Human Bio & Nutrition Midterm Ch 1-8

Ch 6.8 Develop healthy plant-based eating patterns that meet the body's nutritional needs.

grains, beans, legumes, nuts, seeds, vegetables, fruits and dairy.

Ch 2.1 Use variety, proportionality, and moderation, as well as nutrient and energy density, to develop a healthy eating pattern.

"Consume a variety of foods balanced by a moderate intake of each food". Grains, fruits, protein, Vegetables, Dairy. Proportionality=more nutrient dense foods.

Ch 2.5 Outline the measurements used (ABCDEs) in nutritional assessment: Anthropometric, Biochemical, Clinical, Dietary, and Environmental status.

ABCDEs: find out how nutritionally fit you are. Anthropometric: measurement of body weight and lengths, circumferences, and thicknesses of parts of the body. Biochemical: Measurement of concentrations of nutrients and nutrient by-products in the blood urine, and feces, and the activities of specific blood enzymes. Clinical: Physical evidence of diet-related diseases of deficiencies. (e.g. high blood pressure) Dietary: Looking at a persons dietary pattern for a few days. Environmental: Background analysis-provides further details about the living conditions, education level and ability to purchase and prepare foods needed to maintain health. Limitations: A long time may elapse between the initial development of poor nutritional health and the first clinical evidence of a problem. (e.g. high fat increases blood cholesterol can lead to heart attach, delayed symptoms is low one density results form calcium deficiency)

Ch 3.11 Understand the emerging of field of nutritional genomics

Access of genetic info will enhance the ability of health professionals to personalize nutrient recommendations that can optimize nutritional status. Nutrigenetics examines how variations in genes can affect nutritional health. Nutrigenomics refers to many ways dietary components affect gene expression. ( How nutrients can influence development of chronic diseases. ) Generalized nutrition recommendations may not apply to all individuals.

Ch 6.1 Describe the structure and role of amino acids: distinguish essential from nonessential amino acids and explain why adequate amounts of each of the essential amino acids are required for protein synthesis.

Amino acids are compounds that serve as building blocks for proteins. They contain a central carbon atom with nitrogen and other atoms attached. Link of amino acids makes protein, which helps regulate and maintain blood clotting, fluid balance, hormone and enzyme production, visual process, transport of substance in bloodstream. And cell repair. Amino Acids are formed mostly by carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Each amino acid has an acid group, and amino group and a side or R group. Essential: Cannot be synthesized by humans and need to be included in diet. Without essential amino acids you body first struggles to conserve what essential amino acids it can. Health deteriorates. Nonessential: Can be synthesized by a healthy body

Ch 6.2 Describe how amino acids are organized and used to form proteins.

Amino acids are linked together by chemical bonds called peptide bonds to form proteins. Most proteins are polypeptides or the joining of 10 or more amino acids. Protein synthesis begins with DNA. It contains coded instructions for protein synthesis (which specific amino acids are to be laced in a protein and in which order) DNA is transformed into mRNA and leaves the nucleus to the ribosomes. The ribosomes read the code and translate those instructions to produce a specific protein.

Ch. 7.2 Compare methods to determine energy use by the body.

Amount of energy a body uses can be measured by direct and indirect calorimetry or can be estimated based on height, weight, degree of physical activity and age. Direct calorimetry measures the amount of body heat release by a person. Indirect calorimetry measures the respiratory gas exchange, which is the amount of oxygen a person consumes and the amount of carbon dioxide they expel. Estimated of energy needs is referred to as Estimated Energy Requirements (EER).

Ch 3.3 Define tissue, organ, and organ system.

Arrangement of cells that work together is tissue. Four primary types of tissue. Epithelial: composed of cells that cover surfaces both inside and outside the body. Connective: support and protects the body, stores fat, and produces blood cells. Muscle: designed for movement. Nervous: found in brain and spinal cord and is designed for communication. Tissues: collection of cells adapted to perform a specific function Organ: Group of tissues designed to perform a specific function Organ System: collection of organ that work together to perform an overall function.

Ch 1. 7 Describe a basic plan for health promotion and disease prevention and what to expect from good nutrition and a healthy lifestyle.

Basic Plan: Preventing obesity in first place is easiest approach to healthy lifestyle. Earlier we develop habits of good nutrition, regular physical activity and avoidance of salt, fat, sweets and sedentary lifestyles the better. Look for employees who offer wellness programs, aim to live in city with opportunities for physical activity, access to fresh fruits and vegetables. Consume essential nutrients, doing regulars physical activity, minimize alcohol, not smoking, get adequate sleep and consume a lot of water, reduce stress. What to expect: Less cardiovascular disease

Ch 6.6 Apply current recommendations for protein intake to determine protein needs for healthy adults, and describe what is meant by positive protein balance, negative protein balance, and protein equilibrium.

Best estimate for amount of protein required for all adults to maintain protein equilibrium is 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of healthy body weight. Positive protein balance: State in which protein intake exceeds related protein losses, needed during times of growth. Negative protein balance: Statue in which protein intake is less than related protein losses, during acute illness. Protein equilibrium: State in which protein intake is equally to related protein losses. Eating too much protein can be harmful. Red meat consumption can lead to colon caner and put people at risk for cardiovascular disease. High protein overburdens the kidneys by forcing them to excrete the extra nitrogen as urea.

Ch. 7.3 Discuss methods for assessing and classifying body composition.

Body mass index, chart based off of height and weight. Bodyweight (kg) /height(m)^2 BMI <18.5 underweight BMI 18.5-24.9 healthy weight BMI 25-39.9 overweight BMI 30-39.9 obese BMI > 40 severely obese Underwater weight is most accurate to measure body volume. Individuals are weighted on standard scale, then weighed again submerged in water. The different between the two weights is used to estimate total body volume. Air displacement is another method for estimating body composition that makes use of the volume of space taken up by a body inside a small chamber. Body volume and body weight are used to calculi body density. Skinfold thickness measurements are also common method to estimate total body fat content. Bioelectrical impedance is used to estimate body fat content. It sends low energy electrical current through the body to estimate body fat. Its based-on assumption that adipose tissues resist electrical flow more than lean tissue. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry is most accurate way to determine body fat. It allows clinician to separate body weight into separate components, fat, fat-free soft tissue and bone mineral.

Ch. 7.10 Discuss the causes and treatment of underweight.

Can be caused by cancer, infectious disease, digestive tract disorders, and excessive dieting o physical activity. Health problems can be loss of menstrual function, low bone mass, complications with pregnancy and slow recovery after illness. Treatment: rule out hormonal imbalances, depression, cancer, etc. then intervention to gradually increase their consumption. Encouraging a regular meal and snack schedule also aids in weight gain and maintenance.

Ch. 4.2 Identify the basic structures of the major carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides (e.g. starches. glycogen, and fiber).

Carb molecules are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Simple forms are sugars, Larger forms are either starches or fibers. Starches are digestible and fibers are not. Monosaccharides: Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose: Mono's are simple sugar and serve as basic unit of all carb structures. Glucose in blood stream called blood sugar. Glucose comes from digestion or starches and sucrose from food. Fructose or fruit sugar, is found naturally in fruits. Much is converted to glucose and the rest forms fat. (Most fructose we eat comes from high-fructose corn syrup) Galactose, nearly same structure as glucose. Galactose is usually found bonded to glucose in lactose. After lactose is digested, galactose arrives in liver where it is transformed into glucose or glycogen. Disaccharides: Sucrose, Lactose and Maltose: Disa's are two mono's combines. Sucrose = glucose + fructose Lactose = glucose + galactose Maltose = glucose + glucose Complex Carbs: Polysaccharides: May contain 1000 or more glucose unties. Found in grains, veggies and fruits. Plants store carbs in two forms of starch, amylose and amylopectin. Liver and muscles are major storage sites for glycogen. Fiber: Mostly poly's. Chemical bonds that join the individual sugar units cannot be digested by GI tract. Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gums, mucilage & lignin constitute all non-starch polys in foods. (Called dietary fiber)

Ch 1.4 Determine the total calories (kcal) of food or diet using the weight and calorie content of the energy-yielding nutrients, convert English to metric units and calculate percentages, such as percent of calories from fat in a diet.

Carb: 4kcal/gram Fat: 9kcal/gram Protein: 4kcal/gram Alcohol: 7kcal/gram Example: Chicken Sandwich Carbs: 46 g x 4 = 184kcal Fat: 14 g x 9 = 126 kcal Protein: 45 g x 4 = 180kcal Total: 490 kcal 1980 kcal total calories 290 g, carbs, 60 g fat, 70 g protein % of kcal as carbs = (290x4) /1980 = 59% % of kcal as fat= (60x9) /1980 = 27% % of kcal as protein= (70x4) /1980 = 14%

Ch. 4.1 Explain how carbohydrates are created and their role in a healthy dietary pattern.

Carbs are main fuel source for cells in brain, nervous system and red blood cells. Muscles also reply of supply of carb to fuel physical activity. Readily available in form of blood glucose and glycogen stored in lover and muscles. Photosynthesis: lease capture the sun's solar energy and transform it into chemical energy, this energy is stored in chemical bonds of the carbs glucose and it produced from carbon dioxide. 6 molecules of carbon dioxide combined with 6 molecules of water to form 1 molecule of glucose. (6 molecules of oxygen are release into air)

Ch 3. 2 Identify the functions of cellular components.

Cells is basic structural and functional component of life. Cells have membranes and organelles that perform specialized functions. There are at least 15 different organelles. Cell (Plasma) Membrane: Holds the cellular contents together and regulates the flow of substances into and out of the cell. Lipid bilayer, of phospholipids (water-soluble) and cholesterol (fat-soluble) Proteins embedded in cell membrane, they provide structural support, act as transport vehicles and function as enzymes that affect chemical processes within the membrane. (Animal cells do not have cell walls) Cytoplasm: Combination of fluid material and organelles within the cell (not the nucleus) This contributes to the survival of all cells and is the sole source of energy production in red blood cells. Energy production is called anaerobic metabolism (does not require oxygen) Mitochondria: Capable of converting food energy to a form of energy that cells use. This is aerobic process. All cells contain mitochondria, only size, shape and quantity vary (EXCEPT for red blood cells) Cell Nucleus: All cells have one or more nuclei (except red blood cells) Bounded by own double membrane. Contains genetic material responsible for controlling actions that occur in the cell. Genetic material include chromosomes, which contain genes made of DNA. Process of gene expression (DNA info on a gene to produce a protein-major determination of cell development) Endoplasmic Reticulum: Outer membrane of cell nucleus is contiguous with a network of tubes call endoplasmic reticulum. Proteins play central role in human nutrition. Also involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification of substances and calcium storage and release in cell. Golgi complex: packaging site for proteins used in cytoplasm. Lysosomes: cells digestive system. Responsible for digested worn out or damaged cell components. Certain cells associated with immune functions. Peroxisomes: contain enzymes that detoxify harmful chemicals. Play minor role in metabolizing one possible source of energy for cells-alcohol.

Ch 1.6 List the major characteristics of the North American diet, the food habits that often need improvement, and the current status and targets of the "Nutrition and Weight Status" objectives of the Healthy People 2020 report.

Characteristics of NA diet: 15% of calorie intake is proteins, 52% is carbs and 33% is fat. Animal sources supply about two-thirds protein intake. Half the carb intake is from simple sugars and the other half are starches. 60% of fat is from animal sources and 40% from plant sources. Health Objectives: attain high quality lives free of preventable disease, achieve health equity & improve health of all groups, create social & physical environments that promote good health for all, & promote quality of life and healthy behaviors across all life stages. Nutrition and Weight Status Objectives: Consume variety of nutrient dense foods, whole grans, fruits, vegetables, low fat or fat free milk and lean meat, limiting intake of solid fats, cholesterol and added sugar, sodium and alcohol & limited calorie intake to meet caloric needs.

Ch 3.9 List basic characteristics of the urinary system and its role in nutrition

Composed of two kidneys, bladder, ureter & urethra. Main function of the kidneys is to remove waste from the body. They filter blood to control its composition, which forms urine. With the lungs, the kidneys also maintain the pH balance of blood. Kidneys contribute to bone health because they convert a form of vitamin D into its active hormones' form. Proper function of kidneys is closely tied to the strength of the cardiovascular system,; its ability to maintain adequate blood pressure and the consumption of sufficient fluid.

Ch 2.4 Describe the types of nutritional status and characteristics of each.

Desirable Nutrition: Nutritional state for nutrient is desirable when body tissues have enough of the nutrient to support normal metabolic functions and surplus stares that can be used in times of increased need. Undernutrion: Nutrient intake does not meet nutrient needs. Any surpluses are put to use at first than as those stores are exhausted health begins to decline. Many nutrients are in high demand due to constant cell loss and regeneration in the body (gastrointestinal tract) (Vitamin B is exhausted quickly) Once nutrient falls low enough, biochemical evidence indicated that the body's metabolic processes have slowed or stopped. (subclinical deficiency) Clinical symptoms will develop, perhaps in skin, hair, nails, tongue, it takes years to develop. Overnutrition: Prolonged consumption of more nutrients than the body needs can lead to overnutrition. Short run, can lead to stomach distress but it intake continues, some nutrients may accumulate which can lead to serious disease. Most common-excess intake of calories. Gap is wide between desirable intake and overnutrition for vitamins and minerals.

Ch. 4.7 Identify the consequences of diabetes and explain appropriate dietary measures that will reduce the adverse effects of this chronic disease.

Diabetes: Type 1: total insulin deficiency due to destruction of insulin-producing cells of pancreas. Generally associated with decreased release of insulin. Blood glucose increased. Most cases begin with immune system disorder, which stems from genetic, autoimmune or environmental factors. Dietary therapy includes balance carb intake with the insulin regimen and physical activity to manage blood glucose. Type 2: Insulin resistance often associated with obesity. Arises when insulin receptors on the cell surfaces of body tissues become insulin resistant. During onset, there is abundance on insulin but not used properly and blood glucose is not readily transferred into the cells. As pancreas attempts to increase insulin output to compensate, the beta cells in pancreas lose ability to produce sufficient quantities. Achieving healthy weight ir primary goal of treatment.

Ch 2.2 List the purpose and key recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines and the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans.

Dietary Quidelines: 1. Follow a healthy eating pattern across the lifespan. 2. Focus on variety, nutrient density, and amount. 3. Limit calories from added sugars and saturated fats and reduce sodium intake. 4. Shift to healthier food and beverages choices. 5. Support healthy eating patterns for all. "Consume a healthy eating pattern that accounts for all food s and beverages within an appropriate calorie level" Physical Activity Guidelines: At least 150-300mins. of moderate intensity activity/week Avoid inactivity. Muscle-strengthening activities 2 or more days /week

Ch 6.4 Describe how protein is digested, absorbed, and metabolized in the body. (2)

Digestion: Begins with booking of food, it softens tough connective tissue in meat and makes protein rich food easier to chew. Enzymatic digestion begins in stomach. They at first denatured by stomach acid (pepsin) This acid unravels the polypeptide chains and breaks the polypeptide into shorter chains on amino acids. Release of pepsin is controlled by hormone gastrin. Gastrin stimulates the stomach to release pepsin and produce acid. Partially digested proteins move to small intestine which trigger the release of hormone, cholecystokinin. CCK travels through bloodstream to pancreas where it releases protein-splitting enzymes (trypsin) They further divide the chain of amino acids. Absorption: Short chains amino acids and individual amino acids are taken up by active transport into absorptive cells. Remaining peptide bonds are broken inside intestinal cells to get individual amino acids. They are water soluble, so they travel to liver and nutrients are drains from the intestinal tract. In the liver, individual amino acids may 1) combine into the proteins needed by specific cells, 2) be broken down for energy needs, 3) release into bloodstream; or 4) converted into nonessential amino acids, glucose, or fat.

Ch 5.5 Explain how lipids are digested and absorbed.

Digestion: First phase, stomach secretes enzymes lipase. Lipase acts on triglycerides that have fatty acids with short chain lengths. Lipase enzymes is also released from the pancreas to digest fats in small intestine. Most triglycerides with long chain length are not digested until they reach the small intestine. In small intestine, triglycerides are brown down into monoglycerides and fatty acids. With presence of bile from gallbladder, digestion is rapid. Bile acids emulsify fat in watery digestive juices. After fat digestion, bile acids are absorbed in small intestine and transported back to liver. Certain enzymes from pancreas digest phospholipids. Glycerol, fatty acids are produced eventually. Any cholesterol with fatty acid attached is broken down to free cholesterol and fatty acids by certain enzymes. This could be broken down to yield energy. Absorption: Fatty acids and monoglycerides diffuse into the absorptive cells of small intestine. If chain length of fatty acid is less than 12 carbon atoms, it is water soluble and go to liver. Longer chains are too large to be absorbed. They are reformed into triglycerides and eventually enter circulation via lymphatic system.

Ch. 7.1 Describe energy balance and the various uses of energy by the body.

Energy balance is the state in which energy intake in the form of food matches the energy expended primarily through basal metabolism and physical activity. Positive energy balance = weight gain. Negative energy balance=weight loss. Three general purpose of energy use by the body : basal metabolism, physical activity and digestion, absorption, and processing of ingested nutrients. Four and minor form is adaptive thermogenesis, or energy expended during fidgeting.

Ch 5.8 Explain the current recommendations for fat intake.

Fat intake should be 20%-35% of total calories, or 44-78 grams/day out of 2000kcal daily.

Ch 5. 2 Describe the structures of the three forms of lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols.

Fatty acids are found in triglycerides. Fatty acid is long chain or carbons bonded together and flanked by hydrogens. At one end is an acid group (carbon with two oxygens) and at the other is a methyl group (three hydrogen). Triglycerides contain three-carbon alcohol (glycerol) that serves as backbone for the three attached fatty acids. Removing one fatty acid forms a diglyceride and removing two forms a monoglyceride. Phospholipids: Built on a backbone of glycerol. At least one fatty acid is replaced with a compound containing phosphorus. Lecithin is common example of phospholipid. They participate in fat digestion, absorption, and transport. Not essential components of diet. Sterols: Have a multi-ringed structure that makes them structurally and functionally different from other lipids. More common is cholesterol. Does not have glycerol backbone or any fatty acids.

Ch. 7.5 List and discuss characteristics of a sound weight-loss program.

Five components of weight-loss program: rate of loss, flexibility, intake, behavior modification and overall health. Rate of loss: slow & steady weight loss, set goal of 1 pound of fat loss per week. Flexibility: Supports participation in normal activities and adapts to individual habits and tastes. Intake: Meet nutrient needs, includes common foods with no food being promotes as special. Behavior modification: focus on maintenance of health lifestyle for a lifetime, promotes reasonable changes that can be maintained, includes plans for relapse. Overall health: encourages regular physical activity, sufficient sleep, stress reduction.

Ch 1.1 Describe how our food choices are affected by the flavor, texture, and appearance of food: routines and habits; early experiences and customs; advertising; nutrition and health concerns; dining out; convenience; cost; and hunger and appetite.

Flavor, texture, appearance: Most important factors determining food choices. Challenge is to match taste of foods we prefer with best nutrition & health characteristics. Routines & Habits: Food habits, availability and convenience strongly influence choices. Most of use eat from core group of foods with about 100 basic items. (Milk, cereal, bottled water, soft drinks & bread are most commonly purchased foods in US) Bread is most common form of grain. Early experiences & Customs: Food customs, including ethnic diet patterns begin during childhood. Parents lay strong foundation of food choices during childhood that influence us later in life. Advertising: Major tool! Good because it promotes important of food components but also advertises highly sweetened cereals, cookies, cakes, etc. Most fast-food restaurants increase advertising to children. Link between TC ads and childhood obesity in US. Mass media influences onset of eating disorders. Nutrition: What we think of as "healthy foods". Dining Out: Food is calorie dense and portions are large and our poorer nutritional quality. Mandatory to post food calorie content. Convenience: Stem from lifestyle that limits the amount of time spent in food prep. Takes too much time to keep track of diet. Cost: Number two reason why people choose the food they do. Young adults spend most on food. Hunger & Appetite: Hunger is physical, biological drive to eat. Appetite is psychological drive to eat.

Ch 6.5 List the primary functions of protein in the body.

Functions of protein: produce body components, maintain fluid balance, contribute to pH balance, form enzymes and hormones, contribute to immune function and provide energy and satiety.

Ch. 4.3 Describe food sources of carbohydrates and list some alternative sweeteners.

Grains: Contain fiber, minerals, trace minerals, vitamins, carotenoids & other phytochemicals. Vegetables: Good source of carbs in form of starch and fiber. Low in fat and calories and have lots of nutrients. Reduces risk of chronic diseases. Fruits: Provide carbs in form of natural sugar and fiber. Dietary fiber from fruits help reduce blood cholesterol & important for proper bowel function. Helps provide feeling of fullness with fewer calories. Dairy: Provides carbs in form of lactose. Have other key nutrients, and responsible for bone health. Alternative sweeteners: Saccharin, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame-K, Stevia, luo han guo, advantame,

Ch 3. 12 Identify the major nutrition-related gastrointestinal health problems and approaches to treatment.

Heartburn: Acid reflux. Movement of acid from stomach to esophagus. There is little mucus to protect it so acid erodes the lining of esophagus. Caused by relaxation of gastroesophageal sphincter. Treatment includes: avoid smoking, avoid large doses of aspirin, maintain healthy body weight, limit alcohol & caffeine consumption. Ulcers: Peptic ulcer occurs when lining of esophagus, stomach or small intestine is eroded by acid from stomach cells. Young people mostly have them in small intestine, older people have them in stomach (usually) (treatment is same as heartburn treatment) Constipation: difficult or infrequent evacuation of bowels. More fluid is absorbed during the time the feces stays in the large intestine, so is becomes dry and hard. Treatment: fiber and fluid for mild cases. Fiber stimulates peristalsis by drawing water into large intestine. Laxatives can lessen constipation. Some work by irritating the intestinal nerve junctions to stimulate the peristaltic muscles, and other contain fiber to draw water into intestine. Hemorrhoids: Piles, swollen veins of the rectum and anus. Treatment: Pain can be lessened by applying warm compresses or sitting in tub of warm water. Dietary recommendations are same as treating constipation. Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Combination of cramps, gassiness, bloating and irregular bowel function. Treatment: Viscous fiber (oats, apples) diet may help some people with IBS, nonfermentable fiber (whole grains, veggies) seem to worsen symptoms. Elimination diets that focus on avoiding dairy and gas- forming foods can alleviate symptoms. Herbal formulations, probiotics and cognitive behavioral therapy have been shown to decrease symptoms. People with IBS should eliminate caffeine. Diarrhea: Increased fluidity, frequency or amount of bowel movements. Short term-result of viral or bacterial infections. Sugar alcohols or high-fiber foods can lead to diarrhea. Goal of diet therapy for diarrhea is to prevent dehydration. So increase intake of water and electrolytes is first step. Treatment: Decrease caffeine, fat, fiber, and poorly absorbed carbs. Probiotics may assist recovery. Gallstones: Pieces of solid material that develop in gallbladder when cholesterol from crystal like particles. Caused by excess weight, genetic background, pregnancy, reduced activity of gallbladder, altered bile composition, diabetes, and diet. May also develop during rapid weight loss. Treatment: Medicine to dissolve gallstones, or surgical removing them. Best prevention is to avoid becoming overweight. Celiac Disease and Gluten sensitivity: Celiac disease depends on genetic predisposition and dietary exposure to protein called gluten. When people with celiac disease are exposed to gluten, they experience inflammatory reaction. Immune system attacks and destroys its own cells. Treatment: Avoid gluten. Gluten Sensitivity: Similar to celiac disease, but they do not have the small intestinal pathology of the disease, or the antibodies typical of CD. Treatment: Avoid gluten.

Ch. 7.11 Evaluate popular weight-reduction methods, and determine which are safe and most successful.

High-protein, low-carb: Recommend at least 30-50% of total calories from protein and restrict carb intake. In theory, this burns excess fat instead of carbs, but this causes a disruption in body's pH balance in the short term, and ketosis in long-term. It is very difficult to maintain. Carb focused diets: Emphasize the good carbs. They recommend eating plenty of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, and cut out simple sugar and processed foods. This may help control hunger due to slow and steady rise and fall in blood sugar after meals. Low-fat approaches: 5-10% of calories as fat and often high in carbs. Lead to weight loss and may be helpful for reducing heart disease risks but are difficult to follow. Novelty diets: Diets built on gimmicks. Emphasize one food/food group and exclude almost all others. These are bad. Meal replacements: Most meals are fortified with vitamins and minerals and are appropriate to replace one or two regular meals or smacks. They provide portion and calorie-controlled foods. But become heavily reloaded upon and make it hard to dieters to prepare food. Quakery diets: Usually involve product or service that costs lots of money in hopes of weight loss.

Ch 3.7 List basic characteristics of the immune system and its role in nutrition.

Immune system provides clear example of interrelationship between nutrition status and organ system function. Major components are white blood cells, lymph vessels and nodes, spleen, thymus gland. Immune functions provide defense against pathogens and forms white blood cells. Nutrients important for health of the immune system include proteins, essential fatty acids, iron, copper, zinc, vitamins A, C, & D and some B.

Ch 5.6 Name the lipoproteins and classify them according to their functions.

Lipoproteins: compound in bloodstream containing a core of lipids with a shell composed of protein, phospholipid, and cholesterol. Chylomicron: Primary component is triglyceride. Carries dietary fat from the small intestine to cells. VLDL: primary component is triglyceride. Carries lipids made and taken up by the liver to cells. Very low density. LDL: Primary component is cholesterol. Carries cholesterol made by the liver and from other sources to cells. Low density. HDL: Primary component is protein. Contributes to cholesterol removal from cells, and in turn, excretion of it from the body. High density.

Ch 6.3 Identify food sources of protein, distinguish between high-quality and low-quality proteins and describe the concept of complementary proteins.

Main sources of protein are meat, eggs, fish, dry beans & nuts. Animal protein contains ample amounts of all nine essential amino acids. (high quality proteins) Planet sources (expect for soybeans and quinoa seed) are considered lower quality protein because their amino-acid patterns differ from our and they are low or lacking in essential amino acids. Complementary proteins: Two or more protein sources combined to compensate for deficiencies in their essential amino-acid contents. Together they yield a sufficient amount of all nine essential amino acids. (e.g., beans and rice, vegetables and nuts)

Ch.8.2 Classify the minerals as major, trace, or ultratrace.

Major: Vital to health, a mineral that is required in the diet in amount greater than 100 milligrams per day. (Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur) Trace: Vital to health, a mineral that is required in the diet in amount less than 100 milligrams per day (Iron, Zinc, selenium, iodine, copper, fluoride, chromium, manganese, molybdenum) Ultratrace: A mineral present in the human diet in trace amount but that has not been shown to be essential to human health. (Arsenic, boron, nickel, silicon, vanadium)

Ch.8.1 Define the terms micronutrient, vitamin, mineral and functional foods, and list characteristics of each.

Micronutrient: A nutrient needed in milligram or microgram quantities in a diet. Yield no energy.(Vitamins C & D & iron) Vitamin: An essential organic (carbon-containing) compound needed in small amount in the diet to help regulate and support chemical reactions and processes in the body. Fat-soluble (A, D, E, & K) water-soluble (B & C) Mineral: Element used in the body to promote chemical reactions and to form body structures.

Ch 3.8 Describe the roles of the mouth, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas in digestion and absorption of nutrients.

Mouth: chew food, perceive taste, moisten food with saliva, lubricate food with mucus, release small amount of starch-digesting (amylase) and fat-digesting (lipase) enzymes , initiate swallowing reflex. Stomach: store, mix, dissolve, and continue digestion of food, dissolve food particles with secretions, kill microorganisms with acid, release protein-digesting (pepsin) and fat-digesting (lipase) enzymes. Small intestines: mix and propel contents, lubricate with mucus, digest an absorb most substances using enzymes made by the pancreas and small intestinal cells (lactase, sucrase, maltase and peptidases) Large intestines: mix and propel contents, absorb sodium, potassium and water, house bacteria, lubricate with mucus, synthesize some vitamins and short-chain fatty acids, form feces. Liver: produce bile to aid fat digestion and absorption Gallbladder: Store, concentrate and later release bile into small intestine. Pancreas: secrete sodium bicarbonate and enzymes for digesting carbs (amylase), fat (lipase), and protein ( trypsin and chymotrypsin)

Ch 3.5 List basic characteristics of the nervous system and its role in nutrition.

Nervous system regulatory system that centrally controls most body functions. Can detect changes in organs and initiate corrective action when needed to maintain a constant internal body environment. Regulates activities that change instantly (voluntary muscle contractions, body's response to stress/danger) Basic structural and functional unit of nervous system is neuron. Neuron s respond to electrical and chemical signals, conduct electrical impulses and release chemical regulators. All us to perceive what is occurring in environment, engage in learning, store vital info in memory & control body's actions. Calcium is needed for the release of neurotransmitters from neurons. Vitamin B-12 plays role in formation of myelin sheath. Regular supply of carbs (glucose) important for fueling the brain.

Ch 1.3 Define the terms nutrition, carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fat), alcohol, vitamin, mineral, phytochemical, kilocalorie (kcal), and fiber.

Nutrition: the science that links food to health and disease Carb: compound containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Most are known as sugars, starches, & fibers. (Glucose) Provide 4kcal/gram calories for body. Protein: food & body compounds made of more than 100 amino acids. Proteins contain the form of nitrogen most easily used by human body. Provide 4kcal/gram calories for body. Lipid: compound containing much carbon and hydrogen, little oxygen and other atoms. Do not dissolve in water and include fats, oils and cholesterol. Provide 9kcal/gram calories for body. (more than carbs) Alcohol: Ethyl alcohol or ethanol is compound in alcoholic beverages. Not essential nutrient Vitamin: essential organic compound needed in small amounts to help regulate and support chemical reactions and processes in the body. Fat soluble: A, D, E & K. Water soluble: B & C Mineral: Inorganic substances that do not contain carbon atoms. Element used in the body to promote chemical reactions and to form body structures. 16 or more minerals required divided into two group: major minerals a& trace minerals. ( Electrolytes-mineral with electrical charge when dissolved in water) Phytochemical: chemical found in plants. Some may contribute to reduced risk of cancer or cardiovascular disease. "Superfoods" Kilocalorie: heat energy needed to raise the temp. of 1000 grams of water 1 degree Celsius. Fiber: substances in plant foods not digested in human stomach or small intestine-add bulk to feces. Bonds between sugar molecules in certain complex carbs.

Ch 3. 1 Understand some basic roles of nutrients in human physiology

Organ systems are composed of cells, each cell is a living entity, cells of same type join together, forming tissues. One, two or more tissues combine to form organs. Organ contribute to nutritional health and overall nutritional state determines how well each organ functions. E.g. constant formation and degradation of bone. Cells require a continuous supply of energy derived from dietary carbs, protein and fat. Cells also need water, protein and minerals, and vitamins. Cells also need steady supply of oxygen.

Ch 3.6 List basic characteristics of the endocrine system, especially the pancreas, and its role in nutrition.

Plays major role in regulation of metabolism, reproduction, water balance and other functions by producing hormones in endocrine glands. Hormones is regulatory compound that entered the bloodstream to reach target cells. They can turn on, turn off and work in cooperation with another hormone to perform a task. Insulin (released form pancreases) helps control amount of glucose in blood. Insulin is produced when glucose in blood rises to certain level. Insulin is released and travels to muscle, adipose and liver cells. Insulin allows for the movement of glucose from the blood into muscle an adipose cells. In liver cells, insulin causes an increase in stored glycogen.

Ch 1.2 Identify diet and lifestyle factors that contribute to the 10 leading causes of death in North America.

Poor diet & lack of physical activity, not meeting nutrient needs in younger years, drinking too much alcohol. Top 5: heart disease, cancer, chronic lower respiratory disease, stroke, accidents

Ch 5. 1 Understand the common properties of lipids.

Primarily of the elements carbon and hydrogen and contain fewer oxygen atoms than carbs do. Lipids yield 9kcal/gram. Lipid is generic terms that includes triglycerides (major form of lipid, composed of three fatty acids bonded to glycerol), phospholipids (any of a class of fat-related substances contain phosphorus, fatty acids, and a nitrogen-containing component) part of every cell) and sterols (compound contains a steroid structure and a hydroxyl group. Cholesterol is example). Solid lipids at room temp=fat, liquid lipids at room temp are oils. Lipids do not dissolve in water. Triglycerides are most common type.

Ch 6.7 Describe how protein-calorie malnutrition eventually can lead to disease in the body.

Protein calorie malnutrition can lead to kwashiorkor and marasmus. Kwashiorkor is often found in small children in developing areas of the world. Major symptoms are apathy, diarrhea, listlessness, failure to grow and weight gain. These symptoms also complicate other diseases present, mile measles. Edemas are also a symptom. Marasmus typically occurs as an infant slowly starves to death. Caused by diets with minimal calories as well as too little protein.

Ch. 4.5 List the functions of carbohydrates in the body, the problems that result from not eating enough carbohydrates, and the beneficial effects of fiber on the body.

Providing Energy: Main function of glucose is to supply calories for use by the body. Red blood cells can only use glucose for fuel. Brain and central nervous system also derive energy from only glucose. Muscle cells use simple cabs as fuel. Digestible carbs end up as blood glucose, and protein is reserved for functions like building and maintain muscle and vital organs. If you don't eat enough carbs, your body is forced to make glucose from proteins. When you don't eat enough carbs, the metabolism of fats is inefficient. Fats are not broken down completely and instead form ketone bodies. This is known as ketosis and disturbs the body's normal pH balance. Benefits of Fiber: High intake of fiber inhibits absorption of cholesterol. Reduces risk of cardiovascular disease.

Ch. 4.6 State the RDA for carbohydrate and guidelines for carbohydrate intake.

RDA for carbs is 130 g/day for adults. 45%-65% of total calorie intake. Fiber intake should be 25 g/day for women and 38 g/day for men.

Ch 2.6 Describe the specific categories of nutrient recommendations within the Dietary Reference Intakes.

Recommended Dietary Allowance: RDA- daily amount of a nutrient that will meet the needs of nearly all individuals. Adequate Intake: (AI) standard is based on dietary intakes of people who appear to be maintaining nutritional health. That amount of intake is assumed to be adequate, as no evidence of a nutritional deficiency is apparent. Estimated Energy Requirement: (EER) Kilocalorie needs. Tolerable Upper Intake Level: (UL) set for some vitamins and minerals. Highest amount of a nutrient unlikely to cause adverse health effects in long run. Daily Value: (DV) Generic standard used on food labels. Based on 2000 kcal diet

Ch 5.4 Identify food sources of saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated fatty acids and trans fatty acids; phospholipids; and cholesterol.

Saturated: Fatty acid containing no carbon-carbon double bonds. Found in coconut oil, butter, palm oil & lard or beef fat. Unsaturated: Carbon chain of a fatty acids contains a double bond. Monounsaturated: Fatty acid with only one double bond. Found in olive oil, canola oil and peanut oil. Polyunsaturated: Two or more bonds between carbons are double bonds. Found in safflower oil, sunflower oil. Corn oil and soybean oil. Trans: Form of unsaturated fatty acid, which the hydrogens on both carbons forming the double bond lie on opposite sides of that bond. Found in tub margarine, stick margarine and shortening. Cis: form of an unsaturated fatty acid that has the hydrogens lying on the same side of the carbon-carbon double bond. Phospholipids: Wheat germ, peanuts, egg yolk, soybeans and organ meats are rich in phospholipids. Cholesterol: Only found in animal foods.

Ch. 4.4 Explain how carbohydrates are taken in and used by the body including the processes of digestion, absorption, metabolism, and glucose regulation.

Starch and sugar digestion: begins in cooking, starches are broken down by heat. Enzymatic digestion of starch begins in mouth. Amylase breaks down starch into smaller units (e/g/ maltose)Food moves down to stomach and acid inactivates the salivary amylase. When carbs reach small intestine, they are further digested. Pancreas releases enzymes to aid in last stage of starch digestion. After amylase action, carbs are now present in small intestine as glucose and fructose, and maltose, lactose and sucrose. Carb absorption: Monosaccharides follow active absorption process after digestion mouth and small intestines. Glucose and galactose are pumped into absorptive cells with sodium. Fructose is taken by absorptive cells via facilitated diffusion. Fructose is metabolized into glucose. Single sugars are transferred to portal vein that goes to liver. Liver metabolizes sugar by turning galactose and fructose into glucose and releases it into bloodstream, produces glycogen for storage of carbs and produces fat. Regulating Blood Glucose: After carbs are digested & absorbed in small intestine, they are transported to liver and the liver guards against excess glucose from entering the blood steam. (Liver works with pancreas) Pancreas releases insulin into blood steam after a meal, and it directs the liver to store glucose as glycogen and directs muscle, adipose & other cells to remove glucose from blood steam by taking into those cells. On other hand, when you haven't eaten for a while blood glucose begins to fall, pancreas release glucagon. It prompts the breakdown of liver glycogen into glucose and released into blood stream.

Ch 1.5 Understand the scientific method as it is used in forming hypotheses and theories in the field of nutrition, including the determination of nutrient needs.

Step 1: Observations made & questions asked Step 2: Hypothesis Generated Step 3: Research experiments conducted to test hypothesis Step 4: Results evaluated by other scientists & reported in a publication Step 5: Follow-up experiments conducted to confirm or extend findings Step 6: Hypothesis Accepted or Rejected Scientists make observations of natural phenomenon, historical events have provided clues to important relationships in nutrition science. Study diet and disease patterns amount various populations is another research method. Proving the role of particular dietary components requires experiments. A lot of what we know about human nutritional needs and functions have been gleaned form animal experiments. One experiment is never enough!

Ch 3.10 Understand how nutrients are stored in the body.

Storage capacity varies form each different nutrient. Most fat is store in adipose tissue. Short terms storage of carbs occur in muscles and liver in form of glycogen. Blood maintains a small reserve of glucose and amino acids. Many vitamins and minerals are stored in liver.

Ch 1.8 Identify food and nutrition issues relevant to college students.

Students fall short of diet recommendations for whole grains, vegetables, fruits, milk & meat. Stressful situations lead to poor health behaviors. Physical activity is sacrificed in favor of study time. Lots of poor health food temptations due to convenience, taste and value. Freshman 15. Heaving drinking. Eating disorders

Ch 2.8 Describe the components of the Nutrition Facts panel and the various health claims and label descriptors that are allowed.

Total calories (kcal), calories from fat, total fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium, total carbs, fiber, sugars, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, & iron. Sugar: Sugar free: less than .05 g/serving No added sugar: no added sugar during processing, processing does not increase sugar. Reduced Sugar: 25% less sugar/serving than reference food. Calories: Calorie free: Less than 5 kcal/serving Low Calorie: 40 kcal fewer/serving Reduced or fewer calories: at least 35% fewer kcal/serving than reference food. ETC. PAGE 67

Ch 5.7 Describe the function of the various forms of lipids in the body.

Triglycerides contained in the diet and stored in adipose tissue provide the fatty acids that are the main fuel for muscles. We store energy mainly in form of triglycerides. Lipids insulating and protect the body. Fat tissue also surround and protects organs (kidneys) from injury. Fat transports fat-soluble vitamins to the small intestine and aid their absorption. They regulate body processes. Eicosanoids (converted omega3 & 6 fatty acids) act as chemical messenger that direct growth and development, immune function, and work of the central nervous system. Omega 3 eicosanoids decrease blood clotting and inflammatory processes in body. Phospholipids: Form important parts of cell membranes. Participate in fat digestion in intestine. Cholesterol: Sterols are important in synthesis of hormones. (estrogen, testosterone & vitamin D hormone) Cholesterol is essential structural component of cells and outer later of lipoprotein particles that transport lipids in blood. It is building block of bile acids.

Ch 5.3 Discuss the importance of the essential fatty acids.

Two polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential in human diet. Linoleic acid (omega-6 fatty acid) and alpha-linolenic acid (o mega-3 fatty acids). They are essential because we must obtain them from foods. The fatty acids form parts of vital body structures, performs important roles in immune system function and vision, help form cell membranes, and produce eicosanoids. Without fatty acids, skin becomes flaky and itchy, diarrhea is often seen. Growth and wound healing may be restricted.

Ch 3. 4 Identify the role of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems in nutrition.

Two systems for the circulatory system. Cardiovascular: major components are heart, blood vessels, and blood. Blood is composed of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, etc. Functions are carries blood and regulates blood supply, transports nutrients, waste products, hormones, and gases throughout the body & regulates blood pressure. Lymphatic System: consists of a network of lymphatic vessels and fluid that moves through them. Lymph vessels taken up excess fluid that collects between cells and returns it to blood stream. Lymph is similar to blood. It contains various white blood cells that play important role in immune system. Flow is driven by muscle contractions arising from normal body movements. Lymphatic vessels called lacteal, absorb fat from small intestines' that are too large to enter blood steam.

Ch. 7.4 Explain risk factors associated with overweight and obesity and related health consequences.

Upper body obesity is related to insulin resistance and fatty liver leading to diabetes, high blood lipids and heat disease. Lower body obesity is where the small abdomen and butt/thigh area have more fat

Ch. 7.9 Outline the pros and cons of various weight-loss methods for severe obesity.

Very low-calorie diets: Dangerous because of rapid weight loss and potential for sever health complications. Intermittent Fasting: Can promote weight loss, it is dangerous because you are just not eating. Bariatric Surgery: Adjustable gastric banding: restrictive procedure in which the opening from the esophagus to the stomach is reduced by a gastric band. Gastric bypass reduces the stomach capacity by restricting the stomach to reduce volume. Lipectomy: Surgical removal of fat in certain areas.

Ch 2.7 Identify reliable sources of nutritional information.

Watch for testimonials about personal experience, promises of dramatic results, lack of evidence, disreputable publication sources. Examine background and scientific credentials of individual, organization or publication making claim. Note size and duration of any study in support of nutrition claim. Beware of new conferences and other hype. American Council on Science and Health Quackwatch National Council Against Health Fraud National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements U.S. food and Drug Administration

Ch 5.9 Characterize the relationship between lipids and cardiovascular disease.

Weight control is important when it comes to minizine risk for chronic diseases. Aim for foods that provide omega-3 fatty acids and choose fewer sources of saturated and trans-fat. Typical forms of cardiovascular disease are associated with inadequate blood circulation in the heart and brain related to a buildup of plaque. Cholesterol accumulates on blood vessel wall to create a buildup. Heart muscles are damaged when coronary arteries surrounding heart have buildup.