Human Development CH 11

Models have in a common a series of general steps including

1. defining the problem 2. setting realistic goals 3. developing variety of possible solutions 4. assessing the costs & benefits of each alt solution 5. selecting & implementing one alt 6. reviewing effectiveness of sol after implementation strategy appears incorp some aspects of postformal thinking, specially the realtivistic, pro-&con-nature of solutions to fuzzy prob. SHOWS HOW RARE TO FIND SOL W/O + & -, & FOR DUALISTIC THINKINERS THAT PROB ARE WELL DEFINED & HAVE CORRECT SOL IF CAN FIGURE THEM OUT.

Prevalence & comorbidity of depression

300 million ppl supper from dep. greatest contributor to overall disease burden, rates increased more than 18% worldwide since 2005. costly prob. 1 trillion lost every year bc dep links to SA & other disabling health conditions. youth 12-20 rates ^ 8.7 to 11.3. appear in successively younger generations since 1940. sim trend for bipolar.

To qualify for a diagnosis of MDD (major depressive disorder)

5 symp must be present for at least 2 wks, be clinically sig, & impair normal functioning.

Is a stage of emerging adulthood good or bad thing? Could it be viewed as tendency to avoid taking on adult roles & responsibilities?

Arnett argued could be grain of truth here : many young adults seem to find it burdensome & onerous to pay bills, do things parents have always done for them. gen, sees ambivalence as recog of value of extended period of self-development to help them prepare adeq for taking on adult roles in complex society. few emerging adults fail to grow up. by 30, nearly all are stably employed, 3/3 married & have a child. evidence that as teens move into YA, not substantially diff from counterparts of 70s, seniors now and then rep sim levels of self-esteem, lfie satisfaction, loneliness, anti-social behavior.

Perry's Position 1: Strict Dualism

Downward extrapolation of higher stages. virtually no one enter college at this level. strict dualistic thinking implies rigid adherence to authoritarian views, childlike division btwn ingroup & outgroup. in this stage, simply never think to question belief that authority embodies rightness.

Kitchener's stages

Early stages 1-3 characterized by belief in existence of certainties and use of personal justification or reliance on authorities for guidance. tend to use personal observation as evidence of rightness of judgements. indiv in middle stages (4 & 5) sim to perry multiplists, perceive knowledge as uncertain. believe in supremacy of personal opinion & tend to make judgements based on idiosyncratic kinds of reasoning. 5-7 resemble contextual relativists (perry) in tend to make judgments based on set of rules or logic in combo w/ personal reflection

Sex-based findings & trends of dep

Fem diagnoses w/ disprop higher rates of dep syndromes & serious disorders from mid-teens thru late adulthood. recent increase in dep in youth largely due to increases among F. before puberty, boys' rates of symp & disorders = or higher than of prepubescent girls. both genders disorders w/ bipolar in = numb. exception is unipolar disorders.

What do opposing researches to the emerging adult stage have to say?

Hendry & Kloep (2007) concerns yp more inadeq prep for adulthood. modern parents tend to overindulge c's & pressure them to excel than assuring c's are adeq educated in basic life skills. Twenge (2013) cross-sectional data of college students & argues self-esteem movement produced generations of more narcissistic indiv, less wiling to take respon for lives & less concerns abt others.

Another puzzling finding concerns suicide rates in the US

Males more prone to suicide than fem, W are over 2x as likely to commit suicide as Blacks. W males show steady rise in rates thru much of adulthood, sharpest after age 65. Black males, peak suicide rates occurs earlier 25-34. unique, formidable challenges to forming a black male ID.

Can this delay in ID oneself as adult be attributed to timing of role transitions?

NO. most young ppl in countries & cult studied don't consider chronological age & role transitions like marriage & parenthood to be sig markers on own. in arnett study, ppl indicated two most imp qualifications are - accepting responsibility for consequences of actions & second, making indep decisions. financial independence was third. SUBJECTIVE SENSE of being an adult may be more imp than accomplishment & timing of discrete tasks.

Growth and change in Professional's Epistemology

Perry noted new learning in any discipline can evolve in similar stage-like way. Table 11.3 - Stoltenberg & Delworth's (1987) model of stages in counselor development. Level 1 - op like dualist. depend on supervisions for right way to conceptualize cases. try fit clients into cat, rely on canned strategies. attribute too much pathology to clients bc own anxiety level. Level 2- vacillate between dependence on supervisors & personal autonomy. more experience w/ difficult cases, may be less optimistic abt possibilities for change in certain circum. exposure to competing theories of human behavior & therapy undermines confidence in validity of each. more skills yet also confused abt own efficacy here.

Cont subtypes of procrastinators

Procrastinators with combo of personality traits that include low conscientiousness, low neuroticism & high extraversion are more likely to procrastinate w/o worry. avoid tasks consider unpleasant & prefer to engage in more satisfying pursuits but don't do so bc averse to failure. rebellious type - resist authority & assert indep through procrastination. in counseling, care should be taken not to try fit everyone into types or assum patterns of dilatory behavior in certain contexts necessarily reveal nature of personality.

Subtypes within general population of procrastinators are:

Procrastinators with low levels of conscientiousness & high levels of neuroticism fearful, anxiety-prone & perfectionist. abide by procrastinators code that specific cog tendency to = failure in one area to generalized sense of failure in all aspects. unrealistic set of perfectionist standards & irrational beliefs, (ex failure worse than death) may fuel avoidant behavior.

Interventions for procrastination ( blend of behavior & udneryling psyc needs)

Van Essen ex, development self-mgmt course (self -reflect abt personal reasons for procrastination as basis for change). REBT incorporated for irrational beliefs. authors report successful in enhancing self-efficacy & reducing procrastination.

Globalization is

a process by which cultures influence one another, become more alike thru trade, immigration & exchange of info & ideas. shifted into higher w/ advances in telecomm & transportations. in developing countries, young ppl ^ move from rural comm to urban centers as pursue expanding econ opp. more occupational & lifestyle options avail, & self-developments tends to cont past teen yrs.

Chandler agrees that adults faced with ill-defined prob of life begin to

abandon the empty quest for absolute knowledge for what amounts to a search for arguably good reasons for choosing one belief or action over another. endorsement of possibility & practicality of making rational commitment in face of clear knowledge that other alt cont to exist. disagree that this thinking more advanced than formal op thought. result of self-reflection, growing metacog awareness that is product of ongoing effort to reflect on status of general knowing process, understand strengths & limits.

Critical thinking is the

ability to think clearly, make good judgements, use evidence & reflect on quality of thinking processes - is a form of relativistic thinking (Halpern, 2014). gen recognized as an educational goal.

There are no easily observed physical changes that signal entry into

adulthood. it is a social construction. one or more culturally determined criteria usually must be met before maturity is establish, vary depending on the observer & culture.

Reaching peak physical status

age 18-20 most reached full physical growth. 18-30 - biosystem reach peak potential, ex see, heart & smell as well as ever will. not all physical capacities reach peak simul. Visual acuity - mac at 20, decline for most until abt 40. auditory - peak before 20, declines soon after. indiv diff though, like among diff physical skills in timing of peak performance. studies have looked at records of super-athletes, variability on type of sports & skill within sport.

Theories of cog development help us understand that certain kinds of thinking, labeled irrational may not be a

attributes of dysfunctional personality style but manifestation of developmental stage. construing clients' thinking & judgment from this pov allow us to be more forgiving of their idiosyncrasies & supportive abt potential for growth & changes. clients w/ fairly rigid belief systems may have not been exposed to contexts that encourage examination of beliefs or consider alt explanations. clients who hold less mature pov may be retreating from confusion of too many ideas & too little support.

Stonewater & Stonewater (84) propose model based on perry's theory that

balances a bit of challenge (intro disequilibrium) along w/ support & engagement to improve greater critical & reflective ways of thinking. indiv closer to dualistic end of continuum need more carefully controlled exposure to diverse ways f thinking. can benefit from provision of adeq structure as framework for incorp new ideas. process consistent w/ Piaget, ppl will not be able to accommodate new ways of thinking if complexity of info too great & support not sufficient. Not motivated to accommodate if challenge is minimal & support overdone.

Why is relativistic thinking considered to be more sophisticated than dogmatic thinking?

bc most prob in life involve uncertainty & some measure of uncontrollability. expectations that complex prob should have clear-cut solutions can complicate prob-solving processes by increasing anxiety when simple answers prove inadequate. ability to generate solutions, asses + & - & then integrate aspects of several sol into one presumes level of epistemic knowledge that comes to terms w/ ambiguity of real world prob.

Interventions for procrastination (behavioral)

behavioral approaches - time mgmt & org skills - are popular. tech can be useful in helping students learn to segment tasks into manageable components, develop timelines & benchmarks for task completion, & provide themselves w/ reg feedback abt performance.

The serious tasks of consolidating an ID, solidfying a caeer path, & realizing capacity for intimacy are

both challenging & time consuming. one competency req for each is ability to make decisions given all alt. Helpers freq called on to assist clients in making decisions. Decision making & prob solving models widely used to help ppl w/ personal & career-related issues.

^ shows the phenomenon of the birth cohort effect

can't simply be explained by genetics. genes presumably do not change so rapidly. earlier spikes in dep are supported by objective measures like increases in hospitalizations & suicides.

Perry's Position 2: Multiplicity (Prelegitimate)

characterized by first encounters w/ multiplicity - multiple ideas, answers to life q, or POVs find themselves face to face w/ uncertainty when exposed to mass of theories, social experiences & info. confusion made worse bc lack structure to accommodate sheer volume of ideas BUT maintain belief that some authority possesses ultimate truth or right answers. up to individual to find it. to deal w ^, may form mental dichotomies.

Contemporary writers suggest YA difficulties w/ prob solving & decision making have their origins

close to home (gibbs, 2009). maybe change in parenting behavior qual diff. phenomenon of over-parenting *helicopter parenting, afflicts the current generation of YA. centers on how much less responsibility contemp generations expected to carry. concept a bit muddy but ID several characteristic fingerprints.

Depression is seen as heterogenous group of disorders that frequently

coexist w/ other illness. C's - anxiety, impulse-control & conduct disorders found to manifest prior to dep & show higher comorbidity w dep later. anxiety disorders can be precursors to later dep. other suggest opp, presence of dep disorders predicts anxiety disorders.

Various manifestations, symp sets, risk factors & courses of dep have led researchers to

consider dep as heterogenous category of disorders. all types include alterations in mood, others argue dep best rep as spectrum disorder, unipolar on one end, atypical in middle, & bipolar at other end. q of whether dep in childhood qual diff from dep in teens & adulthood not resolved. symp that collectively manifest as dep appear to come from ^ levels of neg affect & stress.

Like Piaget's Theory, Perry's is a theory of

continual movement and transition. rest for a time at each of the positions but dynamic clearly moves forward. from his pov, experience of liberal arts college educ accelerates the growth process, esp in society that values pluralism bc invariably confrotned w/ diversity of thoughts, values & beleifs.

Points to take away from metanalysis are

discussion grps, clear presentation of info, use of case studies, & reflection assignment can be used to generate connections btwn abstract subject matter & real-world applications. college students achievement improves when teachers offer conceptually challenging task & provide careful scaffolding for assignments. CT interventions that last longer (more than 12 wks) are more effective in enhancing skills. well-designed & implements programs that support CT can be more effective than offering course in a certain subject. may have reinforcing ft in details & consideration of what CT IS and how to practice them. incorporating CT into academic curricula over long period of time can be useful alt to specific CT intervention. accounts for discipline-specific nature of skills in use.

Classic study illustrates that reflective judgement in social & personal issues tends to lag behind prob solving in dmains that

do not relate to own personal concerns (Blanchard-Fields, 1986) 14-16yrs presented two accounts of eahc of 3 events. varied in terms of personal relevance. sked probe q - who at fault, could both be right? understanding and analysis scored based on six levels of reasoning combining Perry & Kitchener & King. performance on livia task (account of war by two opposing parties) better at earlier ages than performance on more emo involving tasks. performance cont to improve on all tasks from teens to YA , YA -> middle audlthood.

Schaie's view of middle adulthood

each new stage of adult life brings new kinds of probs w/ diff skills more likely to play imp role in one stage than another. responsible stage - ill-defined prob the norm but prob solving must take into account personal needs, goals & those of others in one's life who are our responsibility - c's, spouse, memb of community greater impact of prob solutions leads -> flexibility in thinking, expand knowledge & expertise. use qualities more widely. for some who ex take supervisory func, extended impact of prob solving greater -> executive stage, focus heavily on learning abt complex rel, multiple pov, commitment, & conflict resolution. integrate & hierarchically org rel.

Position 6: Commitment foreseen or anticipation of commitment

echoes of Erikson's discussion of ID development. thinking at this stage incorporates measure of moral courage, indiv begins to affirm what it is believes in, all while knowing reason will never provide absolutely proof that ideas or pov better. commitment to set of beliefs, field of study etc can take place after detachment, doubt, & awareness of alt made the experience of choice a possibility. incorporates respect for diverse ideas & understanding of rationales but also emerging, personally chosen, preferences for worldviews. thinking toward personal meaning making or reflective thinking.

Some research shows that reflective judgement is related to the level of

education & kind of training received. specific kinds of training or support appear to improve skills in reasoning & judgement.

There are developmental reasons for the ubiquity of procrastination here

emerging adulthood - frontier w/ open-ended possibilities & many high-stake choices. skills of decision making & self management honed in the ID develop process -> proceeds concurrently w/ work, college etc. may be manifestation of confusion or lack of certainty on how to process.

Arnett proposes that this period (18-29) be considered a distinct stage of life called

emerging adulthood - sociological phenomenon, make possible by kind of econ develop that characterizes developed countries. if labor of YP not urgently needed for econ well-being of fam, & if many occupations require extended yrs of educ --> work postponed, marriage & childbearing likely delayed, & self-exploration continues. Arnett argued globalization is spreading experience of this new stage from W societies to other parts.

Even though Perry viewed theory & research as focused on intellectual & ethical development, it is more fundamentally a study and characterization of

epistemological development. examines young adults increasingly complex conceptions of where knowledge comes from & of nature of truth & reality. relevance for how students might approach learning & prob solving in any domain as understanding of nature of knowledge changes. Ryan (84) found relativist more successful in college classes bc tended to use more constructivist approaches to studying course material (consider context, interpret, summarized) dualist more likely to focus on memorization of factual info, keeping beliefs in right vs wrong info. diff sig even when scholastic aptitude eliminated statistically.

The helper might be remiss if do not consider the client's

epistemology or beliefs abut nature of knowledge when working on decision making or other prob. seeing a dilemma through client eyes req appreciation f way views truth, knowledge & meaning in life. if clients sees world in absolute terms, might be confused as to why alt are even considered.

Overparenting young children includes the following parental behaviors

excessive advice, manifesting emo over-involvement or enmeshment, hyper-vigilance & anticipation of pot prob or concerns facing the young person, controlling YP sense of self-directions, offering excessive tangible resources like money, goods & time. differ from classic enmeshment bc behave in ways that prevent (try to) their YA from failure or harm by virtue of excessive support. may reflect personal feelings of inadequacy, desire for vicarious experience of success, sadness abt parenting failure or regrets abt missing parenting opp.

Overparenting is linked to a number of problematic outcomes for post-HS youth. Despite risks, it is imp to resist,

extreme overcorrection. YA need to feel connected & supported by parents. YA esp from collectivist cult, recog parent good intentions even tho documents outcomes are adverse across diff cultures. develop approp emo connection should promo YA autonomy, not undermine sense of competence.

Perry also accounted for individuals who refrain from taking intellectual challenge needed for growth thru these stages

fall back positions include temporizing, retreat & escape. temporizing - delaying movement to next stage. escape - movement back to relativism when demands of commitment prove too taxing retreat - when indiv revert to dualistic thinking in times of stress to seek intellectual security of absolute right or wrong.

Cont in sex-based findings.

fem more likely to ruminate abt sad moods when dep, admit feeling sad & seek help. can't assume from this evidence that males not dep in high numbers. Addis (2008) gendered responding framework of dep -> way understand how male gender norms interact w negative affect. experience may be handled thru distraction, anger, r avoidance bc of masc role expectations. may learn thru social conditions, to express vuln in ways that don't nearly map onto checklists of dep symp.

Is there qualitative change in logical thinking?

formal op thinking (piaget) allows us to think logically abt abstract content, can discover & understand implications of rel among pieces of info that may themselves be abstract rel. many theorist speculate more advanced forms of rational tought possible & emerge sometime in adulthood.

Physical development in YA: Brain

greater flexibility & vulnerability of teen brain carries forward into mid-to late twenties. improvements in EF, learning, & thinking cont, resulting from and influencing ongoing brain changes. susceptibility to onset of mjr mental disorders is extended into this life phase too. Study of stroop test. req inhibitory control. in adults, activate parts of prefront cortex & other cortical areas, teens diff cortical areas on both activated. In one study show, op performance seen in early 30s group. two young grps (early & mid 20s) less accurate, responses more rapid & impulsive. Oldest engaging in more reflection.

From sociological pov, it seems to take longer to

grow up today than before. demand for highly educated workforce & increased cost of this educ, difficulties in earning enough to supports c's & establishing stable development, freq of early, nonmarital sex activity & contraception. some markers are considerably delayed. ex median age for marriage in 1976 - 22-23, 2016 - 28. other indicators like sexual activity occur much earlier.

Perry's Position 3: Multiplicity (Subordinate) or Early Multiplicity

grudgingly acknowledges reality & legitimacy of multiple pov. more difficult to deny that reasonable ppl can differ in pov on life. ppl who hold diff views not so easily dismissed as wrong. some of students beliefs in a just world now reevaluated. authority figures around them don't have all the answers. may be distressed by fact continue to be evaluated despite teachers not having right answers themselves.

Eating right is pat of a

healthy lifestyle. reg spaced meals that are low in fat & sample range of food groups, allowing prop balance of nutrients. failure to eat right contributes to obesity, dep mood & aspects of physical decline. Obesity is epidemic in U.S. & W countries. weight gain esp likely btwn 20-40. ppl that fail to follow healthy lifestyles in YA suffer from poorer health alter & less satisfied w/ lives in late adulthood.

The social world of emerging adults expands beyond

immediate fam, friends and neighbors. can present new challenges. AA, moving into much more ethnically diverse world, fewer professors likely to be blck, work envion - few employers & coworkers likely to be black. Consciousness of minority status is exacerbated by fact discrim against AA in hiring & housing is still a reality. Arnett & Brody (2008) argue dealing w ID issues w added stress may intensify the process. ex change in substance abuse, less than W teens but for some substances (ex. weed) there is greater increase use during emerging adulthood for AA than W.

Can educational approaches enhance critical thinking?

imp to real world functioning, helpful to know which strategies work best. metanalysis of 31 studies - interventions such as specific teaching approaches did improve CT ability overall, effects are quite modest & specific to subject area. weak effects may be bc challenges of measuring CT esp as cross-disciplinary construct. growth in cog develop is not rapid process at any life stage. improvements in CT may take time. Small postintervention improvements may reflect this.

postformal or fifth-stage thinking

imply an extension of Piaget's sequence of stages. some of these theories actually elab a numb of substages in movement from formal op -> postformal thought. Perry (1970/1999) and Kitchener (see ref). some disagree w/ concept. argue formal op system of thinking powerful enough to address any kind of logical prob. inclined to see qual diff in adult prob solving & logical thinking not so much as stage beyond formal op but sign kind of prob must solve different from those c's trained & tested on. adults adapt existing prob solving skills to new kinds of prob. part of what learn as confront adulthood is limits of prob-solving abilities. may grow in metacog understanding, logical thinking in one circumstances, others -> base on values, needs & goals.

Bipolar disorder is characterized by the presence of

impulsivity, irritability, overactivity & euphoria (charec of (hypo)mania), along w/ periods of dep mood, feelings of worthlessness, & low energy. particular risk for suicide & self harm.

Positions 7, 8, and 9: Commitment and Resolve

initial commitment, multiple commitments and resolve respectively. as a group, suggest flowering of commitment anticipated in 5 and 6. changes in thinking more qualitative than structural. Perry - 75% had level of commitment at 7 or 8 at graduation. Pos 9, doesn't impacts static resolution of existential conflict, stage of courageous resolve to cont work of reflecting on commitments thru adulthood.

Skill of CT develops gradually and professionals who are

knowledgeable abt cog development can help clients resolve specific prob & help them acquire more general skills in decision making, ex when & where strategy is effective.

Classic study cont - levels on visit to grandparents event.

level 2 - avg level of teens on two emo involving events. close to absolutist conception of reality. level 3 - abt average for YA. recog diff pov appear valid but tended to cling possibility that may be absolute truth even in ill-defined sit. level 4 - avg for middle-aged adults. not biased toward one side & idea more than one truth might exist was intimated BUT strong sense that can ID an essential sim or truth despite diff pov. level 6 - this relativistic view as one that helping prof trained to assume in highly personal matter. no hint that one experience of event more valid than other. only few (all middle aged) responded at this level. topics easy to think but hard to think well abt.

Longitudinal research on intellectual chance across the life span indicates that

many skills like ef, spatial orientation abilities, & inductive reasoning skills improve through YA w/ measures of knowledge acquisition or breadth, like understanding of verbal meaning showing most improvement in this time frame. as long as opp to learn exist, acquisition of knowledge seems to proceed rapidly during early adulthood.

Postformat thought

many theorist argue realities of adult experience -> new forms of thought. full flower of postformal thinking may not be realized until middle adulthood or later, but experiences of YA contribute to reconstruction of logical thinking. not all indiv will necessarily reach postformal of. if do can expect them to skip in and out of this type of thinking. Sinnot, essence of it is relativistic thought - several truth system exist describing reality of same event & appear to be logically equivalent. recognizes consistencies & contradictions among multiple systems of truth or of formal op. depending on goals & concerns, will make subjective commitment to one. in other make seek compromise solution that integrates some of each but will not lose sight of inherent contradictions.

In the past, sociologists emphasized the achievement of what as criteria for adulthood?

marker events - completing formal educ, entering the adult workforce, leaving the fam home, getting married, & becoming a parent (Juarez & Gayet, 2014) in the last century, large prop of pop achieved many of these btn 18-24.

Schaie's Legacy-leaving stage

may also characterize ppl whose minds sound but frail signal lives ending. often work on establishing written or oral account of lives or of history of fam to pass on. goals req substantial use of long-term memb & narrative skills more than prob-solving. accounts do require decision making, use of judgment abt what is imp & what is not.

Dealing w/ the freedom of adulthood

may feel unsafe & framework-less once again, lack of structure. search for certainty of right answers & struggle w/ challenge of organizing large blocks of unstructured time work on tasks that may lack clear-cut boundaries. in past, rely on authoritative sources for guidelines & directions. need to become more self-reliant ^ dramatically.

Assisting helicopter parents

may need to explore own motivations for overparenting, possible w/ support of helping prof. assisted to redirect energy into more constructive ways to stay connected. encouragement to explore, experience & learn as much as can during stage where ID being constructed can promo healthier parent-child rel. some YA need more support than others, always understand the fam context & YA specific needs before making recommendations.

Diagnostic prob do result from counting up of symp bc normal mood fluctuations can be

misconstrued as clinical dep. perhaps number & intensity of symp & not presence alone that should distinguish dep & nondep indiv.

Perry's Position 4: Late Multiplicity

modal position of harvard & radcliffe students in og study in latter part of 1st yr. ID two possible epistemologies or adaptions to prob at this point. realize event experts differ on what's true. handle realization in one of 2 ways. oppositional - legitimizing multiplicity as one pole of a new kind of dualism. right-wrong dualism of Position 1 - end of new continuum w/ multiplicity on other. ex authority is right or all op = right. either-or structure in thinking. relative subordinate - begin understand some opinions more legitimate than others. value of pov -> supporting arguments & evidence. BUT consideration of alt pov still primarily done under guidance of authority. often students get explicit guidance helps weigh or compare & contrast ideas -> helps foster kind of metagcog foundation for Position 5.

Level 3 of counselor development

more indep & more tolerant of divergent opinions. come to accept ambiguity inherent in the helping process. creative prob solvers & more objective in assessment of clients. fluid way in utilizing discipline's knowledge base to adjust for client's need, embody the characteristics of reflective practice. good clinical judgment relies on good CT. not uncommon to base decisions on misinfo, lack of rational examination of claims or preferred ways of thinking.

Schaie's Reintegrative Stage

need less to acquire new domains of knowledge or figure out new ways of applying what know many motivated to conserve physical & psych energy. suggest elderly ppl often unwilling to waste time on meaningless tasks, cog effort aimed at solving immediate practical prob critically imp to their daily functioning.

Do YA heed what they know abt healthy lifestyles?

not necessarily. alc use - 41% of 20-24 yo rep heavy drinking, often binge drinking. many indicate drinking has caused prob like unplanned or unprotected sex, getting hurt or causing prop damage. ongoing development of memory & learning abilities may be inhibited in binge drinkers. steep rises in alc use tend to level off by mid 20s. occur as reasons begin to change. one study - good time w friends, decline & surpassed by desire to relax or relieve tension. being in college is a contributing factor to substance abuse. college also appears to have neg health effects in gen, ex declines in emo well-being, physical health, & in health habits (ex. exercise). increases in drug use & sex w/ multiple partners.

We are motivated to main our physical capacities at high levels including

performance skills, sensory abilities, good health & youthful appearance. regardless of activity level, muscular strength begins to decline around age 30. imp of lifestyle in this process = good habits that help maintain peak or near peak func & appearance & bad habits. reg exercise can help older & younger adults maintain muscle & bone strength, can keep cardiovascular & respiratory system func well. smoking, poor diet & sedentary lifestyle accelerate loss of peak cardiovac & resp func & loss of muscle & bone. Smoking or excessive drug or alc use -> rapid wrinkling, alc damages nervous system, liver & urinary tract.

Students can learn to think more critically when they are motivated because of some

personal connection to the material. addressing students epistemologies - attitudes & beliefs abt nature of truth, what makes up factual info, what doesn't & how evidence is eval directly can be imp across multiple disciplines. making explicit connections btn subject matter & student life can be helpful.

Perry considered the differences in students' thinking or worldviews to be a function of

personality differences. only AFTER transcriptions considered possibility of a developmental sequence. acknowledged that specific forms of knowing vary across domains, believed possible to ID dominant position or overarching form of thought for given indiv at given time. constructed sequence of 9 positions or stages, ranging from extreme dualistic thinking -> high levels of personally committed beliefs. in btn -> stuff of intellectual growth during college years.

BUT depressive disorders found to be a prodrome for

phobias & prospectively predicted this class of anxiety disorders strongly. kind of evidence shapes decisions abt prevention & treatments. specific treatment for dep may be advisable before onset of phobias.

unhealthy, underregulated lifestyles of many YA are probably an outgrowth of what factors?

poor application of prob-solving skills to practical prob. maybe continuing sense of invulnerability that began in teens, may be exacerbated by fact YA can bounce back from physical stress more readily than will in later yrs. stresses of leaving home & facing social and academic demands of college or workplace - new challenges to ID.

Differences in age of peak performance suggests that the relative importance of

practice training, knowledge, experience & bio capacity varies from one skill to another. skills based on muscle strength, flexibility, speed of movement & response tend to peak early. abilities heavily dependent on control, arm hand steadiness, stamina & precision peak later the greater the imp of cog factors in performance the later a skill will top out

Moving into a more ethnically diverse world after teens extends what two things?

process of ID formation & increases its complexity. Fuligni (2007) looked at C's of Asian and latinx immigrant fam, culture specific concerns. c's of imm fam stronger sense of fam olbigaiton than Eu Am offpsering. Expected to support & assist fam in many ways (sibling care, living by them) & beleive that should cosnider fam wishes when making imp decisions. found these kinds of values, strongest in immg c's also ^ in YA for all ethnic grps, includes W. imm c's more likely to experience more expanded social world if went to college than if did not, happened most for those of E Asian background. for these ^, found trend toward kind of extended ID development that charec emerging adulthood. Sense of obligation to fam didn't disappear but competed w new sit, do things that like, & person supposed to be.

What is one problem that arises from this point in the life span?

procrastination. power to derail even if temporality, emerging adults' potential success in acad & work environ. multidimensional construct having motivational, behavioral, cog & personality components & may be product of diverse pathways. who investigate it is as dispositional, trait like charec report procrastinators share low levels of trait conscientiousness -> more likely to be disorg, poor at planning, lack self-reg needed.

Regardless of what is first, if one disorder predicts the other in a strong, unidirectional & prospective way, it is considered a

prodrome (prior manifestation of the later disorder).

Kitchener's Model of the Development of Reflective Judgment

proposed seven stage theory outlining development of reflective judgement - how ppl analyze elements of a prob & justify their prob solving. in study, found predictable, sequential progression that moved from a belief in existence of absolute, fixed certainty to kind of contextual relativism. diff stages of thinking can be differentiated on basis of 3 dimensions: certainty of knowledge, process used to acquire knowledge & kind of evidence used to justify judgements.

What is the cross-over effect?

rare cases. black substance use may reach greater level than W. (ex. 26 yo F AA users of weed match or exceed freq of use of W fem)

Reasoning abt moral dilemmas in Kohlberg tradition actually seems to

regress somewhat for YA as progress thru Perry's stages. Kohlberg first thought bc of stress of transition but newer analyses suggest may be function of early relativistic thinking: over-arching tolerance makes some YA hesitate to commit own values in approaching moral dilemma.

___ __ are also scored high on young ppls criteria for adulthood

relational factors - having & keeping rel & meeting obligations to fam. alongside indep & autonomy. young adults from collectivist cult often score rel factors nearer to top of list than W

Current work consistent w/ idea college students become more

relativistic in views of knowledge, their learning strategies change. ex. older students remembering more inconsistent info w/ belief. relativistic thinkers more likely than dualistic to provide legit evidence to support thinking & prob solving. dualistic take more narrow view of prob solving tasks -> break them down into unrelated discrete parts & ignoring some imp aspects. relativist more likely to consider who prob, process & take into account all components before solution, eval evidence & sources critically.

Position 5 also represents a watershed for

religious belief, point of demarcation btn belief & possibility of faith. no longer can indiv religious belief rest on blind adherence to authority. perry purports real faith tested & affirmed in context of relativistic world. implies those who hold viewpoints other than one's own may be wrong, but no more wrong than oneself, given reject idea of absolute truth. come to respect & tolerate those w/ diff viewpoints even while struggle to clarify own beliefs.

Perry's Position 5: Contextual Relativism

represents major achievement in intellectual development. qualitatively diff way of looking at the world. indiv can no longer accept fictions that everyone's ideas as good as everyone else. respect rights of others to hold diverse views, possess sufficient detachment to stand back & consider ideas & values more objectively than before. develops habit of thinking that relies on some standards of evidence approp to domain in question. new analytic abilities allow them to appreciate merits of diverse pov & find convincing elements in multiple pov. thinking relativistically or thinking abt knowledge in context becomes more habitual. see authority figs as more experienced colleagues to be respected not opposed.

Schaie's reorganizational stage

responsibilities narrow in early old age as c's grow up, retirement an option. flexibility in prob solving needed to create satisfying, meaningful environment for rest of rile. focus tends to narrow to change set of personal goals & needs. practical concerns (ex managing finances w/o work) req applying knowledge in new ways.

if each disorder predicts other w/ relatively approx strength then both are

risk factors for the other, not early manifestations of the other disorders. Jacobson & Newman (2017) concluded evidence support latter, bidirectional risk patter. all types of anxiety disorders predicted late dep & vice versa.

Cognitive development in young adulthood

rite of passage that marks entry into YA - transition to college. 65% teens go on to higher educ. major influence then on cog & social development taks involve cont hard work of carving out an ID, more pressing bc status as an adult. most of work takes place outside protected environments of home & HS, cont attach to fam remain imp most of research on YA development done on college students. know little abt cog change in indiv who move directly from teens to work.

King & Kitchener (2002) offer suggestions for teachers & others working w/ emerging adults.

several of ideas can be useful in promoting reflective thinking abt academic & psychoeducational content. 1. demo respect for YA thinking, most likely open up to new ways of reflection in supportive environment. 2. provide opp to gather info abt an issue, eval quality of info & draw conclusions based on data. 3. teach YA to explicitly examine epistemological assumptions use in making decisions abt ill-defined prob.

Defining Depression

some advocate differentiating btwn depressive symp (sad mood) and dep syndrome (sad mood + anxiety) & dep disorder. formal diagnostic criteria - serious mood disorders that has several presentations : unipolar, bipolar, dysthymic, & cyclothymic forms. core fts of MDD - sad affect, anhedonia, fluctuations in weight and/or sleep, psychomotor changes, fatigue, cog impairments, feelings of guilt or worthlessness, suicidal thoughts or acts.

For perfectionistic procrastinators, helpers may find

stress-mgmt intervention like guided relaxation training & systematic desensitization procedures helpful adjunctive therapies.

Level of epistemological thinking also influences academic success.

studies demo that students who are dogmatists do more poorly academically. moving toward thinking in more expert ways esp in certain fields req grappling w/ uncertainty. students who believe learning should be quickly, that prolonged concentration is waste of time & memorization of concrete facts sufficient show poor performance on mastery tests despite confidence in ability. skills in reflective thinking ass/ greater understanding of multicultural issues.

Helpers have the good opp to assess the person's thinking and to provide a balance of

support & challenge that facilitates progress from dualistic, polarized belief system to one more cog complex.

What is the important takeaway of Schaie's depiction of cog functioning?

that it is heavily affected by environmental pressures ppl face at diff times of life. most theorist emphasize advancements or changes in prob solving embedded in the new experiences faced during adulthood BUT focus on environmental pressures of typical middle class experiences in W cult. adults in other cult or in some NA cult groups might show diff shifts in use of cog skills depending on unique demands of environment.

Schaie's view of young adulthood

theorist described prob that do not have pre-established answers (ex what career path to choose) as ill-defined or ill-structured prob. right answer may be diff depending on circumstances & pov of prob solver. often don't have access to all helpful info. YA in achieving stage of cog development - apply intellectual skills to achievement of long-term goals, attending to consequences of prob-solving process. additional skills emerging beyond formal op abilities & previously acquired skills being sharpened & honed on very diff prob, solution to one prob must be considered & adjusted relative to other life prob & goals.

Schaie's View of Adults Adjusting to Environmental Pressures

theory emphasizes imp of new roles, needs & responsibilities in determining adult intellectual functioning. argues for shifts in cog func or use of knowledge & skills, that are straightforward adaptations to new demands. acquisition stage of cog develop - youngest can learn skill or body of knowledge regardless of whether has nay practical goal or social implication. practical prob & goal setting are monitored by parents & others who take on responsibility for making decisions that affect c's life course. learning for learning sake or prob solving to sharpen logical thinking skills. prob w/ pre-established answers.

Perry's Theory of Intellectual and Ethical Development in college years

theory may be the oldest effort to examine changes in thinking that charec ppl as transition to adulthood. remains maybe most authoritative, other theo efforts tend to be sim. focused on cog & moral development. was professor at Harvard & founded a counseling & tutoring center. using many of piaget's ideas, proposed stage based theory depicting typical intellectual & ethical transition for students. absolute adherence to authority -> beliefs founded on personal commitment. examines changes in expectations & assumptions abt the world. og study -> hundreds of volunteers, extensive interviews. q open ended, freedom to talk abt experiences.

Kahnemann (2011) describes tow modes of thinking

type 1 - intution & overlearned rules of thumb type 2- slower & more reflective analysis of info. 81% of helping prof endorsed rel btn full moon & abnormal behavior, 90% agreed matching teaching to learning style improved performance - no evidence. need to be aware of personal tendencies to over-rely on quick, gut level, unreflective type 1 thinking. humility need. eval claim req reasoning skills, dispositions to sue them & matacog to recog when may be wrong and req revision.

Emerging adulthood is more ______ than adulthood.

unstable. move around a lot, job to job, test out love & intimacy in variety of ways. U.S. census bureau (2012), avg person changes jobs 7 times btn ages 18-27, half that often btn 27-44. sense of life being in flux seems to characterize many young ppl here.

In healthy parent-child bonds, relationships become less

vertical (parent in control) & more horizontal ( both parent & child as adults). this shift in control doesn't imply distance or less but realignment that makes emo connection sustainable over life span.

Early adulthood is a time of great learning

whether in college or on the job, young ppl faced w/ being novices, unknowledgeable, or inexperienced when enter world of adults, great time building knowledge base & becoming more expert in partic domains of knowledge. at end of college, perform better on tests of general knowledge, maj judge themselves as much stronger than first yrs in knowledge of partic field. reasonable to assume that after 4 yrs on the job, some may be in job training programs, at least knowledge of partic field ^.

Seminal study by Arnett (2000)

y ppl in US to rate imp of criteria in several areas ( cog, behavioral, emo, bio, legal criteria & role transitions & responsibilities) as definitions of adult status. q whether felt reached adulthood. maj in late teens & early twenties said yes & no. prop who saw themselves ad adults grad increased w age, maj in late 20s & early 30s doing so. sim findings in other studies of religious & ethnic minorities, studies of in Canada, Argentia, Eu & Asian countries.

The book defines the period from 18-30 as

young adulthood, acknowledge Arnetts 18=25 as emerging adults.