Human growth and development exam 2

Name the senses that begin to function in utero.

all except sight

Developments in Hearing: 6-8 months

"Screens out" sounds not used in native language

See applying what we know on page 134 of text for appropriate infant and child care. (This is testable)

"Social Origins of Make-Believe Play" -Vygotsky believed that society provides children with opportunities to represent culturally meaningful activities in play -make-believe is first learned under the guidance of experts -make-believe is important for the development of social and cognitive skills -providing a stimulating physical environment is not enough to promote early cognitive development

*Age of viability*

(also known as fetal viability) is the age at which a fetus can live outside of the womb. The age of viability is around 24 weeks but fetuses as early as 22 weeks can survive with stringent and intense medical intervention

adjustment consequences

-substance abuse -violent crime

At what gestational week is the fetus able to survive birth? Why not before?

26 weeks is earliest baby can be born and survive (underdeveloped lungs before)

What time period in gestation does the heart begin to function?

3 weeks

According to the movie, how many babies arrive on the expected due date?

5%

Sensitive Periods in Prenatal Development

Although the prenatal environment is far more constant than the world outside the womb, many factors can affect the developing embryo and fetus. Various environmental agents, or terat´ogens, and other maternal factors, including severe emotional stress, can damage the developing organism, making the prenatal period a vulnerable time. This slide which is in text book illustrates at which period during the pregnancy different vital organs are affected by prenatal influences. As you can see the central nervous system is one of the most sensitive systems to outside agents throughout the first 16 weeks of pregnancy demonstrating the huge importance of early prenatal care and avoidance of those factors that can potentially permanently damage the fetus.

*Neurotransmitters *

Chemicals that are released by neurons and cross the synapse Neurotransmitters are the chemicals that are released by the neurons that cross the synapses connecting the neurons.

Emotional Stress

Intense anxiety during pregnancy, especially during the first two trimesters, is associated with miscarriage, prematurity, low birth weight, and colic.

chapter 8

emotional and social development in early childhood

*Neurons*

Nerve cells that store and transmit information Neurons are the nerve cells of the brain that store and transmit information. Once neurons are in place, they differentiate, establishing their unique functions by extending their fibers to form synaptic connections with neighboring cells.

What hormone triggers the onset of labor?

Oxytocin

Milestones in Intermodal Perception: Birth

Perceives amodal sensory properties

Milestones in Intermodal Perception: 4-6 months

Perceives and remembers unique face-voice pairings of unfamiliar adults

chapter 4

Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Maternal Age:

Women who delay childbearing until their thirties or forties face increased risk of infertility, miscarriage, and babies born with chromosomal defects. However, research shows that healthy women in their thirties have about the same rates of pregnancy complications as those in their twenties. While A teenager is physically capable of supporting a pregnancy. Higher rates of problems seen in infants born to teenagers are related to the lack of access to medical care, stress, poor nutrition, and health problems associated with poverty. Exercise to keep physically fit. Many communities have fitness programs for pregnant women as well as prenatal and childbirth education programs.

gains in emotional competence

improvements in: -emotional understanding -emotional self-regulation increase in self-conscious emotions (shame, guilt) and empathy Between ages 2 and 6, children make gains in emotional competence, more often experiencing self-conscious emotions as well as empathy. By age 4 or 5, children can correctly judge the causes of many basic emotions and understand that thinking and feelings are related. Emotional outbursts decline as children use more effort to achieve emotional self-regulation. Warm, patient parents who use verbal guidance, including suggesting strategies and prompting children to generate their own ways to control expression of emotions, strengthen the child's capacity to handle stress.

*guilt*

overly strict superego, or conscience, causing too much guilt related to parental -threats -criticism -punishment The negative outcome will be demonstrated if the child feels guilt because they feel threatened, have been criticized and punished excessively by adults. When this happens, the preschooler is discouraged from taking initiative or learning a new skill or task and learns to feel guilty.

*authoritarian*

parents who are demanding, impose many rules, and do not give reasons for rules The authoritarian parents are parents who are demanding, impose many rules, expect instant obedience, and do not give reasons for rules. Physical punishment is used to gain control. These type of parents are usually rigid and cold. They make all the decisions for the child and rarely listens to their child's point of view.

*sensory register*

sights and sounds are represented directly, stored briefly

*Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), distinguished by*

slow physical growth, three facial abnormalities, and brain injury, typically occurs when a woman drinks heavily throughout pregnancy. b. Mental impairment associated with all the FASD diagnoses is permanent.

*pragmatics*

social communication skills through observing and interacting with others

*emotional abuse*

social isolation, unreasonable demands, humiliation, intimidation, and other forms

*phenology*

speech sounds

What is one of the most important reflexes that the fetus develops in utero?

stepping reflex

*The Apgar Scale*

used to assess the infant's physical condition based on five criteria.

*cardinality*

when counting, last number is the total -3.5 to 4 years

*semantics*

word meaning

newborn reflexes

-rooting = to find nipple -sucking = feeding -eye blinking = protection from strong stimulation -withdrawal = protection from unpleasant stimulation -Babinski reflex = fan out then curling of toes -moro reflex = embracing motion (back arch then throws out limbs) -palmar grasp = voluntary grasping -tonic neck = fencing positon on side -crawling -stepping = voluntary walking -escape = prevents suffocation and keeps breathing clear

fine-motor skills in early childhood

-self-help in dressing and eating -start drawing and printing During early childhood, children gradually become self-sufficient at dressing and feeding. Perhaps the most complex self-help skill of early childhood is shoe tying, mastered around age 5 to 6 years of age. When preschoolers first try to write, they scribble, just as they do when they draw. Around age 4, writing shows some distinctive features of print. Gradually, between ages 4 and 6, children realize that writing stands for language.

Quality of Caregiving

-sensitive caregiving -interactional synchrony in Western cultures

benefits of friendships

-social support: cooperation and emotional expressiveness -favorable school adjustment -parental influences Preschoolers' first friendships serve as important contexts for emotional and social development. For preschoolers, friendship does not yet have an enduring quality based on mutual trust, yet interactions between young friends are unique. Because social maturity in early childhood contributes to later academic performance, some experts propose that kindergarten readiness be assessed in terms of social as well as academic skills. Preschoolers whose parents frequently arrange informal peer play activities tend to have larger peer networks and to be more socially skilled.

early childhood friendships

-someone who "likes you" plays with you and shares toys -friendships change frequently

alternatives to harsh punishment

-time out -withdrawing privileges -positive discipline

nonsocial activity

-unoccupied, onlooker behavior -solitary play The Nonsocial or onlooker child is when the preschooler watches others silently or plays alone.

In the Womb video

-up to 5 hundred-million sperm in ejaculation (quality depends on lifestyle) -sperm is the smallest cell in the body and the egg is the largest -sperm in = change in egg membrane = impermeable -conception = DNA formation -sex determined by father (23rd pair X or Y) -1 day post fertilization = egg divides -4/5 days = 100 cells = blastocyst = separates into 2 = placenta (outer) and embryo -first 3 months = baby formed -3rd week = forms tube = head and trunk -day 15 = nerve cells = brain and spinal column -blood volume increase up to 50% in mother -heart then blood cells formed -growth = .10 cm every day -eyes formed -limbs formed -face formed -6-8 weeks = more distinct characteristics -dependent on yolk sack until about 2 months when it goes away = relies on placenta -placenta supplies and filters -progesterone prevents more egg production -9 weeks = nervous system (2.5 neurons every minute) and movement (still involuntary spasms) -3 months = first ultrasound -stepping reflex at 11 weeks (more movement = stronger growth of reflex) -all organs formed, but it is still less than 3 inches long -12 weeks = genitals forming -movements controlled by brain and bones hardening -hands develop before the feet -can hear baby's heart now -responds to stimulus and gains proprioception -18 weeks = mother aware of movements -halfway = 7 inches long, first stimulation from outside world (all senses except sight) -6 months = everything developed, just small -26 weeks is earliest baby can be born and survive (underdeveloped lungs) -eye color develops after birth -13 weeks = only hears mother's body -26 weeks = 90% time sleeping, 10 inches long -startle reflex, handedness (by thumb sucking) -triple weight and double length in third trimester -heart beat twice as fast as mother's -everything filled with amniotic fluid except air sacks in lungs -head down ready for birth (kicking in the ribs) -33 weeks = discomfort -lungs and placenta determine labor -10cm cervix for baby's head

*positive discipline*

-use transgressions as opportunities to teach -reduce opportunities for misbehavior -provide reasons for rules -have children participate in family duties and routines -try compromising and problem solving -encourage mature behavior

*lack of conservation*

conservation means certain physical characteristics remain the same even if outward appearance changes

gross-motor development

crawling, standing, walking Learning to crawl, then learning to stand with help, then taking first steps.

Three areas that are commonly assessed by current cognitive abilities tests are

verbal ability, spatial ability, and logical-mathematical ability

*Sign: Muscle tone*

-0: completely limp -1: weak movements of the arms and legs -2: strong movements of the arms and legs

*Sign: Respiratory effort*

-0: no breathing for 60 sec -1: irregular, shallow breathing -2: strong breathing and crying

*Sign: Heart rate*

-0: no heart beat -1: under 100 BPM -2: 100-140 BPM

*Sign: Reflex irritability (sneezing, coughing, and grimacing)*

-0: no response -1: weak reflexive response -2: strong reflexive response

Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks):

Built-in signals help bring newborn babies into close contact with other humans, who comfort them.

Monitor general health

-weight gain -capacity of uterus and cervix to support fetus -growth of the fetus

Waking activity and crying

1-4 hours breathing irregular

Primary circular reactions

1-4 months Simple motor habits centered around own body 1-4 months simple motor habits: ie: when held in standing position infant "jumps" moves feet in preparatory walking motion

Theories of Language Development

-Nativist (Chomsky) -Interactionist

*Sign: Color*

-0: blue body, arms, and legs -1: body pink with blue arms and legs -2: body, arms, and legs completely pink

*Teratogenic Substances*

-Drugs: prescription, nonprescription, and illegal -Tobacco -Alcohol -Radiation -Environmental pollution -Infectious disease

*Left Hemisphere*

-Verbal abilities -Positive emotion -Sequential, analytic processing Left hemisphere is better able to process information in a progressive, logical manner and acquiring language skills.

Developments in Hearing: 6-12 months

Detects sound regularities in human speech

Coordination of secondary circular reactions

8-12 months Intentional, goal-directed behavior; beginning object permanence 8-12 months goal directed as finding hidden object.

visual development improvement stages

-2 months: focus -4 months: color vision -6 months: acuity, scanning, and tracking -6-7 months: depth perception Around 2 months, infants are able to focus on objects about as well as adults can, and by 4 months, their color vision is adultlike. Visual acuity reaches 20/60 by 6 months and adult level of about 20/20 by 4 years. During the first year infants are better able to control their eye movements and develop a sense of depth perception by 6 months. Depth perception the ability to judge the distance of objects from one another and from ourselves. From extensive every day experience babies gradually figure out how to use depth cues to prevent them from danger like falling. Crawling promotes a new level of brain organization perhaps by strengthening new neural connections in the brain, especially in vision and understanding space and depth.

*Empathy*

-Ability to "feel with" another person -Aided by self-awareness and advancing cognitive, language, and social skills Older toddlers who have experienced sensitive caregiving draw on their advancing cognitive, language, and social skills to express first signs of empathy. Toddlers show empathy when others are distressed and may offer a hug or favorite toy to person. Between 18 and 30 months children classify themselves on basis of age, sex (boy or girl), on their physical characteristics, on their "goodness" or "badness" and also on their competencies.

Cognitive Gains in Infancy and Toddlerhood

-Attention -Memory -Categorization

*Preterm Infants *

-Born several weeks or more before their due date -Weight may be appropriate for length of pregnancy -The greatest predictor of survival and healthy development of the newborn is the infant's birth weight. Premature babies are those who are born 3 weeks or more before the end of a full 38-week pregnancy or who weigh less than 5½ pounds at birth. -About 1 in 13 American infants is born underweight; such births occur especially often among poverty-stricken women. The appearance and behavior of preterm babies—tiny, sleepy, and unresponsive—can lead parents to be less sensitive in caring for them. Research reveals that distressed, emotionally reactive preterm infants are especially susceptible to the effects of parenting quality; how well preterm infants develop has a great deal to do with the parent-child relationship.

List the beneficial factors of breastfeeding.

-Correct balance of fat and protein -Ensures nutritional completeness -Helps ensure healthy physical growth -Protects against disease -Protects against faulty jaw and tooth development -Ensures digestibility -Smooths transition to solid food

Benefits of Breastfeeding

-Correct balance of fat and protein -Ensures nutritional completeness -Helps ensure healthy physical growth -Protects against disease -Protects against faulty jaw and tooth development -Ensures digestibility -Smooths transition to solid food The balance of fat and protein in breast milk (higher fat and lower protein) is ideal for infant's rapidly growing nervous system. Babies do not need any other supplement for the first 6 months as breast milk as iron in breast milk is more easily absorbed than the iron in other mammal's milk. Infants at one year are leaner when breast fed with a higher percentage of muscle to fat and that may prevent later obesity. Breast milk contains mother's antibodies and other infection fighting agents which can reduce the severity of illness. Studies have shown that breastfeeding for the first 4 months may lead to lower cholesterol levels in adulthood.

Stages of Childbirth

-Dilation and effacement of the cervix -Delivery of the baby -Delivery of the placenta -Dilation and effacement of cervix lasts an average of 12 to 14 hours with initial birth and 4-6 hours for those with later births. This period causes cervix to widen and thin forming a channel to birth canal. -Second state is delivery of baby; it is much shorter lasting from 50 minutes to 20 minutes for subsequent births. Strong muscle contractions and mother's urge to push force baby down and out. -Placenta delivery follows in 5 to 10 minutes.

Motor Development Sequence and Trends

-Gross-motor development -Fine-motor development -Sequence is fairly uniform -Large individual differences in rate of motor progress Motor skills are interrelated: Each is a product of earlier motor attainments and a contributor to new ones. This sequence is known as the dynamic system of motor development. That is acquiring increasing complex motor skills. -I have inserted a link to a DVD clip that demonstrates the sequence of motor development.

Factors That Affect Attachment Security

-Early availability of consistent caregiver -Quality of caregiving -Infant characteristics -Family circumstances -Parents' internal working models What factors affect Attachment security? Overall, the evidence indicates that fully normal emotional development depends on establishing a close tie with a caregiver early in life. Research findings indicate that sensitive caregiving—responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly and carefully—is moderately related to attachment security across cultures and SES groups. Interactional synchrony—in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion, and both partners match emotional states, especially the positive ones—separates the experiences of secure from insecure babies. Avoidant infants tend to receive over-stimulating, intrusive care, while resistant infants often experience inconsistent care. Because attachment is the result of a relationship that builds between two partners, infant characteristics should affect how easily it is established. Babies whose temperament is emotionally reactive and difficult are more likely to develop later insecure attachments, but insecurity is more likely when these babies also have highly anxious mothers, leading to a "disharmonious relationship. Stressful life changes in families may undermine attachment by interfering with parental sensitivity and can also affect babies' sense of security directly, by altering the emotional climate of the family or by disrupting familiar daily routines. Think of a new baby arriving in a toddler's family. Parents bring to the family context their own history of attachment experiences, although early rearing experiences do not destine individuals to become either sensitive or insensitive parents.

*Thomas and Chess Structure of Temperament*

-Easy: 40% -Difficult: 10% -Slow-to-warm-up: 15% -Unclassified: 35% Infants vary widely in temperament, including both reactivity (quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor activity) and *self-regulation* (strategies for modifying reactivity). A growing body of research on temperament examines its stability, biological roots, and interaction with child-rearing experiences. In the mid 1950's Thomas and Chess investigated the development of temperament in a longitudinal study of children from early infancy into adulthood. Results indicated that temperament can have a lasting effect on development of psychological problems or conversely, protect a child from negative effects of a highly stressful home environment. And parenting practices can modify children's temperament significantly. As you will note in your Virtual child rearing, one of the questions is related to your baby's temperament. The rating of the different levels is listed on this slide

*Self-recognition*

-Emerges end of second year -Promoted by acting on environment and noting effects Self recognition at age 2 is beginning, i.e. identification of the self as a physically unique being. They are recognizing that their own actions cause objects and people react in a predictable way. Example: smiling at a caregiver who smiles and vocalizes back helps show the child the relationship between self and social world. Rolling a ball to caregiver who rolls it back is another example.

Supporting Early Language Learning With Toddlers

-Engage in joint make-believe -Engage in frequent conversations -Read often and talk about books Parent-toddler conversation strongly predicts language development and reading success during the school years.

Newborn Reflexes

-Eye blink -Rooting -Sucking -Moro -Palmar grasp -Tonic neck -Stepping -Babinski

Multiple Attachments

-Fathers -Siblings -Grandparents -Professional caregivers Stability of attachment is generally found in families whose secure economic status with well adjusted mothers and positive family and friendship ties. Infants and toddlers of low SES families that are faced with financial and job stresses and little social support are more likely to have less stable attachments. However this trend can be overcome with the involvement and support of other family members and professional caregivers. Cross cultural evidence indicates that the attachment patterns may have to be interpreted differently in other cultures. Note the cultural variations that are described in your textbook on page 155. But despite the cultural variations the secure pattern is the most common attachment quality in all societies that have been studied.

Perceptual

-First categories are based on physical properties -By 6 months, babies categorize on basis of two correlated features As they gain experience in comparing to-be-categorized items in varied ways and as their store of verbal labels expands, toddlers start to categorize flexibly. The video clip shows how the toddler categorizes their different colored poker chips red and white. By the end of the second year, toddlers' grasp of the animate-inanimate distinction expands. That is understanding the difference between real and what is not real.

*Self-awareness*

-From birth -Aided by capacity for intermodal perception Through infants ability to perceive through multiple senses (intermodal perception) they begin early to recognize self. Through touch and feel initially and then visual and hearing.

Body Growth

-Height increases 50% by age 1, 75% by age 2 -Weight doubles by 5 months, triples by 1 year -Growth occurs in spurts -Individual and group differences in size and rate of growth -During the first 2 years, body size increases dramatically—faster than at any other time after birth. Body fat is laid down quickly in the first 9 months, whereas muscle development is slow and gradual. Baby fat helps the small infant to maintain body temperature. Growth occurs in spurts. At birth the head takes up ¼ of body length while the legs take up 1/3 of the total body length. By age 2 the head is 1/5 of the total body length and the legs account for 1/2 . -Children of the same age differ in rate of physical growth; some make faster progress toward a mature body size than others. The best way to estimate a child's physical maturity is by using skeletal age

*Brain Plasticity*

-In infants and young children, brain hemispheres are not yet specialized -Highly plastic cerebral cortex has high capacity for learning -If part of cortex is damaged, other areas can take over its tasks -Older children and adults retain some plasticity, but less than in young children If damage occurs to a specific region of the cerebral cortex after the hemispheres are lateralized, the function it controls cannot be recovered to the same extent or as easily as earlier in development. Yet studies indicate that in brain damaged children and adults, there can be significant recovery in children who suffered damage in the first year of life. There were less severe problems in language and spatial abilities than in brain damaged adults. Good example is ability of deaf adults who were taught sign language (a Spatial skill) as infants or young children use the right hemisphere for processing language as compared with hearing adults who depend on the left hemisphere for language abilities. The brain is more plastic during the first few years than it will ever be and there is more ability for recovery to damaged brain of young children.

*Memory*

-Involves operant conditioning and habituation -longer retention intervals -development of recall by second half of first year Operant conditioning and habituation are involved in early memory. Retention of visual events increases dramatically during first 2 years. Recognition—noticing when a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced—is the simplest form of memory. Recall involves remembering something not present; by the second half of the first year, babies are capable of it.

*Malnutrition types*

-Marasmus -Kwashiorkor -Food insecurity You have all probably seen on the news or National Geo channel the effects of malnutrition on young children in third world countries.

Small-for-Date Infants

-May be either preterm or full-term -Below expected weight for length of pregnancy -Parents need to be encouraged in Infant Caregiving Skills. This can be a problem especially for those parents in stressed, low-income households. Even the best caregiving environments cannot "fix" the enormous biological risks associated with extremely low birth weight. A better course of action would be to prevent this serious threat to infants by improving the health and social conditions and the prenatal care.

Importance of Prenatal Care

-Monitor general health -Treat complications This is an opportunity for a health care provider to discuss a variety of health and safety topics with the expectant mother. This can include such topics as injury prevention, genetic screening, infant care, and domestic violence.

*Brain Development: Cerebral Cortex*

-Most complex brain structure -Responsible for highly developed intelligence of humans the level of the Cerebral cortex on the following slides.

Infant States of Arousal

-Non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep -Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep -Drowsiness -Quiet alertness -Waking activity and crying Brain damaged or birth trauma infants often have disturbed NREM/REM sleep patterns. Can lead to disorganized behavior and learning difficulties

Other Maternal Factors in Prenatal Development

-Nutrition -Emotional Stress -Rh Factor Incompatibility -Age -Lack of prenatal care

*Development of Categorization*

-Perceptual -Conceptual Even young infants can categorize, grouping similar objects and events into a single representation to help them learn and remember and by the second half of the first year, more categories appear to be based on subtle sets of features.

Developmentally Appropriate Infant and Toddler Child Care

-Physical setting -Toys and equipment -Caregiver-child ratio -Daily activities -Interaction among adults and children -Caregiver qualifications -Relationships with parents -Licensing and accreditation

Early intervention for at risk Infants and Toddlers

-Poverty -Programs -Research results

Bowlby's Ethological Theory of Attachment

-Pre-attachment -Attachment-in-the- making phase -Clear-cut attachment phase (separation anxiety) -Reciprocal relationship with caregiver The ethological theory of attachment, which recognizes the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival, is the most widely accepted view. According to Bowlby, attachment begins as a set of inborn signals that the baby uses to summon the parent, and then goes through four phases as it develops into a true affectionate bond.

Periods of Prenatal Development

-Zygote -Embryo -Fetus With conception, the story of prenatal development begins to unfold. The vast changes that take place during the 38 weeks of pregnancy are usually divided into three phases: (1) the period of the zygote, (2) the period of the embryo, and (3) the period of the fetus.

Milestones of Reaching and Grasping

-Prereaching -Ulnar grasp -Transferring object from hand to hand -Pincer grasp Of all motor skills, voluntary reaching may play the greatest role in infant cognitive development. By grasping things, turning them over, and seeing what happens when they are released, infants learn a lot about the objects. Reaching and grasping, like many motor skills, start out as gross, diffuse activity and move toward mastery of fine movements, such as the transfer from hand to hand, or the pincer grasp between thumb and forefinger.

Piaget's Theory: Schemes

-Psychological structures -Organized ways of making sense of experience According to Piaget, by acting on the environment, children move through four stages of cognitive development in which psychological structures, or schemes, achieve a better fit with external reality.

*Piaget's Sensorimotor Substages*

-Reflexive schemes -Primary circular reactions -Secondary circular reactions -Coordination of secondary circular reactions -Tertiary circular reactions -Mental representation The first stage, called the sensorimotor stage, spans the first two years of life and is divided into six substages. In this stage, infants make strides in intentional behavior and understanding of object permanence until, by the end of the second year, they become capable of mental representation, as seen in their sudden solutions to problems, mastery of object permanence, deferred imitation, and make-believe play. The first stage is the newborn reflex.

Supporting Early Language Learning With Infants

-Respond to coos and babbles -Establish joint attention -Use infant-directed speech -Play social games Adults in many cultures speak to babies in infant-directed speech (IDS): short sentences with high-pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts. Deaf parents use a similar style of communication when signing to their deaf babies.

*Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control*

-Respond with sensitivity and support. -Give advance notice of change in activities. -Offer many prompts and reminders. -Reinforce self-controlled behavior. -Encourage sustained attention. -Support language development. -Increase rules gradually. Toddlers become capable of compliance between 12 and 18 months, now aware of caregivers wishes and expectations. Toddlers with parents' sensitivity and support may resist at times but also are more compliant. Some examples of parental guidance are: Giving advance notice by parent for toddler to stop pleasurable activity rather than waiting to last moment. "we are going to the playground soon and you need to pick up your toys so we can leave." Continuous adult oversight and patient assistance needed as memory and compliance is limited. Much praise and hugs for appropriate behavior. Sustained attention related to self control. Encourage expression by language as the child begins to use it. Gradually increase rules for behavior in a manner consistent with toddler's developing capacities.

*Newborn Sense of Touch*

-Sensitive to touch (around mouth and on palms and soles of feet) -Use touch to investigate their world -Severe pain Touch helps stimulate early physical growth and emotional development. Sensitivity to touch and to pain is present at birth. Newborns even use touch to investigate their world.

*Information processing*

-Sensory register -Short-term memory store -Long-term memory In contrast to Piaget's unified theory of cognitive development, information processing focuses on many aspects of thinking, including attention, memory, categorization skills, and problem solving. It often relies on flowcharts to describe the human cognitive system as seen in the next slide which identifies each step in processing information.

Conceptual

-Shift to categories based on common function or behavior -Cultural differences in development of categories Exploration of objects and expanding knowledge of the world contribute to the shift from categorizing based on prominent perceptual features to categorizing on a conceptual basis. This means the toddler uses grouping of similar function or behavior as birds versus airplanes, or cats versus dogs. As adults put labels on objects this calls attention to the differences.

*Right Hemisphere*

-Spatial abilities -Negative emotion -Holistic, integrative processing The right hemisphere is ideal for understanding spatial or dimensional information and processing and regulating negative emotion.

Soothing a Crying Baby

-Talk softly or play rhythmic sounds -Offer pacifier -Massage baby's body -Swaddle -Hold on shoulder, rock or walk -Go for car ride or swing in cradle -Combine methods -Let cry for short time

Period of the Fetus

-Third month -Second trimester -Third trimester The period of the fetus, from the ninth week to the end of pregnancy, is the "growth and finishing" phase, when the organism increases rapidly in size. Prenatal development is sometimes divided into three equal time periods called trimesters

*Object Permanence*

-Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight -Revealed by retrieval of hidden objects -Full understanding revealed by problems involving invisible displacement -Displaced Reference: realization that words can represent image of things not physically present. -Huge achievement in cognitive development. Even if young infants have some notion of object permanence, Piaget's finding that babies capable of reaching do not try to search for hidden objects before 8 months of age suggests that such searching is a true cognitive advance. Mastery of object permanence is a gradual achievement. Success at object search tasks coincides with rapid development of the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex and depends on a variety of experiences perceiving, acting on, and remembering objects. Around the first year toddlers realize that words can be used to remind them of mental images not physically present. This is called displaced reference.

Third trimester

-age of viability: 22-26 weeks -fetus takes on beginnings of personality Third Trimester The age of viability,is between 22 and 26 weeks Responsiveness to stimulation, including pain increases, and the fetus begins to distinguish the tone and rhythm of different voices and sounds. The fetus receives antibodies from the mother's blood that protect against illnesses.

Piaget's Preoperational Stage

-ages 2 to 7 -gains in mental representation -limitations in thinking: egocentrism, lack of conservation, lack of centration, and lack of hierarchical classification Piaget's second stage, the preoperational stage, spanning the years from 2 to 7, is marked by an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity. In this stage children move beyond the sensorimotor stage to greater mental representation as seen in "make-believe play' during this stage. Piaget believed that sensorimotor activity leads to internal images of experience, which children label with words. But an important limitation of Piaget's preoperational stage is that he underestimated the power of language to stimulate children's thinking. The preschooler will demonstrates limitations in thinking such as seen in Egocentrism which is exemplified by children tending to focus on their own point of view and assuming others share the same point of view. I will refer to other limitations of thinking such as conservations and centration on the next slides.

*Short-term memory store*

-attended-to information is retained briefly and "worked" on -working memory

outcomes of child-rearing styles

-authoritarian -authoritative -permissive -uninvolved

*Self-Conscious Emotions Require*

-awareness of self as separate and unique -adult instruction in when to feel emotions Toddlers need to have an awareness of themselves as unique and separate. Parental guidance is needed to help the young child know when these feelings are appropriate. This varies greatly among different cultures. As in collectivist societies such as China and Japan, calling attention to one's individual success is considered embarrassing. Failing to show concern for others (a parent, friend, teacher) causes intense shame in these cultures.

*Self-Control Depends on*

-awareness of self as separate, autonomous being -confidence in directing own actions -memory for caregiver's directives Self-awareness also contributes to effortful control, evident in toddlers' strengthening capacity to inhibit impulses, manage negative emotion, and behave in socially acceptable ways. As children learn to become self controlled they must think of themselves as separate, unique beings who can direct their own actions. And they must have memory capacity to recall caregivers' directive: "don't touch the light socket or don't crawl up the steps"

gross-motor skills in early childhood

-balance improves -gait is smooth and rhythmic by age 2 -upper and lower body skills combine into more refined action by age 5 -greater speed and endurance As children's bodies become more streamlined and less top-heavy, their balance improves greatly. By age 3, the preschooler's gait becomes smooth and rhythmic, leading to running, jumping, and skipping. As children become steadier on their feet, their arms and torsos are freed to experiment with new skills, such as throwing and catching balls, and steering tricycles.

guidance and discipline: parental teaching is key

-be consistent -simple explanations -avoid spanking -use of time outs -behavior modification -encourage parents to use age and developmentally appropriate discipline When it comes to guidance and discipline parental teaching is key. You must teach the parent to be consistent. If the parent is consistent, the child will learn that certain behaviors are not allowed. Provide simple explanations of why the behavior is unacceptable. Avoid spanking. It's the least effective and is discouraged by the American Academy of pediatricians. The use of physical punishment has been associated with a number of additional problems in adulthood such as antisocial behavior as well as chemical use. Corporal punishment models aggression according to the research For preschoolers, sitting in time out for two or three minutes is a typical consequence for behavior that is not acceptable. A few minutes in time out can be enough to change behavior and also allows parents to cool off as well. Encourage parents to use age and developmentally appropriate discipline.

brain growth in early childhood

-brain is 70-90% of adult size -cerebellar growth increases coordination -language skills develop -*handedness develops* The brain increases from 70 to 90 percent of its adult weight during preschool. They have an increase of cerebellum growth which will help with increase coordination, as well as improved eye- hand coordination. Growth of the cerebral cortex hemisphere of the brain supports language, therefore we will see a significant increase in language skills. Right-handedness is more prevalent than left-handedness and is thought to be determined in utero, However, some further studies show that it is not until the preschool age that the child demonstrates a clear cut tendency to be right or left handed. This is due in part to the which side of the cerebral cortex is most dominant to carry out this skilled action.

*Newborn Sense of Hearing*

-can hear a wide variety of sounds -prefer complex sounds to pure tones -can distinguish between a variety of sound patterns when only a few days old -listen longer to human speech than to nonspeech sounds -can detect the sounds of any human language Newborns prefer complex sounds, such as voices and noises, to pure tones. Young infants listen longer to human speech than to nonspeech sounds.

sings of development delay: by age 4

-cannot jump in place -cannot stack 4 blocks -cannot copy a circle -does not use 3 or more words in a sentence If Preschooler have one or more of these concerns, they should be referred to a developmental specialist for evaluation.

*Food insecurity*

-consequences: Effects on physical growth; learning problems Food insecurity is estimated to affect 21% of U.S. children. It means the child is uncertain of access to enough food for a healthy active life. These children will have lasting effects on their physical growth and ability to learn. Food insecurity is most often found in low-income minority and poverty, and single parent situations.

parents can increase effectiveness of punishment

-consistency -warm parent-child relationship -explanations

First speech sounds:

-cooing -babbling Around 2 months of age, babies make vowel-like noises called cooing. Around 6 months, babbling appears: Infants repeat long strings of consonant-vowel combinations. By around 7 months, babbling starts to include many sounds common in spoken languages; by 8 to 10 months, it reflects the sound and intonation patterns of children's language community. In hearing-impaired babies, these speechlike sounds are greatly delayed. In deaf infants, they stop, but deaf infants exposed to sign language from birth babble with their hands.

early school experiences

-daycare agencies -project head start -montessori -kindergarten Largely because of the rise in maternal employment, over 60 percent of young children in the United States are enrolled in preschool or child care. A preschool is a program with planned educational experiences aimed at enhancing development in 2- to 5-year- olds. Child care refers to a variety of arrangements for supervising children. Good child care should provide the same high-quality educational experiences as an effective preschool. In child-centered programs such as Daycare centers, teachers provide a wide variety of activities from which children select, and much learning occurs through play. In academic programs, teachers structure children's learning of specific academic skills through formal lessons, often using repetition and drill. Project Head Start is a long-standing U.S. program that provides economically disadvantaged children with a year or two of preschool education, along with nutritional and health services. Currently, Head Start is administered by the Administration for Children and Families (ACF) in the Department of Health and Human Services. Montessori programs is a preschool program based on Piaget's model. Activities are child initiated. The child can discover and learn at his or her own pace, based on their maturation. The emphasis on this program is self discipline. Intellectual development, through training of the senses. Teachers greatly guide the child through learning naturally at their own pace. Prekindergarten usually is a half-day program that emphasizes an educational and social experience for the child. An example is Goddard school. Most are operated by private organizations. It is a more classroom-based learning environment. It was created to prepare students for a more didactic and academically intensive kindergarten. There is more curriculum and instruction in these types of programs. Kindergarten school was once formally first grade of education in the primary school. As academic and emotional pressures increase in kindergarten, many parents chose to hold the child back, especially boys, a year and start kindergarten at age 6. Advise parents not to push their child too early since it can create cognitive burnout. Kindergarten screenings determine the child's readiness.

Treat complications

-diabetes -preeclampsia

immunizations

-diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough (pertussis) (DTaP) -polio (IPV), measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) -chickenpox (varicella) -influenza

*Harm done by teratogens is affected by:*

-dose -heredity -age Larger doses of teratogens over longer time periods usually have more negative effects. The effects of teratogens vary with the organism's age at the time of exposure. The Genetic makeup of mother and developing embryo is also factor. During a sensitive period, when a part of the body is prepared to develop rapidly, it is especially sensitive to its surroundings. Serious defects are most likely to occur during the embryonic period.

self-understanding

-emerging language skills enable children to discuss inner mental states -self-awareness supports development of self-concept As preschoolers think more intently about themselves, and their vocabulary increases, they talk about their inner mental lives. They continue to construct a self-concept, or set of beliefs about their own characteristics, that consists largely of observable characteristics and typical emotions and attitudes. A 4 year old might describe himself as " I'm Bobby and I just made a snowman. He needs a hat." Securely attached preschoolers participate in more elaborative parent-child conversations about personally experienced events, which help them foster self-understanding. An example might be a girl sharing with her mother that she is sad because her friend is sick and cannot come for a playdate.

consequences of child maltreatment

-emotional -adjustment -learning The family circumstances of child maltreatment impair the development of emotional self-regulation, empathy and sympathy, self-concept, social skills, and academic motivation. Over time, these youngsters show serious adjustment problems—cognitive deficits, severe depression, aggressive behavior, peer difficulties, substance abuse, and violent crime—that persist into adulthood. Demeaning parental messages result in low self-esteem, high anxiety, and self-blame.

associative play

-engages in separate activities -exchanges toys and comments Associative play this is when two or more preschoolers actually interact with one another by sharing or borrowing toys or materials, although they do not do the same thing. These children are each building something but they are building something different. They are just sharing the equipment such as sharing Lego bricks. Sharing is increased by age 4.

Interactionist

-interaction between inner capacities and environmental influences -social-interactionist view: emphasizes social skills and language experiences The interactionist view emphasizes exchanges between inner capacities and environmental influences. Some interactionists, applying information-processing theory to language development, assume that children use powerful cognitive capacities to make sense of their complex language environment. Other interactionists blend this view with Chomsky's nativist perspective. Still others take a social-interactionist view, emphasizing the role of children's social skills and language experiences combine in language development.

self-conscious emotions

-ex: shame, embarrassment, guilt, pride -depend on adult feedback -vary across cultures As their self-concept develops, preschoolers become increasingly sensitive to praise, blame, shame, embarrassment, guilt and pride. Preschoolers experience self-conscious emotions, feelings that may injure or enhance their sense of self. By age 3, self-conscious emotions are clearing linked to self-evaluation. Preschoolers are still developing standards of excellence and conduct. They depend on messages of parents, teachers and others who matter to them to know when to feel proud, ashamed or guilty. If parents repeatedly comment on the worth of the child and their performance such as "That was a good job," children experience self-consciousness more intensely. On the other hand guilt, when it occurs under appropriate circumstances and is not accompanied by shame, can help the child make adjustments and correct or repair damages. The child who drops and breaks an item on the coffee table learns through careful parental guidance that they must not handle these items in the future. Guilt helps children resists harmful impulses and motivates the misbehaving child to learn from the action and not repeat it. Much depends on the child's parental response to the incident

*Newborn Senses of Taste and Smell: Infants*

-have a preference for sweet tastes at birth -can readily learn to like new tastes -have odor preferences at birth -can locate odors and identify mother by smell from birth Taste is especially sensitive to sweet taste of breast milk

health promotion and injury control

-immunizations -health screenings -injury prevention

learning consequences

-impaired working memory and executive function -low academic motivation

*Attention*

-improved efficiency, ability to shift focus -less attraction to novelty, improved sustained attention Infants gradually become more efficient at managing their attention, taking in information more quickly. During first year infants attend to eye catching and novel events. In the second year, attraction to novelty declines and sustained or lasting attention improves. Toddlers engage in simple goal directed behavior such as stacking blocks or inserting shapes into correct opening.

risk of media violence

-increases hostile thoughts and emotions -aggressive behavior creates short-term and long-term behavior problems A high percentage of U.S. TV programs, including some children's programming, may depict violence. Research indicates that watching TV violence and playing violent video games increase the likelihood of hostile thoughts and emotions and of all types of aggressive behavior. In several studies, time spent watching TV in childhood and adolescence predicted aggressive behavior in adulthood. Public pressure to improve media content has led to policy measures, including program ratings. However, parents bear most of the responsibility for regulating children's exposure to media violence and inappropriate content.

types of discipline

-inductive discipline -positive discipline

*Self-Control: Effortful control is the capacity to*

-inhibit impulses -manage negative emotions -behave in socially acceptable ways

Challenges of early weeks

-new roles -changed schedule This can be a time of increased stress and changes in responsibilities. Mother needs to recover from childbirth and if breast feeding requires more energy for this new dependence by her infant. Schedules are disrupted with nightly feedings. Fathers may need to help with more household tasks in the early weeks and care of the baby needs to be a shared responsibility with father assisting with bottle feedings and learning physical care of the baby and bonding with the new baby.

preventing child maltreatment

-intervening with high-risk parents -social supports for families: parents anonymous and home visitation-Healthy Families America Healthcare providers are mandated to report evidence of child abuse or maltreatment. Each state has centralized agencies that follow up on such cases. Efforts to prevent child maltreatment must be directed at all of the levels on which it occurs—families, communities, and society as a whole. Many approaches have been suggested, from teaching high-risk parents effective child-rearing strategies to developing broad social programs aimed at improving community services and economic conditions. Home-visitation programs, such as Healthy Families America, are effective in preventing child maltreatment. When parents are unlikely to change their behavior, separating parent from child and legally terminating parental rights may be the only justifiable course of action.

signs of developmental delay: by age 5

-is unhappy or sad often -has little interest in playing with others -easily distracted and unable to concentrate -has trouble eating on their own If Preschooler have one or more of these concerns, they should be referred to a developmental specialist for evaluation.

Becoming a communicator:

-joint attention -give-and-take -preverbal gestures

early childhood development of make-believe: Piaget's preoperational thought

-magical thinking -imaginary friend -animism According to Piaget, the preschooler begins to engage in fantasy play. Magical thinking is a normal part of preschool development. The preschooler believes that his or her thoughts are all powerful. Through make-believe and magical thinking satisfies the preschoolers curiosity about differences in the world around them. Research reveals that preschoolers who devote time to magical thinking or sociodramatic play are rated by observers as more socially competent a year later. Preschoolers often have imaginary friend. This friend serves as a creative way for them to sample different activities and behaviors and practice with conversational skills. Despite the imagination, the preschooler is able to switch easily between fantasy and reality throughout the day. More than ¼ of parents were unaware of their child's has an imaginary friend. In animism the preschooler thinks that nonliving objects have feelings and act like humans. For example a lamp is alive because it gives light. A wagon is alive because it moves or rolls. Their doll is can see because they have eyes

Group differences in growth

-male/female -ethnic Females are smaller and weigh less than boys during infancy and have a higher percentage of fat to muscle. These differences will continue through childhood and are more noticeable during adolescence. Heredity and ethnic variances along with harmful environmental influences, like poor or inadequate nutrition, also contribute to these differences.

Discuss the factors that influence differences in growth rate.

-male/female -ethnic -skeletal age -group and individual differences

Second trimester

-many organs are well-developed by 20 weeks -most of the brain's neurons are in place During the middle of the second trimester (between 17 and 20 weeks), the mother can feel the movements of the fetus. Body position changes occur as often as 25 times per hour. In 3rd month; The fetus has new behavioral capacities: At 20 weeks it can be stimulated as well as irritated by sounds.

nutrition in early childhood

-need calcium and iron -"picky eater" stage -should eat 1/2 size of adult Preschoolers appetites decline because their growth has slowed. The need for calcium and iron is important. Drinking excessive amounts of milk can lead to iron deficiency because the calcium in milk can block the absorption of iron. Some preschoolers remain picky eaters. Experts say do not force or bribe or threaten the child to eat certain foods. "If you eat all your vegetables then you can have dessert." If parents do this, studies shows that children will tend to like healthy foods least and the treat more because of this " reward " The amount of food eaten at mealtime should be one half serving size of the adult. Studies show that those preschoolers who come from a lower socioeconomic group consume less protein and fresh fruits and vegetables leading to a diet low in iron, calcium (needed for bone & teeth), vitamin A (eye health) and vitamin C (helps with iron absorption). We see these children shorter then those children who are economically advantaged. A diet nutritionally deficient in these vitamins have shown to decrease attention and produce memory difficulties and have lower IQ scores

*initiative*

-new sense of purposefulness -eagerness to try new tasks, join activities -play permits trying out new skills -strides in conscience development This is a time when the preschooler is eager to tackle new tasks and skills and discover what they can do with the help of an adult. Erikson regarded play as a means through which preschoolers learn about themselves and their social worlds. Play creates a meaningful role. Through patient, reasonable adult guidance and play experiences with peers a healthy sense of initiative will emerge. .

peer sociability in play

-nonsocial activity -parallel play -associative play -cooperative play During preschool years peer interaction increases as they move from nonsocial through cooperative play. The slide describes the sequence of how this may occur.

early childhood mathematical reasoning

-ordinality -cardinality

Third month

-organs, muscles, and nervous system start to become organized and connected -lungs begin to expand and contract

*severe pain*

-overwhelms nervous system with stress hormones -can be relieved with local anesthesia, sugar solution, or physical touch Allowing a newborn to endure severe pain overwhelms the nervous system with stress hormones, leading to heightened pain sensitivity and other problems.

Hormones that facilitate caregiving:

-oxytocin -prolactin -estrogens Fathers as well as mothers have hormonal changes around the time of birth. Changes are induced by contact with the mother and the baby, can predict positive reaction to newborn and paternal care giving.

*child maltreatment*

-physical abuse -sexual abuse -neglect -emotional abuse Child maltreatment has existed in all human societies but is especially common in large industrialized nations. It includes physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and emotional abuse which are identified in this slide. Most abuse is committed by parents and other relatives, the rest by parents' unmarried partners, school officials, camp counselors, and other adults. Children whose characteristics make them more challenging to rear are more likely to become targets of abuse. Child factors, however, only slightly increase the risk. Maltreating parents are less skillful than other parents in handling discipline, confrontations and feel powerless in parenting. Once it begins, abuse becomes part of a self-sustaining relationship. Abusive parents react to stressful situations with high emotional arousal; other factors include low income, unemployment, marital conflict, and extreme household disorganization.

skeletal growth in early childhood

-physical growth is slowing down -grow 2.5 to 3 inches in height per year -gain about 5 pounds in weight each year -lose baby teeth Physical growth begins to slow compared to the infancy and toddler stage Preschoolers begin to gain about 5 pounds per year and grow about 2 1/2 to 3 inches per year. Toward the end of the preschool years, children start to lose their primary or "baby" teeth Preschoolers should be in the habit of brushing their teeth. Dentists may begin to place plastic coating on molars to prevent tooth decay. Prolonged malnutrition delays appearance of permanent teeth, whereas those children who are overweight can see permanent teeth abruption earlier than normal. Diseased baby teeth can affect the health of permanent teeth therefore prevention of tooth decay is essential

parallel play

-plays near other children with similar materials -does not try to influence them Parallel play that begins in toddler hood where children plays side to side is also is demonstrated in early preschool years.

emotional consequences

-poor emotional self-regulation -impaired empathy/sympathy -depression

communication patterns

-preschoolers go through 4 areas of language development -recast and expansion -low SES affects to language skills By the time the preschooler reaches age 5 they will have a vocabulary of at least 3000 to 5000 words. Preschoolers go through four areas of language development. Phonology is speech sounds. A preschooler masters the sounds of their language, they pronounce words correctly. Words become easier to understand and become more fluent in their speech. Semantic refers to the word meaning. By age 5 knowing the meaning of words explodes to 8000. Syntax means sentence construction. As they acquire language skills, their sentences get longer and more complex. For example, Me hit, I sit turns into I hit Tommy, so I have to go sit out of the game. Pragmatics refers to social communication. Through observing and interacting with others, preschoolers learn social roles like being polite, taking turns while having a conversation, allowing one to speak at a time. Listen first then speaking. Parents and other adults like teachers use techniques that promote early language skills. When children use words incorrectly or communicate unclearly, parents should give helpful feedback. Experts advise you don't over correct especially when children make grammatical mistakes. Criticism will discourage children from freely using language in ways that lead to new skills. Instead of criticizing or over correcting, adults should provide two strategies;

Toddler Developmental Tasks

1.) Develop Physical skills appropriate to motor stage 2.) Master basics of toilet training 3.) Master basics of good eating and sleep habits. 4.) Become more aware of being family member, early social skills 5.) Language and communication skills 6.) Self-control and beginning independence in behavior 7.) Begin to have healthy daily routines.

Tertiary circular reactions

12-18 months Exploration of object properties through novel actions 12-18 months: locate hidden object even if moved from original hiding place. Better anticipation of what may occur. Explore properties of object, as shapes of toys,. Between 12 and 18 months, toddlers use deferred imitation skillfully to enrich their range of sensorimotor schemes, and they retain modeled behaviors for at least several months.

During which week of gestation can the sex of the fetus be determined and by which test(s) are used to confirm this?

16 weeks by ultrasound

*Mental representation*

18 months to 2 years Internal depictions of objects and events; advanced object permanence (invisible displacement) 18 months-2 yrs: can imitate actions an adult tries to produce: as toddler who used hammer to hit pegs in board.

*Self-Conscious Emotions Appear Between Ages*

1½ and 3 years: -Shame -Embarrassment -Guilt -Pride -Envy

Zygote

2 weeks -Fertilization -Implantation -Start of placenta -The zygote period lasts about 2 weeks, from fertilization until the cell mass attaches itself to the uterine wall. Implantation occurs when the blastocyst burrows deep into the uterine lining and amnion membrane encloses the developing organism in protective amniotic fluid which helps maintain the temperature of the prenatal environment constant. The placenta brings the embryo's and mother's blood close together. The umbilical cord connected to the placenta delivers blood with nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to the fetus and removes waste products.

Fetus

30 weeks -"Growth and finishing" phase -During the second month the eyes, ears, nose, jaw, and neck form. Tiny buds become arms, legs, fingers, and toes. The Fetus period begins at the ninth week to the end of pregnancy,

Secondary circular reactions

4-8 months Repetition of interesting effects; imitation of familiar behaviors 4-8 months stage when infant repeats responding to care giver's voice of encouragement; reaching for favorite toy.

Embryo

6 weeks -Groundwork laid for all body structures and internal organs -The period of the embryo lasts from the second through the eighth week of pregnancy. During the third week, three cell layers develop that will give rise to all parts of the body. The ectoderm folds over to form the neural tube, or primitive spinal cord. At 3½ weeks, the top swells to form the brain. The heart begins to pump blood, and the muscles, backbone, ribs, and digestive tract appear.

Nutrition

A healthy diet helps ensure the health of the mother and baby. Prenatal malnutrition can cause serious damage to the baby's central nervous system and can also distort the structure of the liver, kidneys, pancreas, and other organs. Prenatal malnutrition is highest in poverty-stricken regions but is not limited to developing countries. Pregnant women may not consume an adequate amount of iron if they do not take iron supplements during pregnancy, leading to Iron Deficiency, especially during the first trimester.

*Teratogens*

A teratogen is any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period. -other negative influences -Delayed health effects may show up decades later The effects of teratogens illustrate bidirectional influences between child and environment.

Tobacco

An estimated 14 percent of U.S. women smoke during pregnancy. Effects of smoking during pregnancy include low birth weight and increased chances of miscarriage, prematurity, blood vessel abnormalities, and asthma and cancer later in childhood. "Passive smoking" is also related to low birth weight, infant death, and possible long-term attention, learning, and behavioral problems.

*Erikson's Theory of Toddler Personality*

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt During toddlerhood, the conflict of autonomy versus shame and doubt is resolved favorably when parents and other caregivers provide appropriate guidance and reasonable choices. A child who is not criticized when unsuccessful using the potty as during potty training, or is eating incorrectly when using utensils, will learn tolerance and understanding. Parents who are under or over controlling will give the message that the child is incompetent or unable to control their own impulses and act independently. Shame and doubt are experienced when toddlers experience over or under controlling parents/caregivers. When parents show understanding, tolerance and patience to a child who wants to assert her independence the child will develop more self-confidence as they explore their environment.

"Clear-cut" attachment phase (6-8 months to 18 months-2 years):

Babies display separation anxiety, becoming upset when the trusted caregiver leaves.

"Attachment-in-the-making" phase (6 weeks to 6-8 months):

Babies respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger and begin to develop a sense of trust.

Developments in Hearing: 7-9 months

Begins to divide speech stream into wordlike units At 7 to 9 months, infants start to divide the speech stream into word-like units. Once the infant locates the word they begin to identify the sound of a strong or stressed syllable, like BAby or PUPpy. This emphasis on the first syllable signals a new word.

Weight

Being underweight before pregnancy may give birth to an infant with low birthweight;

Chapter 5 and 6

Cognitive, Emotional, Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

low SES affects to language skills

Compared to their economically advantaged age mates, preschoolers from low-income families have far fewer home and preschool language and literacy learning opportunities. Providing child-care centers and parents with books and games can help stimulate literacy skills. Preschoolers who develop well intellectually have homes rich in educational toys and books. Their parents are warm and affectionate, stimulate language and academic knowledge, arrange interesting outings, make reasonable demands for socially mature behavior, and resolve conflict with reason instead of physical force and punishment. The home environment plays a major role in the generally poorer intellectual performance of low-SES children in comparison to their higher-SES peers.

Developments in Hearing: 6-7 months

Distinguishes musical tones based on variations in rhythmic patterns

Chapter 3: Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn Baby

During this lecture I will be discussing prenatal development , birth and the newborn. I have provided a link on this week's content video "In the Womb" which is required viewing. Viewing the film before viewing this PP lecture may illustrate more clearly the changes that take place during the three phases of pregnancy. There will be questions taken from the video content on the second exam. Also you need to view the Utube information about The Virtual Child program. Then log in to MDL and access the Virtual Child program listed under Virtual Life. I would like all students to access this program and follow the instructions for creating your "very own" baby!

Describe what is meant by dynamics of motor skill development.

Each new skill is a joint product of four factors: (1) central nervous system development, (2) the body's movement capacities, (3) the goals the child has in mind as If the child wants to go to a toy that maybe the motivation to try to crawl or push with feet to get closer. and (4) environmental supports for the skill. You should have noticed these factors in the previous video The physical environment profoundly influences motor skills. For example, infants in homes with stairs learn to crawl up stairs at an earlier age.

Model of Information Processing

Figure 5.4 Model of the human information-processing system This flow chart is found in your text, First information enters the sensory register where sights and sounds are stored briefly> check this out by first looking around you and then closing your eyes. An image of what you saw will remain briefly. The second part is the short term memory store which retains information briefly so we can work on it. *The central Executive* is where information is acted upon. The Central Executive is the conscious , reflective part of our mental system insuring that we think purposefully to attain our goals. Long term memory is our permanent storage base.

Toddler Development: Exercise

Exercise helps children learn physical, mental and social skills. Parents who play actively with their children help to develop these skills. Sedentary activities such as reading should be balanced with active play.

*Alcohol*

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) refers to the range of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure.

*Regions of the Cerebral Cortex*

Figure 4.5 The left side of the human brain, showing the cerebral cortex showing the specific function of each area. The brain is a set of interconnected regions, each with specific functions. This "geography" of the brain permits researchers to study it using neurobiological methods. The *cerebral cortex* accounts for 85% of the brain's weight and contains the greatest number of neurons and synapses. It is more sensitive to environmental influences more than any other part of the brain.

*zone of proximal development*

He proposed that children's abilities increase through exposure to information that is new enough to be intriguing, but not too difficult for the child to contend with. He called this the zone of proximal development. It's the level at which a preschooler can almost but not fully be able to perform a task, but can do it with the assistance of someone more confident. This competent person can be a parent, teacher, or peer. So we see an improvement of the task that comes with help.

*Immunizations:*

HepB: For hepatitis B DTaP: Diptheria, Tetanus, Pertussis (whooping cough) RV: Rotovirus Hib: Protects against influenza type b PCV: pneumococcal protects against pneumococcal pneumonia IPV: Polio vaccine MMR: Measles, mumps, Rubella at age 1 year HepA: for Hepatitis A Yearly influenza vaccine. I have listed the immunizations needed for the infant through the toddler age group. And you need to know these immunizations for the first two years. Parents need to be encouraged to have their child vaccinated as these are required before they can attend school or preschool. The HCP needs to call attention to these vaccinations and answer questions related to this. There has been a redevelopment of measles because too many parents have refused to have infants vaccinated because of fear of reaction to the vaccine.

Influences on Early Growth

Heredity Nutrition: -breastfeeding vs. bottle-feeding -risks of overfeeding Malnutrition -When diet and health are adequate, height and rate of physical growth are largely influenced by heredity. Genetic makeup also affects body weight, but the environment—especially nutrition—plays an important role, too. -In third world countries where babies are breast fed they are much less likely to be malnourished and more likely to survive the first year of life. However education of mothers in these parts of the world is needed as they often do not breast feed. They use formula instead which is often contaminated due to poor sanitation risking illness and infant death.

The Baby's Adaptation to Labor and Delivery

High levels of stress hormones -help baby withstand oxygen deprivation -prepare baby to breathe -arouse infant into alertness -Stress hormones caused by the force of the contractions send extra blood to the brain and heart, and help prepare the baby to breathe, and arouse the infant into alertness. -The average newborn is 20 inches long and 71⁄2 pounds in weight; boys tend to be slightly longer and heavier than girls. -The head is large in comparison to the trunk and legs, which are short and bowed. -The round faces, chubby cheeks, large foreheads, and big eyes of newborn babies make adults feel like picking them up and cuddling them.

Research Results

In Home based programs a skilled adult visits home and works with parents teaching them how to stimulate young child's development. Early Head Start program begun in 1995 Congress provided limited funding for services directed at infants and toddlers already at risk for developmental problems because of poverty. Studies indicate that poverty-stricken children are likely to show gradual declines in intelligence test scores and to achieve poorly when they reach school age. Children participating in interventions designed to break the cycle of poverty for infants and toddlers score higher than untreated controls on mental tests by age 2. The earlier and the longer the intervention, the better the participants' cognitive and academic performance is throughout childhood and adolescence.

Toilet training:

Independence and autonomy, not cleanliness, are the critical issues in teaching the child to use the toilet. Arrange for the child to use the toilet easily and parent supports rather than acts as trainer, shows interest in child, not just the act. The toddler is interested in the product she or he excretes. Neuro muscular maturity increases from 1 to 3 years. Bowel control occurs before bladder control and is a less complex task. Shows readiness for bowel training when defecates regularly, shows signs of awareness of defecation, (pulls on diaper, or training pants).If learning to speak this helps if parent can choose words to use for defecation so child will learn these and be able to communicate. Mental and emotional readiness are important. . For bladder training child is ready when child knows when he is wet., wakes up dry after nap or nighttime, or goes more than 2 hours during the day being dry. Child needs to understand both boys and girls can sit down on toilet to urinate. Daddy can help boys learn how to stand up to urinate.

Brain Development: Microscopic level

Individual brain cells: Neurons, -Synapses -Neurotransmitters At birth, the brain is nearer to its adult size than is any other physical structure, and it develops at an astounding pace throughout infancy and toddlerhood. We will look at brain development from two levels of understanding; the microscopic level of the individual brain cells and how they function

Drowsiness

Infant is either falling asleep or waking up

Nativist (Chomsky)

Language Acquisition Device (LAD) -contains universal grammar -infants biologically prepared to learn language The nativist theory by Chomsky regards language as a unique human accomplishment that is innate or inborn: Children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), containing a set of rules common to all languages, which permits children to understand and speak whichever language they hear.

*Newborn Sense of Vision*

Least developed sense at birth Limited visual acuity Actively explore environment: -scan for interesting sights -track moving objects Not yet good at discriminating colors Infant Vision is the last sensory organ developed at time of birth. The optic nerve development will not be adult-like for several years. Fine visual discrimination is limited. Images are blurred. The infant is not able to distinguish colors at this stage.

*Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems*

Mastery involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action with each skill Each new skill is joint product of -central nervous system development -the body's movement capacity -the child's goals -environmental supports for the skill Each new skill is a joint product of four factors: (1) central nervous system development, (2) the body's movement capacities, (3) the goals the child has in mind as If the child wants to go to a toy that maybe the motivation to try to crawl or push with feet to get closer. and (4) environmental supports for the skill. You should have noticed these factors in the previous video The physical environment profoundly influences motor skills. For example, infants in homes with stairs learn to crawl up stairs at an earlier age.

Milestones in Intermodal Perception: 3-4 months

Matches faces with voices on basis of lip-voice synchrony, emotional expression, and speaker's age and gender

Obesity is also concern

Obese women are at increased risk of pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, cesarean delivery, and failure to initiate breastfeeding.

chapter 7

Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood -early childhood, also known as the preschool years. Early childhood or preschool years are age three through six the child emerges as a more social being. They begin to participate more fully as family members.

Toddler Development: Play

Play is what toddlers do and it is essential to their health and development. During play toddlers exercise, learn to manage their body, improve coordination and manual dexterity, increase awareness of their surroundings and objects, develop spatial and sensory perception, learn attention and language, release emotional tension and channel unacceptable urges such as aggression, into acceptable activities. Toddler learns through play right from wrong and learns to have fun and master skills.

Environmental Pollution

Prenatal mercury, lead, PCBs exposure are all teratogenic and may produce multiple cognitive and physical developmental problems.

Common Health Problems:

Prevention and Protection -Respiratory infections -Asthma -Otitis Media (ear infection) -Food allergies The most common health problems at this age are respiratory problems and home accidents. Teaching the young child to cover their cough or sneeze with tissue or their upper arm/sleeve. Do not use their hands. Washing hands frequently especially after cough, before eating, after playing with other's toys (as at day care). And the adult needs to set the example for this behavior. However children in day care centers will be exposed to more infectious diseases, mostly viral, but some bacterial. If child is ill, they may not be able to communicate pain..but show restlessness and withdrawal. Take their temperature using newer types equipment such as heat sensors available at drug store.

Illegal drug use is discussed with of expectant mothers and seat belt use.

Public health efforts to increase prenatal counseling on seat belt use remain critical for reducing the number of traffic related deaths and hospitalizations that occur during pregnancy. Alcohol use is likely to be discussed.

Radiation:

Radiation exposure can cause miscarriage, an underdeveloped brain, physical deformities, and slow physical growth.

Read in text: Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping Arrangements, Pg. 99 (test questions included in Exam 2)

Rapid brain growth means the organization of sleep and wakefulness changes substantially between birth and 2 years. The changing arousal patterns are due to brain development, but are also affected by cultural beliefs and practices and individual parents' needs. Newborns sleep around the clock in periods of wakefulness and naps, about 16 to 18 hours a day. United States parents follow the practice of babies sleep practices developing naturally. Some cultures set sleep times for their babies as noted in the text about the Dutch parents. Parents in the US are less likely to co-sleep with their infants as even in the latest edition of Spock's Baby and Child Care stresses the danger of SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) and states infants should sleep in a room of their own by 3 months. This is contrary however to 90% of the world's population. You are required to read the article in the textbook on Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping Arrangements, Page 99. There will be test questions will be included in Exam 2 from this article. -western: separate child and parent (baby sleep alone by 3 months) -parent-infant cosleeping is norm for 90% of world -cultural values strongly influence infant sleeping arrangements -SIDS concern with bedsharing and suffocation

*Prefrontal Cortex*

Region of the cerebral cortex responsible for thought, especially: -consciousness -inhibition of impulses -integration of information -use of memory, reasoning, planning, and problem-solving strategies Undergoes rapid growth in the preschool and school years, and in adolescence Different regions of the cerebral cortex have specific functions. The regions with the most extended period of development are the frontal lobes. The prefrontal cortex, lying in front of areas controlling body movement, is responsible for thought—in particular, consciousness, inhibition of impulses, and use of reasoning. From 2 months on the prefrontal cortex functions more effectively and major growth during preschool years into adolescence.

Toddler Development: Rest and Sleep

Rest and sleep are as important as physical activity and play. In sleep and rest Toddlers need an average of 10-12 hours of sleep nightly plus nap during day of 1-2 hours. Sleep is essential to physical growth and healing if the child is ill. During sleep the growth hormone is produced in greater quantities.

Victims of Deprived early Environments:

Romanian Orphanages The effects of depriving infants of early stimulation has been studied with Romanian children who have been adopted from institutions by British families. Those infants who were institutionalized in orphanages for more than 6 months showed serious intellectual difficulties. Children who were adopted before 6 months were able to catch up intellectually in childhood and adolescence. In addition deprived infants showed greater evidence emotional instability and attention and anger control. The longer these children were institutionalized the more severe the symptoms.

*scaffolding*

Scaffolding assist with mastering competencies. The MKO adjusts the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance. The MKO uses direct instructions breaking the task into manageable units (scaffolding) .

Developments in Hearing: 4-7 months

Sense of musical phrasing Early perceptual development of the infant focuses on hearing and vision. Newborns can distinguish nearly all sounds in human languages. At around 5 months, they become sensitive to syllable stress patterns in their own language, and around 6 months, they narrow their focus, limiting the distinctions they make to the language they hear and will soon learn. This increased responsiveness to native-language sounds is part of a general "tuning" process in the second half of the first year—a possible sensitive period in which infants acquire a range of perceptual skills for picking up socially important information.

Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on):

Separation protest declines.

Individual differences

Skeletal age: best estimate of physical maturity Skeletal age is determined by X-raying the long bones of the body to see the how cartilage development has hardened into bone. This process is completed in adolescence.

Effects of poverty:

Studies indicate that poverty-stricken children are likely to show gradual declines in intelligence test scores and to achieve poorly when they reach school age.

Visual Development

Supported by rapid maturation of eyes and visual centers in brain

Interventions for Preterm Infants

Temperature-controlled isolette Special stimulation: -gentle rocking -visual or auditory stimulation -touch, such as skin-to-skin kangaroo care Parent training in infant caregiving -Special Infant Stimulation is important and promotes growth and alertness. It involves motion, touch, or sound. Kangaroo skin-to-skin contact fosters improved oxygenation of the baby's body, temperature regulation, sleep, breastfeeding, alertness, and infant survival. Mothers and Fathers who practice Kangaroo skin-to-skin contact with their infants find their confidence in care and affection of infant rises with each exposure

Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs;

Thalidomide, a sedative used in the 1960s, caused severe limb deformations in embryos. And Diethylstilbestrol (DES), widely prescribed between 1945 and 1970 to prevent miscarriages, caused high rates of cancer and infertility in daughters of mothers who took the drug. Accutane (isotretinoin), prescribed to treat severe acne, is the most widely used potent teratogen today. High doses of caffeine increase the risk of low birth weight. Persistent intake of antidepressant medication is linked to an elevated incidence of premature delivery and birth complications. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), naproxen (Aleve), and aspirin (acetylsalicylate), can cause serious blood flow problems in the baby if used during the last 3 months of pregnancy (after 28 weeks).

Easy Child

The "easy" temperament child quickly adapts to routines and is generally cheerful. generally in a positive mood, quickly establishing regular routines in infancy and adapts easily to new experiences.

Slow-to-warm-up Child

The "slow-to-warm" child is inactive, shows mild, low key reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood and adjusts slowly to new experiences. has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, shows low adaptability and displays a low intensity of mood.

Language and communication skills.

The child understands words before they understand the meanings At 18 months a vocabulary of 50 words and at 2 years between 50 and 400 words. It all depends on the caregiver's involvement in teaching and reading.

Cultural differences in Motor Development

The cultural differences found in Motor Development can often be attributed to the rationale for early or later encouragement of the skill. Like early walking may be discouraged by cultures who fear the baby/young toddler will venture too close to a cooking fire as is seen in some South American Indian tribes while Jamaican parents encourage babies to walk earlier by supporting their babies in an upright position.

*Lateralization of the Cerebral Cortex*

The specialization of the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex is carried out by lateralization and it makes the brain more adaptive and able to carry out more functions than if both sides of the brain carried out activities exactly the same way. -left and right hemisphere

Unclassified Child

The unclassified children show blends of temperamental characteristics.

Safety Promotion and Injury Control

The web site I have listed here is an excellent site for the complete list of precautions that should be taken to prevent injury to the growing infant and toddler. Major concerns about infant/toddler safety are: accidental injury due to motor vehicle accidents (MVA), burns, suffocation, drowning, poisoning, and falls. MVA are the major cause of death and related to improper use of car restraints or inappropriate size for infant/toddler; also if toddler plays in area of traffic. Use of child proof gates, locks on cabinets where hazardous substances are kept. Multiple other safety controls can be found on the web site. Accidental injury: MVA, burns, drowning, suffocation (SIDS), poisoning, falls

Pregnancy Length and Infant Survival/Disability

This slide illustrates the importance of length of a pregnancy and the survival or Disability of the infant. When compared with 30 other nations the United States ranks near the bottom in infant mortality. This despite the high technology available here. Babies at greatest risk are African American and Native American who are nearly twice as likely as white infants to die in the first year of life. Widespread poverty leads to low birth-weight infants which is the second leading cause of infant death. With the new Affordable Care Act it is hoped that this statistic can be improved. Guaranteed paid prenatal visits and parent counseling for care of newborns is provided in most other nations.

*Synapses*

Tiny gaps where fibers from different neurons come together but do not touch Neurons that are stimulated by input from the surrounding environment continue to establish new synapses, while those that are seldom stimulated lose their synapses. So we learn that "stimulation" is vital to survival and especially during periods when formation of synapses is at its peak. An example of this stimulation would be the interaction of the parent to the infant's crying or first smile. Stimulation is needed for the growth of the brain cells.

*Erikson's Theory of Infant Personality*

Trust vs Mistrust Erikson believed that the psychological conflict of the first year of life is basic trust versus mistrust, and that a healthy outcome depends on the quality of the parent-child relationship. The Infant stage of psycho-social conflict is known as Trust vs Mistrust and is based on the many factors that influence the parental responsiveness, i.e. the sympathetic and loving balance of care leads to Trust. The baby experiences the world as good and safe. The Mistrustful infant cannot count on kindness and compassion from others and then withdraws. The toddler faces the conflict of Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt. Trust is built by infants when they expect the world/environment around them to be good. If they feel threatened or uncomfortable mistrust builds

Erikson's Theories

We will be referring to Erikson's Theory , and discussing the psycho-social conflict experienced in each stage of development throughout the course as we cover each stage.

*self-concept*

consists largely of -observable characteristics (appearance, possessions, behavior) -typical emotions and attitudes ("I like/don't like...") -does not yet reference personality traits ("I am shy")

The resilient category refers to

a child who is cooperative and follows the rules, is friendly, non-aggressive and outgoing, is able to focus on tasks without being too distracted, has good regulation of his or her emotions, and is adaptable to new situations

The overcontrolled category refers to

a child who is cooperative, and follows the rules, but is shy in social situations and anxious and clingy under pressure.

The undercontrolled category refers to

a child who is uncooperative or even aggressive, does not follow the rules, is not particularly shy in social situations, and has a tendency to become distracted and overly emotional, particularly when under stress.

Programs

a few start in period of infancy and continue through childhood. -Organized child care -Parent education -Home based programs -Early Head Start programs Programs include organized child care where children receive education, nutritional and health care services, as important to break the cycle is parent education on child rearing and social service supports.

Classical Conditioning

a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone

*Self -conscious emotions are*

a second, higher order of feelings and include the emotions listed here.

Colic

a term for persistent crying and tends to be high pitched or harsh sounding. Cause is unknown but may be due to unpleasant stimuli. Usually ends between 3 and 6 months.

Illegal Drugs

a. Babies born to users of cocaine, heroin, or methadone during pregnancy are at risk for prematurity, low birth weight, physical defects, breathing difficulties, and death around the time of birth.

injury prevention

accident prevention I have listed here some areas that need to be considered for health promotion and injury control for this age group. Dental care which children should have as this is a time of increasing development of cavities. Safety precautions include the use of seat belts, helmets and other safety gear for biking, skate boarding, rock climbing and warnings about safety in public places. Remind the parents to instruct their children if a situation arises when an unknown adult or stranger tries to lure them into a vehicle the child should run away and report to the nearest trusted adult. Walk and play in public places or parks with a friend as there is safety in numbers. The usual infectious disease prevention measures need to be taught to preschoolers such as covering mouth and nose when sneezing or coughing, cough into tissue or upper arm or sleeve; use frequent hand washing especially after the rest room and before eating will help decrease the risk for infection

*inductive discipline*

adult helps make the child aware of feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehavior on others

*recast and expansion*

adults responses that restructure child's grammar Recast or reconstructing an accurate speech into correct forms and expansion or elaborate on the child's speech. Conversation with more skilled speakers fosters language progress. Adults provide feedback on clarity of children's language with indirect feedback about grammar through recast and expansion technique.

Schemes change with

age: -first schemes: sensorimotor action patterns -later schemes: deliberate and creative The first schemes noted are the responses to the sensorimotor as Piaget believed that infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, hears, touch by hands and mouth and other sensorimotor equipment. Because of the wide difference between infants and 2 year olds, Piaget divided the sensorimotor scheme into 6 stages.

rest and sleep in early childhood

amount of sleep varies with age -3: may or may not nap, needs quiet time -4: may or may not nap, needs quiet time -5: unlikely to nap if adequate night time sleep -young preschoolers need about 10-12 hours -older preschoolers need about 9-11 hours Rest and sleep needs vary. While some in this age group will take naps, some preschoolers will resist naptime. However, it is important they have 1-2 hours of quiet time. The younger preschooler requires between 10 -12 hours of sleep at night time, and older ones 9-11 hours.

Learning self control and having daily routines

are all part of the developmental tasks of the toddler.

Eating habits

are learned from example by parent or caregiver. Use finger foods and let child choose and offer small portions. Do not use food as reward or punishment . Children under the age of 2 should not drink skim milk or eat only low fat foods as fat is needed for neurological development. Offer snacks of fruit, yogurt, crackers and cheese and certainly offer 3 regular meals a day Avoid the frequent high sugar snacks. Toddlers do not have high caloric need and their caloric need does increase slowly through the toddler period.

*physical abuse*

assaults resulting in physical injury

Reflexive schemes

birth to 1 month Newborn reflexes

Quiet alertness

body inactive, eyes open attentive, 2-3 hours

phonological awareness

breaking up words into sounds

Physical abuse

by a husband or partner is an important issue that needs to be questioned by healthcare provider. Vaccinations should be administered before getting pregnant. Prenatal counseling may be provided by a physician, nurse or advanced clinical nurse practitioner, a midwife or doula.

Infectious and viral disease like rubella (measles) can

cause a wide variety of defects, including organ damage, especially when it occurs during the embryonic period. Untreated pregnant women infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which can lead to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), pass the deadly virus to the developing organism.

*Marasmus*

diet low in all essential nutrients -consequences: Lasting physical damage; learning and behavioral effects; risk of death Marasmus caused by diet low in all essential nutrients is seen in the first year of life where the mother is also malnourished and unable to produce enough breast milk and formula is not available.

*Kwashiorkor*

diet very low in protein -consequences: Lasting physical damage; learning and behavioral effects Kwashiorkor is the result of a diet low in protein and occurs after weaning during ages 1 to 3. These children have protein breakdown of their own muscle and protein stores and exhibit swollen belly and limbs, hair loss, irritable listless behavior.

Physical skills are developed by

encouraging exercise and fun through play activities and with parental encouragement.

Hormonal effects may depend on

experience

*neglect*

failing to meet children's basic needs

*egocentrism*

failure to separate own symbolic viewpoints from other's

*sympathy*

feelings of pity and sorrow for someone else's misfortune.

*sexual abuse*

fondling, intercourse, pornography, and other forms

*influences on gender typing*

genetic: -evolutionary adaptiveness -hormones environmental -family -teachers -peers -broader social environment Gender typing refers to any association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes. At age 2 children identify boy and girl and begin to establish categories that represent each gender's activities: as in traditional families where female mother cooks, does laundry, house keeping and male figure, father, plays differently, goes to work, fixes the car etc. From an evolutionary perspective, males are genetically primed to compete for mates and females to rear children. Family and cultural forces can influence the intensity of biologically based sex differences but cannot eradicate them. Parents often prefer that their children play with "gender-appropriate" toys and have different expectations for children of each sex. Parents reinforce independence in boys and closeness and dependency in girls. Language is a powerful indirect means for teaching children about gender stereotypes: Even parents who believe in gender equality unconsciously use language that highlights gender distinctions and informs children about traditional gender roles. Parents who hold nonstereotyped values and who avoid stereotyped behavior have children who are less gender-typed. Teachers often extend gender-role learning such as by emphasizing gender distinctions. As early as kindergarten, teachers give more overall attention (both positive and negative) to boys than to girls—a differences evident in other cultures and countries. Teachers also use more disapproval and controlling discipline with boys.

Categorization

gradual shift from perceptual to conceptual categorization in toddlerhood a gradual grouping of similar events and objects.

frequent and harsh punishment

has negative side affects Punishment—yelling at, slapping, and spanking children for misbehavior—is an ineffective disciplinary tactic because it promotes only immediate compliance, not lasting changes in behavior. Children who experience frequent harsh threats, angry physical control, and physical punishment are more likely to develop serious mental health, emotional, social, and academic problems. The punishment itself models aggression. Harshly treated children focus on their own distress and not on the needs of others. Use of corporal punishment is high at all ages in the United States but is more common with toddlers and preschoolers than with older children. See examples of alternatives to harsh punishment in text. There are significant cultural differences in the use of physical punishment

*Erikson's Theory*

initiative versus guilt Erikson identified the psychological conflict of the preschool years as initiative versus guilt.

GOODNESS OF FIT

is a concept that is closely related to temperament. It refers to the tendency of the parent to adapt his/her behavior to the child's temperament. For example, suppose you have a very active child, and you are trying to promote exploration and learning. Rather than "going against the grain" and attempting to quiet the child down to look at a book about bugs, you might appeal to the child's active nature and choose to go on a walk and talk about the bugs you see. Goodness of fit also applies to developmental level. For example, at 6-8 months most infants are at least somewhat anxious around strangers, so you would want to introduce the child to a new person gradually rather than thrusting the child into the person's arms. Parents desiring to change their child's temperament, or help their child develop a particular skill, can benefit from the principle of goodness of fit, and the related concept of moderate novelty. Parents desiring to encourage growth in their child should introduce moderately novel activities and experiences, because children are more likely to pay attention to and profit from such experiences.

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

is a risk of suffocating for the very young infant if the child is placed on soft pillows or a couch for a nap. There is also thought to be some risk for the infant if co-sleeping with adults.

Blood pressure

is monitored as well as urine chemistry for evidence of sugar and diabetes. Also discussed are the safe use of medications while pregnant, genetic testing, what to do in the case of early labor and signs of preterm labor.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

language and interactions with caregivers are the most important aspect of cognitive development -zone of proximal development -scaffolding: support of an "expert" Another approach of understanding and how preschoolers learn is through Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. Lev Vygotsky is a theorist who believes that language in interactions with caregivers are the most important aspect of cognitive development. He believes that a child with an older or more knowledgeable other (MKO) can expand the child's cognitive development. The adult would question, demonstrate, explain, and encourages independent thinking. Scaffolding is the support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth.

conservation

learning that appearances are deceiving -ex: a tall glass with the same amount of water in it as a short glass Piaget also demonstrates that preschoolers cannot understand what is known as conservation. Again, learning that appearances are deceiving. Preschoolers cannot understand the changes in one dimension to another. When given two containers of different sizes, the preschooler will most often pick that the taller glass has more amounts of fluid because it's taller and the water is higher. Preschoolers will typically have a lack of conservation thinking.

What is the last of the major organs to form in utero?

lungs

*Intermodal Perception is described as*

making sense of all of our interacting sensory perceptions. That is distinguishing streams of light, sound, touch, odor, and taste information and interpreting them as unified wholes. Some examples might be: seeing the face of a familiar person (Mom) and hearing her voice, tasting the milk from her breast and the feeling of her cuddling. They require just one exposure to the sound and sight of a toy as a rattle to associate the two perceptions. Much development occurs in the growth of intermodal perception throughout infancy. Infants may be biologically ready at certain stages of development to focus on the integration of the senses. Intermodal Perception is a fundamental capacity that fosters all aspects of psychological development.

immunizations

many children in the US lack immunizations because of: -cost -parents' stressful daily lives -misconceptions about vaccine safety In industrialized nations, widespread immunization of infants and young children has led to a dramatic decline in childhood diseases during the past half-century. Yet among U.S. preschoolers, 30 percent are not fully immunized, a rate that rises to 32 percent for poverty-stricken children. In addition to cost of immunizations, there was also a fear of parents that immunizations lead to autism in the child. This misconception which was influenced by a bogus research study in Britain has been refuted by large scale studies that show no association between the mercury preservative used in preparation of the vaccines and autism development.

Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences approach added additional domains of intelligence based on developmental and neuropsychological evidence:

musical ability, physical/athletic ability, intrapersonal skill (understanding of the self or emotional intelligence), interpersonal skill (social competence), and more recently, naturalistic intelligence (understanding of the natural world).

*uninvolved*

no control, no demands, emotionally detached parents Neglectful or uninvolved parents have no control, give no demands because they are uninvolved in the child's upbringing. They may even reject the child. They are involved in personal needs such as providing a home, food, and clothing. But have little energy for the child. They are detached from the child emotionally. They make few demands and are indifferent to the child's

*Age of viability NREM regular sleep*

no eye movement, 8-9 hours, regular breathing

*working memory*

number of items that can be briefly held in mind while engaging in some effort to manipulate them

health screenings

nutrition screenings, obesity risks

*REM irregular sleep,*

occasional stirring, facial grimaces, irreg breathing 8-9 hours

*Rh factor incompatibility*

occurs when a mother is Rh-negative (lacks the Rh blood protein) and the infant inherits the Rh-positive blood type from the father; however, a vaccine can prevent Rh incompatibility in most cases. If Rh blood incompatibility does occur, it can result in mental retardation, miscarriage, heart damage, and infant death.

*ordinality*

order relationships between quantities

lack of hierarchical classification

organizing and classifying according to similarities and differences Children in this preoperational stage also have difficulty organizing and classifying according to their similarities and differences.

cooperative play

orients with peers toward a common play goal In cooperative play, children genuinely play with one another, taking turns, playing games, doing a puzzle together. Having their dolls talk to one another. Wendy and James pretend to fly. We see more acting out a make-believe theme. For example, James and Wendy run around the yard with their arms outstretched. James says, "Wendy, flap your arms. It makes you go faster!"

*permissive*

parents are indulgent, lenient, and they give into the child Permissive parents are indulgent, lenient, and give in to the child's wants. They are pampered children. Parents rarely make demands or exert any control over the child. They encourage the child to express feelings and impulses. They don't see themselves as holding much responsibility for how their child will turn out. Parents permits the child to make many decisions before the child is ready. These parents lack confidence in their ability to influence their child's behavior. They are frustrated and angry with themselves and the child's behavior. Parents are often intimidated by the child. Children of permissive parents tend to be impulsive, disobedient, and rebellious

*authoritative*

parents who are firm, they set clear consistent limits -give reasons for the rules Authoritative parents are parents who are firm, they set clear consistent limits, but they give reasons for the rules, they expect mature behavior. Although they tend to be strict like authoritarian parents, they are more loving and emotionally supportive. They will give reasons and explanations why the child should behave in a particular way. For example, concerned about the child's safety. They permit the child to make decisions in accordance to their readiness.

perceptual thought

perception based thinking -ex: showing same amount of dots in a row then spreading them out During the preoperational stage the preschooler have what Piaget refers to as perception based thinking. Preschoolers understanding is centered. Meaning they can only focus on one aspect of the situation at a time. They have unidimensional thought processes When a child cannot use logic to correct a misconception because of the way things look to them. They can be fooled by appearances. They only see one aspect of the object or situation. What you see is what you think concept. The preschooler is shown two configurations of the same amount of dots here on the left side (fig. 1). The child agrees that in figure 1, both rows have equal amounts in them. However, when one row of dots are spread out, and the child is asked if the rows now have the same amount of dots, the preschooler will choose the scattered configuration to have more because it takes up greater space. This demonstrate that the preschooler usually will focus on appearance since in fig. 2, the same amount of dots take up more space, therefore there the child will think there are more dots in that particular row. A preschooler often uses their senses to solve a problem especially their vision. They cannot use logic to solve a problem.

*lack of centration*

perceptual appearance or unidimensional thought

*Long-term memory*

permanent knowledge base

4 areas of language development

phenology semantics syntax pragmatics

exercise in early childhood

preschool children need a minimum of 60 minutes Preschool age children need at least 60 minutes of exercise a day and most often this is through active motor skill play.

emotional understanding

preschoolers correctly judge: -causes of emotions -consequences of emotions -behavioral signs of emotions parents, siblings, peers, and make-believe play contribute to understanding Four- to 5-year-olds correctly judge the causes of many basic emotions. After age 4, children appreciate that both desires and beliefs motivate behavior. As early as 3 to 5 years of age, knowledge about emotions is related to children's friendly, considerate behavior, willingness to make amends after harming another, and constructive responses to quarrels with their friends. The more parents and other teachers and siblings label emotions, explain them, and express warmth when conversing with preschoolers, the better the child develops their own emotional understanding. Preschoolers who experience negative emotion intensely find it harder to shift attention away from disturbing events and inhibit their feelings. An example might be children who are exposed to frequent parental discord and argument, loud shouting, physical attacks, they are unable to shift their attention away from the disturbances around them and respond with anxiety and fear or later with anger and aggression

Denver II Developmental Screening Test

purpose: to identify any developmental delays in preschoolers -evaluates 4 domains: gross motor, fine motor, language skills, and social skills The Denver II is an assessment tool used to detect developmental delays. The tool is used to evaluate gross, fine motor skills, as well as social and language skills. It basically relies on the child's natural activities of play. It identifies developmental deviations which may warrant further investigation to determine if a problem exists. Those utilizing the tool will simply watch the child at play, watch to see what they are capable of doing, jumping, running, etc. and how they interact with others.

fine-motor development

reaching, grasping The fine motor development of reaching and grasping has a significant role in mental development as the infant grasps objects and turns them over and inspecting the object. Babies display such skills as rolling, sitting, crawling, and walking in diverse orders rather than in the sequence implied by motor norms.

SELF CONTROL

refers to the child's ability to control his or her behavior, delay gratification, plan out a course of action, or inhibit responses to a typical situations. This is not exactly the same thing as aggressiveness or emotionality. For example, a child with low self control might take a cookie when asked to wait, not out of a spirit of lack of cooperation, but just due to low impulse control. Children who are extreme on this dimension may fit typical criteria for attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. The Virtual Child has a 5% chance of having moderate to severe hyperactivity and a 5% chance of having mild hyperactivity.

SOCIABILITY

refers to the child's friendliness and desire for social interaction. Highly sociable children are sometimes given the label "extroverted" and less sociable children the label "introverted."

EMOTIONALITY

refers to the intensity of emotion experienced by the child. Highly emotional children may show more of everything (anger, joy, sadness) and more fluctuation in moods. Less emotional children may show less extreme emotions and less fluctuation over periods of time

ACTIVITY

refers to the physical and mental energy level of the child. Highly active children may sleep less, be more restless, and engage in more physical activity. Less active children may sleep more, enjoy quiet pastimes, and show less interest in vigorous physical activity.

AGGRESSIVENESS VS. COOPERATIVENESS

refers to the tendency of the child to be aggressive in social situations with the parent, day-care provider or other children. Highly aggressive children may be quite resistant to parental demands and throw tantrums or even lash out at the parent or other children. Less aggressive children tend to be more cooperative, or to whine and fuss rather than actively resist the parent. Research indicates that boys are somewhat more aggressive than girls, but there is a great deal of overlap between the sexes, and this is reflected in Virtual Child.

*self-esteem*

self-judgments and associated feelings influences: -emotional experiences -future behavior -long term psychological adjustment Self-esteem consists of our judgments about our own worth and the feelings associated with them. By age 4, preschoolers have separate self-judgments, such as about learning things in school and making friends. By age 4, children develop several separate self-judgments based on performance in different areas; together, these make up self-esteem. During early childhood, high self-esteem contributes to initiative and mastery of new skills. Children who are criticized for their performance, behavior or worth, give up easily and expressed shame and unhappiness upon failure. To promote self-esteem, adults should adjust their expectations to children's capabilities .

*syntax*

sentence construction

Dental Health:

teaching the child good oral hygiene habits can lead to a lifelong healthy smile. But did you know that just because babies don't have visible teeth doesn't mean they can't get cavities. The baby's 20 primary teeth are already present in the jaws at birth. And those baby teeth that begin coming through the gum at about 6 months help set the stage for future smiles by keeping space in the jaw for the adult teeth. The American Dental Association recommends that parents take children to the dentist no later than their first birthday and then at intervals recommended by the dentist.

Difficult Child

the "difficult" child is irregular in daily routines and slow to accept new experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engaging in irregular daily routines and is slow to accept new experiences.

theory of mind

the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge, etc.—to oneself, and to others, and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own