, that the US was able to give to these survivors. Newsreel footage was shown on film, most of these documentaries were shown on Television, because TV had become the most efficient way to reach mass audiences. Unlike other media there were few established things on TV.

VE Day, May 8th 1945

Americans gathered in the streets, Victory in Europe Day

Memorializing Jews at Majdanek/Auschwitz

At Majdanke, Each barrack tells a different story and there is a display of human ash. Towns people gather around the bowl as a memorial. Since the 1990s, there have been different kinds of signage and memorials that superficially mention Jewish victims. Focus is still on documenting the crimes of the Nazi empire on the people of the nation.

Humor and the Holocaust

Back in1987, three rules that governed conservation, Holocaust needed to be portrayed as unique, accurate and that people had to approach the Holocaust with seriousness. Referencing the Holocaust viewed Humor was not good. Holocaust has been referenced through Humor in TV shows, movies, comedians. Comedic take has been seen as controversial but hasn't been condemn. How has it been possible to use humor with it also being ethical? Historians have discovered that Humor was a great way of coping for the Jews during the Holocaust, Jews exchanged jokes or made fun of the impossible conditions they were living under. Those that have made way into popular culture, jokes about the Holocaust, is they never make fun of Jewish suffering during the Holocaust. Poke fun at other matters but not Jewish suffering.

Why think about denial? (Engagement, internet, history)

Because of democrazation of information in the rise of the internet, before the internet there were many ways to filter out information from white supermists and other hate groups. Most libraries wouldn't carry publications that were published or written by hate groups, so if someone went to the Holocaust the book they would encounter would be historical and accurate. Had to seek out hate group information, but already had those ideas to begin with. Now when you search for legit information, Holocaust denial websites will also come up. People share articles on Social media that might not be accurate, could just come up on someone's news feed. 3rd reason, historian, use primary source evidence to discover what has happened in the past. In the process of denying the Holocaust, they are rejecting the process which human beings can learn what has happened in the past, ruining historical knowledge. Holocaust has been studied so much because it is the best documented genocide in history. Can prove based on every type of historical evidence that historians use, people who deny are denying that human beings can know things using documentary evidence.

Holocaust "revisionists"

Before the 1980s, deniers was mostly just rhetoric. Since the 1980s, deniers have gotten more sophisticated refer to themselves as Holocaust "revisionists" revised interpretation of the evidence when they are actually misrepresenting and twisting the evidence. Often publish work in journals that seem legit.

Preservation vs. Accessibility

Both of these museums a main concern for the curators was preservation. They curators treat these places as forensic crime scenes, goal is to preserve material evidence and then present evidence to the public. IN August 2010, one of the barracks in Majdanek was burned and things were burned. When you keep it accessibly there could be threats, shoes were stolen, no one knows how the fire was started. Another issue of how to properly commemorate the victims, the signage and exbhiit honored them based on their citizens, Polish Jews were commemorated as Poland's, not as Jews.

Displaced Persons Act of 1948 and 1950

Congress passed the 1948, allowed survivors to come into the US, but only if they hadn't spent the war in the Soviet Union. So, it excluded the majority of Jews who had survived, 200,000 from the Soviet Union, 60,000 from the camps. Truman was unhappy with this and fought to amend the law, and was able to in 1950, include all of the Jewish DP's. About 140,000 DP's came to the US, most of the other immigrated to Israel, by 1952, the DP camps finally closed.

UN Resolution 260

Dec. 9 1948, declared genocide to be an international crime. Journalists tried to track down Lemkin and when they found him he was in the assembly hall of the UN crying. He said that is was a memorial for his murdered parents and the other victims of the Holocaust.

What motivates deniers? (zero-sum suffering, scapegoating, white supremacy

Different deniers get motivated by different things. People coming out of Eastern Europe because they want people to acknowledge the suffering of non-Jews in Eastern Europe, they claim that Jews exaggerated and that it was the Poland's and Russians who suffered much more. These deniers claimed that world hasn't properly acknowledge the suffering of the other people in Eastern Europe. Eastern Europeans did suffer but not to the extent that the Jews suffered, we can acknowledge both. Zero-sum suffering, if one group suffers that means that another group didn't suffer, no one should assume this. People could feel powerless or afraid of looking for a scapegoat for their unhappiness. This isn't limited to anyone region, commonly engage in conspiracy theories. Explain world problems by blaming them on Jews, people who may be unstable or don't have power. It's often easier to blame a group of people that you don't know vs. a government t that you are patriotic too. Say that the Jews run the banks and the media, an old anti-Semitic lie. Many of the deniers are also white supremacist, in addition of using Holocaust as a lie, they will often claim that Jews are using the Holocaust to take power away from white people and to make white people feel guilty. Feel that they are losing the power that they used to have and the success of people of color have come at their expense. Part of their ideological they don't think people of color are intelligent enough the achieve the success, so they see Jews are being the intellectual mind and therefore responsible of the fall of the white race. Their denial is equal parts Semitics and racist. Tend to be marginal in society but have been getting legitimacy in the current government.

Annelies (Anne) Frank

In 1944, Holland was occupied by Nazi Germany. The Dutch government meeting in London announced over radio that people in Holland should keep diaries and documents. She was a Jewish girl in Holland in hiding, had already been keeping a diary. After she heard the announcement she polished and edited it in the hopes of the Holland government using It as a memorial. Born in Frankfurt Germany in 1929, the family was middle class, German-speaking. In 1933, after the Nazis took over Parliament, they decided to leave Germany. Didn't go far because they hoped to go back to Germany after a bit of time. Otto Frank built a business there, when Nazi's took over Holland in 1940, Otto tried to get visas, got denied because of his strong connections to Germany and the US was afraid that he was a spy. He made plans for his family to go into hiding above where his business was. July of 1942, Anne's older sister got a letter saying that she had to report for deportation and they officially went into hiding. They stayed there for about 2 years with no access to the outside world. August 1944, an informer let the German occupiers where the Franks were staying, they were arrested and in September taken to Auschwitz. Anne and her sister were marched to Bergen Belen, typhus spread and they both died.

Israeli Independence 1948

In 1947, the nations of UN decide to make Palestine into 2 individual states, one of the Jews and one for Palestine's. By May 1948 Israel declared independence and people from the DP's started to move their immediately. The new state of Israel wasn't the right move for all survivors, conditions in Israel were difficult, didn't have the infrastructure, lack of food and housing. Many of the survivors were hoping for a more stable life, Israel was at war in 1948, people would have to go straight into the army. The DP's that felt that Israel wasn't the right place for them hoped that the US would let them in.

Deborah Lipstadt v. David Irving

In 1993, Deborah, a scholar wrote a book about Holocaust denial and the main goal was to uncover the tactics of these more sophisticated deniers. The denier who upset her the most was David, because his books which were aimed at apologizing Hitler was taken serious by some historians, didn't start out as a denier but as a historian. He said the Holocaust were unfortunate, in the mid 1980s his work started to take a different turn, misrepresent evidence to disprove the Holocaust. Publically claimed that gas chambers were a hoax by British propaganda, claimed most Jewish deaths happened because of bombs that were dropped by allies and epidemics. Talked about Holocaust as a profitable myth. Because of his work at the beginning of his career, scholars still used his books as evidence. In Deborah book she called him a denier and that he manipulated his evidence in order to deny the Holocaust. Book was published in the US and then it was published in England, Irving is a British citizen. In the Us if someone sues you for libel you are assumed not guilty. He would have to prove and provide evidence that Lippstadt had lied. In England, you have to prove that you told the truth, it had become Deborah responsibility that he had falsified information, had to prove that he deliberately mischaracterized his evidence. Generally, when people are sued, they settled because it is expensive to go through these cases. In court she set out to prove what he had done. Case took millions of dollars, her publisher and other sponsors paid for, and took 5 years of her life, in the end she ended up proving that he was a denier and he deliberated mischaracterized his evidence because he was Semitic and racist.

DP Camps

In order to serve the DPS, the UN built DP camps. Built them in Germany and most of the Jewish survivors went to these DP camps. Most of them hoped to get to either the United States or Palestine. Intended to stay in the camps until they would be allowed to go to one of these destinations. In the first weeks, and months, 60,000 Jewish survivors living in the DP camps, they were soon joined by other groups of survivors who didn't want to remain in Europe. Many of the partisans, who fought in the forests, many of the Jews who survived by hiding and passing, survivors who had left their babies and children with non-Jewish survivors went to go and get them.

"Universalizing" Anne Frank

In the diary, Anne only writes a few lines about celebrating Hanukkah and the holiday. In the movie the Holiday celebration becomes what Christmas represents, scene where they profess love in cheers and gifts. Don't include passages of the diary about Anne writes about Jewish identity and what it means to her. Want to represent a more universal story rather than the Jewish themes that appear in the diary. The quote at the end of the movie, isn't emphasized in the diary, like it is in the movie.

Ideological Approach of USHMM

On the national mall and the memory of the Holocaust and so that it will never happen again as a goal of the United States. Making the agreement that the US has to define its values to the opposite of the values that created the Holocaust. As long as we protect the democratic values we can avoid the Holocaust from happening again.

Broadway/Film Versions of Anne Frank

Otto Franks decision to move forward was a wise on, the play ended up being very successful. The play had a very long run, won many awards, the Tony for best play. In 1959, the film won there Oscars and nominee for Best Picture. Reviews were positive in the Jewish press, didn't mind the Universalizing. Meyer Levin was furious, accused them of erasing Anne's Jewish diary, took Otto to court and accused play writers of plagiarizing his play. People were not sympatric to what Levin was doing, nearly bankrupt himself, accepted a cash settlement from Otto Frank to relinquish all rights to the diary. Wrote two books about the experience.

Frances Goodrich & Albert Hackett

Otto asked them to submit an alternative script for a Broadway play based on the diary. This script would be used for the play and for the film. Successful husband and wife script writers, were well known in Hollywood, weren't Jewish, hadn't written on Jewish themes before.

Ideological Approach of Polin

Polish Jews had a vibrant history in Poland and the museum is meant to reflect how colorful these communities were. In contrast the Holocaust portion is narrow, dark, and in black and white. Mark the Holocaust as a dark period in a long history of Jews in Poland, but just a part of what was vibrant.

Proxmire Act

Senator William Proxmire took up the case and reminded the Senate that the US should have been the first nation. In 1967, Proxmire decided that he was going to deliver a speech every day in Senate, over the course of 16 years, he spoke over 3,000 times. Finally in Nov 1988, the Senate passed the Proxmire Act, where they ratified the Resolution 260, where the US agreed that Genocide should be an international crime.

Jewish themes of Superman

Siegel and Schuster were both Jewish and had strong feelings about world events. Superman was from Planet Kryton and sent to earth by his parents (like a refugee) Many Jews were being sent away on kindertranpsorts in Europe in 1930s. Many of Supermans plot lines included Superman defeating or humiliating Hitler ("non Aryan strip") It was a revenge fantasy for Siegel and Schuster. In 1962 there was the Kryton Memorial in Superman comics to commemorate destruction of the land. In the 1990s' on the 60th anniversary of Superman the​re is a comic where Superman saves the Jews of the Warsaw Ghetto.

Criticism of Maus

Some survivors took issues with Spiegelman (not a survivor) writing a best-selling story when he didn't firsthand go through it. Spiegellman questions himself writing to0, questioning ethics of profiting over the death of millions of people Parrel of him as a human with a mouse mask, who is he in this. Another critics​im​ was that they didn't like the portrayal of Jews as mice, it was dehumanizing. Nazi's didn't view/treat Jews as humans either. How ethical was this metaphor? Spiegelman said his portrayal of humans as animals breaks down within the book, some Jews wear mouse masks, the years after the Holocaust can anyone really identify with the Holocaust. His wife Francoise as frog or mouse, includes it in book- to show that they are messy and inconsistent (wife is French but converted to Judaism)

Zbigniew Libera, Concentration Camps Lego System

The Lego company didn't create this product or sell it at stores. How we represent the Holocaust in contemporary culture. Why are people comfortable watching movies but not the Legos, why does this make us uncomfortable. Is it disrespectful for there to be films?

Magnato (created 1963)

The X-men were led by Professor X and Magnato. He was a Jewish holocaust survivor . Was a comic book villian​ who was a sympathetic character (new for comics in 196​0s) normally survivors are protraye​​d as angelic with no to little hate-Magnato showed a human side-flawed and not perfect.

Otto Frank

Took the original diary and the polished diary and used the two source materials to create one version. Only member of the Frank family to survive. He returned to Amderstan and met with one of the woman who was helping the Frank family survive. Found out that she had found the diary and saved it. Otto complied the versions and had it published in 1947, was translated into German and French in 1950.

Nuremberg War Crimes Trial, 1945-46

Under Truman leadership, national trial of people who supported Nazis. Held under the offices of the United States, England, France and the Soviet Union. Decided to hold the trial in Nuremberg, the center of Nazi movement, where the Nuremberg laws had been passed. International law didn't really exist before WW2, notion of a forcible international law didn't exist. The four offices had different leaderships and governments of how a trial worked. US and England, build case and establish guilt and then sentence. Soviet Union trials were just a formality people who went on trial were already considered to be guilty and was to figure out the punishment. By August 8th, had ratified charter for the trials, by October had indicted 21 members of the Nazi party. Herman and Rudolf Hess, both leaders of the Nazi party. The defeated were charged with 3 crimes. Atmosphere was very somber, 2 people representing each nation. In the court room were lawyers for the protection as well as 160 reporters. Team of translators, everyone expects for guards got a headset, so they could understand. Believed real purpose of trail was to establish that Nazi's had committed crimes against peace and the rest were secondary components. Today scholars agree that though it dealt was crimes, it was the crimes against humanity that made it so significant, first crimes to be charged against humanity. First trial to separate crimes from war crimes to against humanity. Trial made the world aware of what had happened. Documentary was played, called Nazi Concentration Camps, taken by soldiers when they liberated the death camps. Hess came across as deranged and would break out in laughter and not pay attention, was found sane enough to be put in trial. Funk seemed horrified listening to it but still tried to justify themselves for their part. Military would blame the SS; the SS would blame their superiors. Said they did it because they were patriots. Many blamed it on Hitler who was already dead. Many of the defendants claimed they didn't know what was happening in the concentration camps. Others claimed that they protested to Hitler or had helped some Jews. By end of trial 12 were sentenced to hanging, others were sentenced to prison for life, or a long sentence, 3 were acquitted.

Art Spiegelman

Undergrand comic artist, born in Sweden in 1948 moved to the US in 1951 with parents who were survivors. In 1972 he published a 3 page​ comic talking about is parents story of survival. Jews- mice, Nazi's-cats. "Acontract ​​with God"- Comic book (full book lenght​) written by other author intrigued. Spiegelman had first few chapters published in newspapers in 1980 then published 6 chapters separate as a book in 1986 then published the most in 1991. Publsihed in parts to stop it from being copied.

Anne Frank's Diary

attempted to memorialize the Holocaust as it was happening. Three different versions were published, first is the version that she wrote before she expected others to read it, the second was the edited version, the third was edited by Otto Frank

Adolf Eichmann Trial, 1961

before the trial there wasn't much going on in the social psychological part of the Holocaust. The trial was a watershed moment in Holocaust awareness, sparked new type of engagement. Took place in Jerusalem, had more of an impact because the trial was televised. Eichmann was the SS leader who coordinated the deportation of Jews to the Killing center. After the war he fled to Argentina and was living under a different name, the Israel wanted to. In May 1960, Mosade agents found him and brought him to Jerusalem to stand trial. In the trial he sat in a bulletproof glass case, were afraid that someone would shot him before he could stand trial. Eichmann was found guilty and his sentence was death by hanging. Only time Israel civil court tried someone to death by hanging. First Holocaust trial that was broadcasted on TV throughout the world, gained a wide television audience. The personality of Eichmann, before Nazi's were seen as a crazed badman, Eichmann main organizer of logistics of mass murders, worked out how to transport millions of Jews to gas chambers, played a huge role. During the trial he appeared to be a normal person, psychologist who examined him said that he wasn't mentally unbalanced, he remained calm and didn't express any hatred or fanatics. At the same time, he didn't express any remorse for what he had done, instead he said that he was following orders and obeying the laws, so he shouldn't be considered responsible. Didn't seem like a monster, made people fear that in the right circumstances that people they know, could also commit those types of crimes.

Oyneg Shabbes (lit: joy of the Sabbath) archieve

collection of the documents and testimonies relating to the life in the Warsaw ghetto collected by Ringleblum. Called it this because this group met on the Sabbath to discuss the project. Instead of dedicating it to joy they dedicated it to memorialize the horrors that they were experiencing. Use this archive to provide primary sources for a book they would eventually write about life in the Warsaw Ghetto for the Jews. Once deportations started to happen and that it was unlikely they would survive, they started to hide the documents in milk jugs and metal boxes and crates and bury they throughout the ghetto for future researchers to find. Nearly all members of the committee were killed including Ringleblum. People came back to look for the documents and knew the materials were hidden, they dug up some of them in 1946, in 1950 they found more. Today we have about 6,000 documents that were collected by Ringleblums group. Scholars believe there is still more documents, and archeologists have tried to find it but not yet.

Chutzpow (2014-2018)

comic book series sponsored by Holocaust center of Pittsburgh. Start in 2014. Volume 1 focuses on stories of survivors who settled in Pittsburgh. Volume 2 (2016) focuses on international stories. Volume 3 focused on stories of child survivors. Purpose of the project is to raise awareness of Holocaust for people who wouldn't spend a lot of time thinking about it. Way to show the world the medium of comics has the potential to tell a complex and meaningful story. Cover art of volume 1 shows Les banos​ ripping off uniform to show yellow star, like superma​n ripping off suit​ with his uniform underneath. Superman of the Holocaust-subtitue​ on cov​er. Regular human beings stepping up as superheroes under adverse circumstances. Volume 3 steps away from superhero idea-cover art shows children looking scared vulnerable and delicate (butterfly shows delicate) Jews didn't survive bc of their audacity/bravery/superhero-likeness-survival was more about random chance of political circumstances that they were in. people who didn't survive had some qualities, dead not because they were weak.

War Crimes

defined as the ill treatment of prisoners of war, or against civilian nations. This crime did exist before the trial, but in the past it usually being for atrocities that occurred from civilians of a different nation. Jewish and communists groups, were present that they established another name for the crimes. War crimes refer to crimes that happened during the war, but there were many crimes that happened before 1938.

Majdanke State Museum

established right at the sites were the action took place, this was the first museum, was created before the Holocaust ended, as people were being murdered. The soviet army went in July 1944, and the retreating Germans didn't have time to destroy the faculty, so at the time of liberation in 1944 the Polish government decided to turn the camp into a memorial and museum.

"Third Wave" experiment, 1967

experiment took place in the classroom, got attention in the years following the experiment. In California a high school teacher wanted to teach his students about how it was possible how so many Germans lost their moral compass. Created an environment called the Third Wave, discipline with praise of how superior and special they were. 10 years after the fact, the teacher wrote about his experiences and brought the experiment to people's attention. Shock about how excited his students were, very concerned how easily they took to conformity and would report on students not following the rules. Taught about the appeal of the Nazi Party and Jones hasn't been subject to intense criticism. Was a standard educational film that students watched in Holocaust learning, the film today is much less popular, the quality of the film, the acting, partner abuse. Neither of these experiments dealt with race.

Superman (created 1938)

first appeared in "Action Comics" in 1938. He was a fictional character with superhero powers to fight evil and was enormously successful. Superheros became a popular theme for comic book industry.

Marie Claude Vailant-Couturier

first witnesses who testified at the trial were non-Jewish people who had been at the camps. She was a member of the French resistance and was caught and sent to Auschwitz. She witnessed a lot and told the world about the torture and medical experiments, the selection, and the mass gassings. First court testimony, some of the Nazi defendants took off their headsets and others weren't affected by it.

MAUS (1980-1991)

groundbreaking because of the Holocaust story and it was a graphic novel . Became a best seller and convinced public comics could be an art form and not just about superheros. People had trouble classifying it, was it fiction or a memoir. Graphic novels was not in its own category yet, Putizer Prize needed to create a category, "special literature" to get the rpize​.

Institute for Historical Review

has a professional sounding name, but the institute is deviated to denying the Holocaust. They don't ignore the evidence, they take small bits of evidence and then twist or misrepresent to make claim that it didn't exist, or it was exaggerated.

Ethical Considerations

having the person in the sonderkomando cut a person's hair at a barber shop, he said it was aimed to show the story of the survivor and important to record the pain of the survivor. Everyone who was interviewed, agreed to be interviewed in that setting, but does that make it justified? To make them and remind them of that trauma.

Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 1903

hoax, document that claimed to be the minutes of the meeting of a secret group of Jews whose evil goal was to achieve world domination by ruining the moral of non-Jews by controlling the media. Translated and brought into the US by Henry Ford. These ideas continue to be recycled by the deniers around the world, by trying to make everyone feel guilty about the Holocaust, and that it was made up in order to gain sympathy.

Repatriation Agreement

in 1946, UN brokered this agreement, said that any world war 2 refugee who were living elsewhere in Europe could return to their countries of origin. People who had left the Soviet Union had gone to Poland but didn't stay in Poland. They continued to travel west and went to the DP camps in Germany. By 1946, 260,000 Jewish people living in DP camps, the majority of them had survived the war because they had been living in the eastern republic of the Soviet Union. None of them felt safe going back to their origin, didn't want to stay in Germany. Stayed in camps until they could go to a country where they believed they could have a future.

Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum and Memorial

in 1947, the Polish government decided that this camp would also be made into a museum, it wasn't all intact. The Germans had dynamited certain structures. The Soviet army had burned down some of the barracks to try to limit the spread of disease. "Canada" was preserved, the shoes, clothes, hair and belongings.

Facing History and Ourselves

is an educational curriculum that has been adopted by many US educators. Became popular in the 1990s, response to the limits of the experiments. Curriculum aimed at middle and high school students. Tries to use history of Holocaust and other instances of injustice throughout history to teach students how to make ethically and moral choices when faced with issues they might come across in their lives. Students begin curriculum by learning about how democracy functions and how different groups can come to dehumanize other groups and that threatens democracy. The importance of not being a bystander, it's important to encourage students to intervene. Students learn historical lessons about various moments of world history where injustice occurred, celebrating people who were up standers. Ex. Racial segregation in the US and Nazi Germany and the Holocaust, deals head on with problem of racism and dehumanization of groups of people and offers students strategies to use to response to injustice. One of the critiques of the curriculum it universally the lessons of the Holocaust, focuses less on Jewish suffering and makes it more universal.

Bergen-Belsen DP Camp

largest DP camp. Was administrator by the Germany army, was very close to a concentration camp that had also been called Bergen-Belsen. The British had burned the camp down in fear of spreading disease. The British set up camp nearby and wanted to call it a different name, but the DP's insisted on calling it Bergen-Belsen, wanted to educate the world on what had happened to them. By 1946, the camp housed 11,000 refugees and survivors. Life in these camps had challenges, population suffered illness and malnutrition, and traumatized, anxiety, depression, PTSD. Hard to get these people what they needed. Joint Distribution Committee began to send in food, clothing, and supplies. survivors created their own institutions, organized democratic elections. They wanted to put together committees to find out what had happened to their relatives. Wrote down lists of survivors that they would distrust, organized schools and orphanages, organized vocational training to help them get a career once they left the camp. They also rebuilt families, a record number of marriages, most between people whose spouse had been murdered. Average of about 20 weddings a day. Residents of the DP had a higher birthrate, try to create new families and a Jewish future. From May to December of 1945, 2,000 births at Bergen-Belsen.