HUMANDEVELOPMENT EXAM2

What is the order in which conservation tasks are mastered?

.1. Length and number 2. Liquid quantity and matter 3. Area 4. Weight 5. Volume

What is the mechanism responsible for universal grammar?

Language acquisition device (LAD).

Give an example of tertiary circular reactions.

-(ie. infant dropping something on the floor, but every time at a different height, to see the consequences) "Will this toy break if I drop it down the stairs? -"What if I throw it out the window?" -Like a scientist

How do behaviorists such as Skinner suggest that children learn language?

-Children not only learn words but also grammar, via the mechanisms of operant conditioning(learned with reward or punishment) or classical conditioning -children learn languages through experience.

_____________ is a distinctive characteristic of the preoperational period. It describes children's tendency to focus on the self causing problems understanding that others can see or think about the world differently.

EGOCENTRISM

"Universal grammar" refers to what?

-Refers to the basic grammatical rules that typify all languages.

Define Universal Grammar.

-Refers to the basic grammatical rules that typify all languages. -Children compare the structure of the language they hear to the innate grammar they were born with and make appropriate modifications

Define Sensitive Period.

-a time when the child is biologically prepared to learn language.

Self-esteem can be viewed as the product of two internal assessments. What are they?

(1) the discrepancy between the perceived self and the ideal self, and (2) support from social others.

Describe Identity moratorium status

(CRISIS; no commitment) -Adolescents reject authority and are highly anxious.

Describe Identity Achievement status

(Crisis overcome with commitment) -adolescents have overcome their identity crisis and are ready to take on adult responsibilities

Describe the language acquisition support system?

(LASS) According to Bruner -a series of learning and social devices that adults and older children exhibit when interacting with younger children that facilitates language acquisition (LAD) (i.e. infant-directed speech).

Describe Identity foreclosure status

(No crisis; no commitment) -Adolescents are happy to go along with authority and let others make decisions for them, such as going to college or not.

Give examples of primary circular reaction.

(i.e. baby accidentally puts hand near mouth and "naturally; reflex" begins sucking and enjoy it, after a couple incidents the baby begins forming repetitive habits) -The body

Give example of secondary circular reactions.

(i.e. baby realizes if they kick something it spins, they continue to kick just to watch the object spin) -Objects rather than body parts

Describe Identity diffusion status

(no crisis; no committment -Adolescents lack intimate relationships with peers and show a general apathetic attitude toward life

What are the major milestones in phonological development? (Hint: See Concept Review 9.2 on p. 362)

*0-2 *2-4 *4-6 *6-12 *9-18 *19-24 *25-36 *3-4 yrs SEE NOTES

Describe three reasons why learning CANNOT be the sole mechanism of language acquisition?

-1. It is symbolic. The sounds of spoken language or the hand movements of sign language rep- resent something independent of the actual sounds or movements. -2. It is grammatical. Each language has a system of rules that permits a speaker to produce and understand sentences that have never been uttered before. A language does not have a set number of sentences that all speakers memorize. -3. Although all biologically typical people acquire language, the particular language chil- dren learn to speak varies with culture. Chromsky against skinner says: FROM MY NOTES: -There is a sensitive period for language acquisition. (If it was just about rewards and punishments then we could learn at anytime and not just during childhood) -No other species has language. (If it was just about rewards and punishments than other species could be taught language) -Over-regularizations are not taught or modeled. (my "foots" hurt, we don't put and S on the end, but kids do. They are not taught to say "feets") - Parents reward and punish semantics not syntax. ("look mommy sheeps" and mom said yeah they are or no they are not, parents don't say its sheep not sheeps. They don't reward or punish when very young for grammar/ syntax)

On average, how many digits can a 2 year old, 5 year old and, an adult remember?

-2-year-olds can remember about two numbers, -5-year-olds about 4 numbers, and -12-year-olds a little over 6 numbers -Adults of 7.

Define Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)

-A measure of language development defined by the average number of meaningful language units (root words and endings) a child uses at any one time.

When a child treats inanimate objects as if they are alive and have thoughts, it is termed ______.

-Animism

When does speech perception begin?

-As early as prenatally; fetuses (i.e. hearing their mothers' voices as well as other sounds produced in the immediate environment) -Newborns (i.e. Newborns prefer to listen to language relative to comparably complex nonlanguage sounds, suggesting that human infants begin life with a bias for listening to speech, thus giving them a leg up on acquiring language) "0-2" months

Describe accomplishments associated with the Formal Operational stage.

-Cognition becomes logical and abstract -"I can think and solve problems proficiently without the need of concrete stuff, and I can even imagine many other possibilities." -hypothetic deductive thinking -abstract thinking

What is the difference between implicit and explicit memory? (Hint: See pp. 327-330)

-Explicit memory- refers to episodic and semantic memory; LTM of definitions and relations among language terms and LTM of events or episode. -Implicit- Memory without awareness can be assessed indirectly; knowledge of procedures and feelings are integrated but unconscious. DIFFERENCE: -age difference in implicit memory are small compared to explicit memory (substantial difference). -Areas responsible for implicit memory develop sooner than explicit area (temporal lobe:explicit) -Explicit: conscious awareness; facts, general knowledge (semantic memory); personally experience memory(episodic memory); controllable; sequential -Implicit: without cosnscious awareness; skills: motor and cognitive; Dispositions- classical and operant conditioning effects; uncontrollable; parallel

When does the word spurt occur and what is it?

-Expression used to describe the rapid increase in word (mostly noun) learning observed in some children -typically occurring at about 18 months of age

Define Metacognition.

-Knowledge about one's own thoughts and the factors that influence thinking. -For each cognition there is a corresponding one. -Children who have greater metacognitive knowledge can monitor their task performance, use strategies more effectively, as a result perform cognitive tasks better, which in turn will enhance their metacognitive knowledge.

What is the difference between language and communication?

-Language is viewed not only as a communication system, but also as a mean of representing objects and events in an abstract way. -"Lexicon" refers to the words that a child knows (semantics), and "communication" refers to a child's ability to use language in social situations (pragmatics). -Language is typically spoken, so it should not be surprising that hearing-impaired children usually do not acquire spoken language. Without instruction in sign language, they can display significant problems in communication. -communication involves vision, and it would not be surprising either if being unable to see one's communication partner had some consequences on some aspects of language development.

What is infant-directed speech? What are the characteristics of infant-directed speech? (Hint: See p.358)

-Motherese, spoken with a high pitch (along with exaggerated emphasis and much repetition).. -Characterized by high pitched tones, exaggerated modulations, simplified forms of adult words, expansions of the child's communication sounds, and many questions and repetitions). -Infant-directed speech is used with newborns -adults continue to use it with children who are well into the toddler years.

Describe the nativist perspective on language acquisition.

-Nativist theories (of language acquisition) Theories that propose that children are born with a broad theory of language that they modify in accordance with the speech they hear growing up. . -(1) is species specific, (2) is species uniform, (3) is difficult to prevent, (4) develops in a regular sequence, (5) has specific anatomical structures associated with its use, (6) is sometimes affected by language dis- abilities that are genetically based (see Table 9.1). -This evidence makes it clear that language development has a basis in biology—that it is not simply the product of learning but a part of Homo sapiens' more general nature. - FROM MY NOTES: Chromsky said Skinner's verbal behavior is wrong and that capacity for language is innate - Nativist says there is a basic fundamental syntax because of evolution. And they say you lay the language down on the limited track you already have. - We have innate grammar - Language acquisition device takes what he hear and lay it down on the preexisting innate grammar

Define grammar.

-The linguistic rules for "tuning" words and putting words together into phrases or sentences.

Define Simultaneous Bilingualism.

-children are exposed from birth to two languages. -These children seem to develop two languages separately with little interference from either language.

What are some sources of evidence for the existence of a sensitive period for language development? (see pp. 350-356)

-children are specially suited to learning language—any language—but with time, experience, and brain maturation, they lose their special knack for language learning, making it more difficult to learn a first or second language. (consistent with nativist theory on language acquisition) -There are four sources for sensitive period

Define pragmatics.

-knowledge about how language can be adjusted to fit different people and circumstances. -how language is used in social context or ability to use language to get things done in the world.

Which 3 features of objects do infants need to learn to recognize? Describe each one.

-object constancy -object continuity and cohesion -object permanence.

What is an explicit self? What technique is used to determine if a child has developed one?

A type of early concept at times referred to as me-self. -Conscious awareness of the self, "the idea of me." -visual self-recognition (ability to recognize self in a mirror)

What are the main criticisms of Piaget's theory? (Hint: See Table 6.2 on p. 246 in your textbook.)

-timing of stages are more variable than he claimed -he only described children limits of behavior but only in certain circumstances. -he underestimated the ability of sensorimotor children -preoperational children are not as egocentric as he proposed -preoperational children can learn some concrete operations as well as formal. -Adults do not ALWAYS use formal operations; not all adults exhibits these characteristics -Stage is not a worth concept; no proof of existence -stage could be more useful if used more liberally -Social environment and culture play a more significant role than proposed -Environmental dispositions play more significant role in early development than proposed.

Describe accomplishments associated with the sensorimotor stage.

0-2yrs "I see and touch, therefore I know" -object permanence (it always there even if something is covering it) -Deferred Imitation(Infants' ability to copy behaviors they witnessed some time earlier is an indication of memory). -Mean-Goals mental coordination -Children understand the world through sensory and motor experiences. -cognition is practical

Describe accomplishments associated with the Preoperational stage.

2-7 yrs -cognition is symbolic and intuitive -"I can think with my head, without my hands, but logic escapes me and appearance is reality" -Expression of the symbolic function (images, language, drawing, symbolic play) -Magical thinking (animism, finalist, artificialism, realism -prelogical and intuitive thought

What are some standard procedures for assessing children's performance on false belief tasks?

1. sally places a marble in a basket 2. sally leaves the room 3. Anne (who was sitting next to Sally) takes the marble out of the basket and puts it into her box 4. Sally re-enters the room -usually straightforward in solving the task; most 4 yr olds can solve it, stating sally will look where she had placed the marble causing sally to have a "false-belief" -3 yr old cannot understand the concept.

What evidence do nativists offer in support of the theory of universal grammar?

1.Language is species-specific. Only humans possess language. (i.e. Although some apes can be taught simple sign language, their syntactic ability is less than that of a 2-year-old child at best, and their vocabulary is limited to about 150 words.) 2. Language is species-uniform. (i.e. All typically developing members of Homo sapiens possess language. ) 3. Language is difficult to prevent. (i.e. All but the most intellectually impaired children or children reared in social isolation acquire language. 4. Language develops in a regular sequence. (i.e. Children around the world acquire language in about the same way at about the same time. This is similar to the universal sequence of motor development.) 5. There are specific anatomical structures for language. (i.e. The structure of the mouth and throat are specially suited for producing speech, and specific areas of the brain are dedicated to processing language. Damage to these speech areas can result in specific types of aphasia, or language disability.) 6. There are language disabilities that are genetically based. (i.e. Specific language disorders run in families, suggesting that there is a genetic basis for these disorders, with some apparently being controlled by a dominant gene).

At what sensorimotor sub-stage do children stop making the A-not-B error?

12-18 months infants stop making the error. Tertiary circular reactions.

When do children develop an explicit sense of self?

18 months old

What are Piaget's two complementary operations of adaptation? Explain.

Assimilation and accommodation. -Assimilation refers to the incorporation of new information into already existing schemes -accommodation refers to changing ones schemes in order to incorporate the new info.. (For example: when a child can grasp and hold a rattle with one hand they realize they can do the same with a spoon. The child is assmiliating the spoon into a preexisting scheme (grasping). (For example: a child cannot hold onto a balloon with one hand, she may need to learn to hold on with two hands instead=accommodating)

Describe accomplishments associated with the Concrete Operational stage.

7-11 years -Cognition becomes logical, although restricted to concrete entities. -"I can do it without hands and with logic, but my logic fails a bit if problems are not touchable" -Conservation (the quantity of substance remains the same despite changes in its form; rolling clay into a sting then back into a ball, nothing changed but outer appearance) -Classification -Seriation -children can decenter their perception, are less egocentric, and can think logically about concrete objects.

Define PERSONAL FABLE. Provide an example.

A belief in one's uniqueness and invulnerability, which is an expression of adolescent egocentrism. ALSO the basis for SELF-CENTEREDNESS like imaginary audience BUT personal fable often contributes to reckless behavior.. (i.e. "I can drive 100mph on the highway, its the old farts who don't have good reflexes who need to get off the road" -FORMAL operational stage (11-16 years)

Describe what happens in the visual cliff experiment.

A glass top table with a board across its center (Walk &Gibson). On the shallow side infants see a checkerboard pattern placed directly under the glass; on the deep side the checkerboard pattern placed several feet below the glass. -Infants who can crawl are placed on the center board and called by their mothers on either side of the cliff.

What is (hypothetical-) deductive reasoning? At what stages do children learn each?

Abstract- specific Formal operational stage: -ability to think by generating and testing hypothesis. -goes from general to specific -What is possible is more important than what is real -Formal operational Stage (11-16)

Johnny, a third grader, is told to rehearse a list of words. Here is the list: Dog, Man, Butterfly, Swing. Johnny rehearses by repeating "dog" three times, then repeating "man" three times, then repeating "butterfly" three times and then repeating "swing" three times. -What type of rehearsal is this?

Active (or commutative) rehearsal : memory strategy in which a person repeats the most recently presented item (for example, a word) and then rehearses it with as many other different words possible.

Define Scheme.

An abstract representation of an object or event. i.e. When an infant sucks everything that comes in contact with her mouth (sucking scheme) or voluntarily grasps things with her hands (grasping scheme).

During concrete operations, mental abilities are ______ and ______, but only if the topic is _____. At this stage children struggle with abstraction.

Are LOGICAL and ORGANIZED, but only if the topic is TANGIBLE

Define Telegraphic Speech.

Children's economical use of words, including only high-information words that are most important in conveying meaning. i.e. text messaging:TM; abbreviations.

At what stage do children master conservation?

Concrete operational Stage (7-11), but mainly between 9-11 yrs.

By which stage are children capable of reversing mental operations?

Concrete operational stage (7-11yrs)

Define conjugate reinforcement procedure

Conditioning procedures used in memory research with infants, in which children's behaviors, for example KICKING, control aspects of a visual display. -I.E. a baby foot is tied to a mobile (thing hanging over crib) it does not take long for baby to realize that if they keep kicking the mobile will in turn move as they kick.

What is Jargon referred to?

Conversational Blabbing "9-18 months"

Maggie's mother hides her toy underneath a cloth. Maggie quickly removes the towel and takes her toy from underneath. a. Because Maggie understands the object is still there and actively seeks it, it is likely that Maggie has developed ________?

Coordination of secondary circular reaction ; Object permanence.

What is the Fourth sub-stage of the Sensorimotor period? What happens during this sub-stage?

Coordination of secondary-circular reactions 8-12 months -intentional or goal-directed behavior -infants now act in order to achieve a goal. -rather than by chance it is INTENTIONAL (i.e. infants grab a blanket (one secondary circular reaction) to reach a desired object (secondary circular reaction). -Seen in object permanence testing-infant will remove cloth that covers object in order to reach and grasp the object.

Sue sees a picture of a dog. She stares at it for a while. Eventually, she stops looking at the image. When she is later shown a picture of the dog and a new stimulus, a goldfish, she directs her gaze to the goldfish. -Sue's increased attention to the image of the fish describes ________.

Dishabituation

Define object constancy.

Does not change shape or size no matter the position.

Define habituation.

Decrease in the response to a stimulus that has been presented repeatedly.

Who is B. F. Skinner?

Empiricist position; Radical Behaviorist -Holds that language is acquired the way every other complex ability is acquired, via the mechanisms of learning. -Children learn not only words, but also grammar, via the mechanisms of operant and classical conditioning.

What are the two forms of explicit memory?

Episodic and semantic

I know that when I go to a restaurant, a woman will take us to a table and give us menus. Then we order the drinks. Then we order food. Then we pay. -I am using a ________ to recall what happened when I went out to eat.

Episodic memory

What is the first source of evidence for the existence of a sensitive period for language development?

First, children who experience social isolation during their childhoods rarely acquire more than a tentative mastery of language, especially grammar (i.e. Genie, a child who had been confined to her room and chained to a chair by her schizophrenic father until she was about 13 years of age. Although Genie showed substantial physical improvements as a result of educational intervention following her rescue, her level of language, particularly grammar, remained immature.)

Define Knowledge base.

General background knowledge one possesses. (i.e. children use strategies to solve specific problems based on what they remember from past experiences. how much children know about the problem they are trying to solve; figuring out how much two ice cream cones will cost when they have memorized the cost of one from a previous purchase.)

Sue sees a picture of a dog. She stares at it for a while. Eventually, she stops looking at the image. When she is later shown a picture of the dog and a new stimulus, a goldfish, she directs her gaze to the goldfish. -When Sue eventually stops staring at the dog, this describes ________.

Habituation

Do young children have a high or low sense of self-efficacy?

High

Define speed of processing

How quickly any cognitive operation can be executed; hypothesized to be a measure of mental capacity and related to performance on many cognitive tasks. i.e. age is a determining factor in how ones can remember things, as well as types of processing techniques

Define Inner Speech.

In Vygotsky's theory, the covert language children use to guide their thinking and problem solving. i.e. Preschool children often talk to themselves while performing difficult tasks, such as assembling this puzzle, seemingly using language to direct their problem solving.

Define visual preference paradigm

In research with infants, observing the amount of time infants spend looking at different visual stimuli to determine which one they prefer (i.e. look at more often); such as preferences indicate an ability to discriminate stimuli.

What does the visual cliff reveal about depth perception and fear of heights?

Infants who crawl to their mothers on the shallow side, suggesting to some that little or no learning is necessary to discriminate depth. -Infants do have depth perception; babies deem to have lower heart rates due to interests; but older infants deem to be fearful of heights due to increase in heart rate.

Define Kinetic Cues

Information about depth of objects associated with the movement of objects we are watching. i.e. if I take an apple and I watch it while I move it across my visual field, I pick up information related to the three dimensional nature of the fruit.

What is the sixth sub-stage of the Sensorimotor period? What happens during this sub-stage?

Invention of means through mental combinations (18-24 months) -transition from hands-on sensorimotor infant to symbolic child capable of mental representation. -children begin to put words together into sentences -deferred imitation (copying behavior after some significant delay) -symbolic, fantasy, play, graphic representations such as drawing and imagery.

What does the dimensional card-sorting task illustrate? (p. 319)

It illustrated cognitive reflexivity (the ability to shift between sets of tasks or rules) --i.e. children are asked to sort cards initially by one dimension (for example: by color) and later a second dimension (for example: shape). Children much younger than 4 years of age have difficulty on the switch trials and usually continue to sort by the original dimension.

Compare the development of implicit and explicit memory.

Knowledge at the implicit level is not available to consciousness but reflects a person's intuitive understanding of the world. -How all knowledge is represented to infants. -Infants may learn about an object when it is released hits the floor, how to retrieve a toy hidden under a cloth, and to reproduce the sounds their mothers make, such knowledge is important to navigate their physical and social worlds. -Consciousness permits a child to take one piece of info. (reproduction of sound made by mom), reflect on it, and make some inferences (perhaps she wants me to repeat the word and associate with that object). ******-With consciousness, experiences can be "redescribed", permitting knowledge that was once implicit to become explicit. *********

Define Episodic Memory.

LTM of episodes and events (i.e. where you parked your car, gist of the convo you had with your sister this morning, and the trip to Disney when you were 8 yrs old.)

Define Semantic Memory.

LTM representations of definitions and relations among language terms. i.e. language, rules, and concepts. Meaning of the word "liberty", name of the first U.S. president, or rules for long division that were taught in 4th grade where you learned the name of the first president. 4th grade is example of episodic but the knowledge acquired is semantic.

Define Language Acquisition Device (LAD).

Language acquisition device (LAD) In Chomsky's theory, an innate mechanism possessed by all humans at birth in order to enable them to acquire any language given a minimum linguistic input

Define Passive/Receptive Language.

Language that a child can comprehend/understand

This is an assessment of conservation of ____________. (two glasses same height filled with same amount of water, then one glass is kept same height and the other one is shorter. Is there the same amount of water?)

Liquid

If a cat mask were placed on a dog, how would a preschooler explain the identity of the dog? What is this called and at what stage does it occur?

Most 3-year-olds said that the mask had actually changed the identity of the animal, whereas most 5- and 6-year-olds believed that changes in the appearance of the animal had not altered its identity. More recent research has confirmed young children's confusion between appearance and reality.. Preoperational stage (2-7years) -This is due to egocentrism- ones ability to see things their own way

This is an assessment of conservation of ____________. (Two balls of clay, one is squished; is it the same amount of clay even if it is squished)

Matter

The average number of morphemes a child uses in sentences is a strong indication of linguistic development, this length is termed ________.

Mean Length of Utterance

Define Violation-of-Expectation method

Measures infant cognition. Based on habituation and dishabituation procedures, techniques in which increases in infants' looking time at impossible events are interpreted as reflecting a violation of what they expected to see. -I.E. access infants reaction to unexpected events. If a child sees something unexpected they will give more attention to this than something that is expected therefore violates their expectations

What is the difference between memory span and working memory span?

Memory span Is the amount of information one can hold in mind at any one time. -Working memory measures how many items a person can hold in immediate memory while doing some processing, thinking, about those items. Working memory is about two digits less than a Childs memory span.

What are three factors that influence children's memory strategy use? Explain each.

Mental capacity, knowledge base, and metacognition.

James, who is 3 years old steps on a scale. Although he does not understand the intent behind his actions, he is simply imitating his dad's actions. -What type of social learning is occurring?

Mimicry

What are the four forms of social learning? (pp-297, table 7.5)

Mimicry Emulation Imitative Learning Teaching (instructed learning) "Mary Eats In Town"

Memory strategies are also called _______________.

Mnemonics

Alex claims that poodles are both dogs and animals, indicating that he has mastered which cognitive ability?

Multiple classification

This is an assessment of conservation of ____________. (Two rows of straight pennies --> one row of straight pennies and the second row is grouped) Is it still the same amount?

NUMBER

Describe the basic principle underlying false belief tasks.

Not until typically 4 yrs old where children solve them. -Child must infer that another person holds a belief that is not true. -Children understand that people believe things that are not true.

What is the second source of evidence for the existence of a sensitive period for language development?

Observations of people learning a second language. -Although adults clearly are able to learn a second language, the later someone is exposed to a new language, the more difficult it is for him or her to acquire it, especially pronunciation and complex grammar

Who is Noam Chomsky?

Proposed LAD; children are born with a specialized "mental organ," the language acquisition device (LAD). -Chomsky's theory, an innate mechanism possessed by all humans at birth in order to enable them to acquire any language given a minimum linguistic input.

"The little girl goed to school" includes an error that is an example of ______.

Overregularization

What is transductive reasoning? What stages do children learn this?

Pre-operational phase Specific- specific

Adam puts his thumb in his mouth accidentally, at first. He realizes this is enjoyable and proceeds to suck his thumb repeatedly and intentionally. a. This is an example of what type of circular reaction? (Hint: This time repetition is focused on his body).

Primary circular reaction

What is the second sub-stage of the Sensorimotor period? What happens during this sub-stage?

Primary circular reactions 1-4 months -reflexes continue to dominate but repetitiveness begins. -Circular reactions = repetitiveness -Action occurs by chance -(i.e. baby accidentally puts hand near mouth and "naturally; reflex" begins sucking and enjoy it, after a couple incidents the baby begins forming repetitive habits)

Define Private Speech.

Private speech (or egocentric speech): -Children's speech that is apparently produced for the self and not directed to others. i.e. children talking to themselves.

Which develops first, Receptive or Expressive language?

Receptive

What is Theory of Universal Grammar?

Refers to the basic grammatical rules that typify all languages. Children compare the structure of the language they hear to the innate grammar they were born with and make appropriate modifications.

What is object permanence?

Refers to the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen. Infants only gradually come to understand this. (often used in the A-not-B task).

What is prospective memory?

Remembering to do something in the future; i.e. stop at the store after work tonight to get milk.

What are the five components of a child's self- esteem?

Researchers have identified at least five areas of self-esteem: -scholastic competence, -social competence, -behavioral conduct, -athletic competence, and -physical appearance. "Sam Sold Beth A Pig"

Preoperational children have problems with reversibility. Explain this.

Reversibility is The knowledge that an operation can be reversed, characteristic of the concrete operational period. -Children lack rules of cognitive operation -Due to egocentrism (i.e. 2+3=5, using reversibility it would look like 5-3=2 [mentally]; in conservation such as mass, solid quantity, and/or numbers of objects that can change appearance but still maintain its original features: THIS is something concrete operational children process, BUT PREOPERATIONAL children DO NOT...))

According to Piaget, the ______ is the basic unit of knowledge.

SCHEME

Know Selman's perspective-taking strategies (in order). Give an example of each. a. How do children perceive friends during each stage? b. How do children perceive parents during each stage?

SEE NOTES

Goal-directed behavior marks ________ circular reactions. At this point, the infant does an activity intentionally. He or she does not simply stumble upon the initial response.

Secondary circular reactions

Ana presses accidentally squeaky toy and realizes that it makes a sound. She proceeds to repeatedly and intentionally press on the toy to make it squeak. a. This is an example of what type of circular reaction? (Hint: This time repetition is focused on objects and outside of the body events).

Secondly circular reaction

What is the third sub-stage of the Sensorimotor period? What happens during this sub-stage?

Secondly circular reactions (4-8 months) -Focuses on objects rather then parts of the body (opposing primary circular reaction) -Repetitive actions towards objects (i.e. baby realizes if they kick something it spins, they continue to kick just to watch the object spin)

Trying to focus on a homework assignment while watching TV requires what type of attention?

Selective attention (concentration on chosen stimuli without distraction by non target stimuli).

At birth, all the senses are fully developed except ________.

Sight.

What types of questions should be asked during an eyewitness interview with a young child? Why?

Specific cues; "was anyone else in the store?" What did you look at? "Did you talk to anyone?" Then can possibly be followed up with "And then what happened?" -The more general the cues, the less info is provided. -How much and how accurately children remember events is influenced by how they are interviewed and by the characteristics of the interviewer.

What is inductive-scientific) reasoning? What stages do children learn this?

Specific to abstract (Formal stage) type of reasoning that goes from specific observations to broad generalizations, CHARACTERISTIC OF FORMAL operational thought. (i.e. what combination of factors causes differences in the rate that a pendulum oscillates or swings. weight, height, force, etc.) The formal operational period (11-16yrs)

What is the highest level of cognitive development required for each perspective taking stage?

Stage 0 Egocentric: sensorimotor Stage 1 subjective: preoperational Stage 2 self reflective: concrete Stage 3 Mutual: formal Stage 4 Social and conventional: formal

During _______ circular reactions, infants behave like small scientists, actively experimenting with variations of circular reactions.

Tertiary circular reactions

define egocentrism

TENDENCY to interpret objects and events from one's own perspective.

The formal operational period has two forms of egocentrism: imaginary audience and personal fable.

TRUE

What is the fifth sub-stage of the Sensorimotor period? What happens during this sub-stage?

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months) -active experimentation over the world and of people and things. -(ie. infant dropping something on the floor, but every time at a different height, to see the consequences) -A child's thinking at this stage is OVERT. -Infants are walking at this stage and become active experimenters, explorers, and adventurers.

Define binocular cues.

The ability to integrate the images provided by each eye into a single, richer one. New cues for depth, particularly in this case of reaching nearby objects, are incorporated. Requires the ability both eyes to focus together on the same object ((binocular convergence)), does not develop until about 2 months.

Give an example of reflective abstraction.

The ability to reflect upon knowledge one already processes, and without need of additional information from the external environment, to arrive at new knowledge; characteristic of adolescent thought. (i.e. Formal Operational Thinkers; basketball player can mentally analyze aspects of a previous game, by moving a certain way he can avoid the defense of an opponent and be in a better position to make a basket. REFLECTIVE abstraction is linked to the "a-ha!" experience, or, if you prefer, insight).

What is visual acuity?

The ability to see something sharply and clearly. (Newborns have POOR visual acuity).

What is memory span?

The amount of information one can hold in mind at any one time; The number of items a person can hold in STM store and simultaneously, by testing the number of (usually) unrelated items that can be recalled in exact order at once.

Define active, or productive, language.

The language a child can actually produce, or speak. i.e. expressive language.

What are phonology, semantics, grammar, and pragmatics?

The components of language

What is perceptual narrowing? Give an example.

The emergence of multi-sensory systems through perceptual narrowing. -When discussing auditory perception, infants initially are able to tell the difference between a wide range of language sounds but lost ability as they become more proficient in discriminating the sounds of their own language. -In a study between 4, 6, 8, and 10 month old infants, they watched the face of a monkey as it made one of two sounds, a coo OR a grunt. Sometimes infants heard sounds that corresponded with the face (coo sound with coo face) and mismatched faces (coo sound with grunt face and vice versa). 4-6 month old looked longer at faces that matched sounds v. 6-8 month old who looked quickly. Study concluded that newborns looked longer at faces that matched sounds... Much like unimodal perception of language sounds, inter- modal perception also shows a loss, or narrowing, of ability with age and experience. What begins as a general ability to match sounds and faces becomes specialized to the types of faces (humans) and sounds (native language) one hears..

Describe the concept of self-esteem.

The evaluative component of the self. The judgments people make of their general worth as a person and the feelings associated with those judgments.

What is self-efficacy?

The extent to which a person views him or herself as an effective individual; -the confidence one has in being able to control events in one's surroundings. -Self-efficacy develops with experience, but young children believe that they are more competent (efficacious) than they actually are, frequently overestimating their abilities. -self Perception of ones own ability

Define Syntax.

The knowledge of how words are put together to form proper and understand- able sentences.

Define perception

The process of becoming aware of objects, relations, and events by way of the senses, including mechanisms such as discrimination (distinguishing one sensation from another) and recognition (identifying a sensation as one that has been previously experienced). Unlike sensation, which involves generally disorganized input, perception involves organized input, in that it enables the individual to organize and interpret events into meaningful knowledge.

Define cognition

The process or faculties which knowledge is acquired and manipulated. These include perceiving, remembering, reasoning, imaging, and problem solving. PERCEPTION is a FORM OF COGNITION. However, when we contrast perception with cognition, we use perception to refer to what are generally viewed to be lower-level processes, such as discriminating two sights or sounds. Cognition is used to refer to higher-level processing such as remembering an experience, realizing an object still exists even when they are out of one's immediate perception (i.e. when a toy is covered by a cloth), and copying the behavior of another person.

Define dishabituation.

The tendency to show renewed interest in a stimulus when some features of it has been changed.

Preoperational thought is "centered." What does this mean?

They lack the logical rule of reversibility (rule of cognitive operations), that an object can be transformed. CHILDREN in PREOPERATIONAL period CANNOT DO THIS. They are egocentric and focus on things through their OWN perception causing them to "centered" and view things as it and not the forms in which things are able to change into.

What is the primary psychosocial task of adolescence according to Erikson?

To establish Identity (forming an idea of self)

What is utilization deficiency?

Using an apparently appropriate strategy that does not improve task performance. i.e. 3 and 4 yr old kids were shown a miniature room containing toy animals and furniture. Children were told one set of animals were special ("they need to be fed regularly.) and the childrens job was to help the experimenter take care of these animals. Later, they were asked to remove all object from room and put them back where they had been placed before. A simple, yet effective strategy would be to remove the items according to category membership (take out special objects one after the other). But doing so did not help put objects back in their proper order.

What is the necessary but not sufficient link between cognitive development and perspective taking?

You must have cognitive development to have perspective taking. However just because u have cognitive development does not mean you will have perspective taking abilities. Also you can't have only perspective taking abilities and no cognitive ones.

Children with which developmental disability are not able to read minds?

autism

Are fear of heights and depth perception innate or learned in humans? (Regarding Visual Cliff).

depth perception does not emerge suddenly between 6 and 8 months of life, but rather involves a series of components that infants progressively acquire over the course of their first year: kinetic cues, stereo- scopic cues, and monocular, or pictorial, cues. -It is a innate behavior, picked up through experience.

Define IMAGINARY audience and provide an example.

expressions of adolescent egocentrism, with adolescents feeling like they're constantly """""on stage,"""""" or playing to an imaginary audience. -(i.e. they believe mistakenly that everyones attention is as concentrated about their feelings, behaviors, and thoughts as if they are constantly on stage playing to an imaginary audience; Formal operational stage 11-16 years; self-centeredness)

What is theory of mind?

how children come to under-stand that people's behavior is influenced by their beliefs and desires. -Once children develop a basic understanding of what motivates them to action, they can begin to get an idea of why other people behave the way they do. -**persons concepts of mental activity; used to refer to how children conceptualize mental activity and how they attribute intention to and predict the behavior of others.**

Define deferred imitation

imitation of a modeled act some time after viewing the behavior. Deferred imitation is a reflection of MEMORY. -I.E. if you press your head against the panel a light comes on. Sometime later infants are given the material and have opportunities to replicate the actions they witnessed earlier.

What is the violation of expectation method? What does it tell us?

method uses infants' looking behavior, much as in the visual prefer- ence and habituation/dishabituation procedures, to assess infants' reaction to unexpected events. The logic is simple: If infants see an event that deviates from what they expect—that violates their expectation—they should look longer at that event than at an expected event. -It tells us that infants look longer at new things, especially different from that they are used to.

The inability to read minds is referred to as _______.

mind blindness

What are some factors that influence a child's performance on false belief tasks?

quality of attachment, parenting styles, parent-child communication, language skills, maternal warmth, and extent of which mothers use mental state talk (talking about what they and their children are feeling) -executive functioning (basic cognitive abilities in planning, executing, and inhibiting action)

Define mental capacity.

recall that a basic tenet of information-processing approaches is that people think about or do so many things at once, and doing one effortful task interferes with doing another one.. (i.e. how much info children and/or adult can retain, strategy use,and working memory)

Define Morphology.

refers to the structure of words and rules for combining the smallest units of language into words.

The hallmark of the preoperational period is ______ thought. At this stage, children are capable of mental representations.

symbolic thought. -Children lack true cognitive operations. Thought is driven by perception, or the appliance of things. -"what it looks like than what it actually is." -(i.e. clay is flat and that same clay is used to roll a ball, they do not perceive it with same weight, size, etc. they believe they are different things with different appearances."

Define phonology.

the actual sounds that speakers produce

Define Sensation

the process or experience of perceiving through the senses. It is the result of stimulation of a sensory receptor (i.e. rods or cones of the eyes for vision) and the resulting activation of a specific area of the brain, producing awareness of the of sight, sound, color, odor, and taste.

Define semantics.

the understanding of words and sentences i.e. definition of these words.

What is a production deficiency?

-Children's tendency not to use spontaneously a strategy that they are capable of using when instructed. i.e. children being taught to use a strategy that they do not use spontaneously and as a result their performance will improve (adults already master this task). When telling children to rehearse or repeat words they are asked to remember results in children remembering more words..

Describe different conservation tasks.

-Conservation of mass (i.e. Do these SQUARE-LIKE cubes have the same size or different, Now out of two cubes I've changes its square set-up into a RECTANGULAR one; Now do they have the same size or different?) -Conservation of solid quantity (i.e. Do these two balls of clay have the same or different amount?, Now after squishing one ball of clay, do they have the same amount of clay or different?) -Conservation of number (i.e. two STRAIGHT lines of 6 squares, Now after re-arranging one line of 6 squares into a ZIG ZAG pattern, DO they have the same amount of squares or different?)

Why do adults speak to babies in infant-directed speech?

-FIRST: Infants are more responsive to this than when adults speak to then in adult directed speech. (i.e. 4 month old infant who has been conditioned to turn their heads to one side or the other to select which of two tapes they will listen to will also turn their heads to hear infant-directed speech rather than adult-directed speech.. There is even evidence that 1 month old show a preference for infant-directed speech). -Second: Babies may be able to tell the difference between words more when they are spoken to in an infant-directed way as opposed to an adult-directed way. (i.e. 1-4 month old can tell the difference between similar three syllable words such as "marana & Malala" if they are spoken to in the EXAGGERATED style of infant directed speech [using a down-up-down phrasing: "ma-LA-na"], rather than typical adult-directed speech.

Kelly is given a box of crackers. Initially, she believes there are crackers inside the box. When she opens the box, she finds there are candles within the box. She is then asked what her mom (who is not in the room) would think is in the box, at first glance. a. This type of experiment is called a ________. b. What does this experiment measure?

-False-Belief Task -It measures children's memory for their initial belief and then assesses their ability to understand false belief.

Sometimes children extend theory of mind abilities to explain natural phenomena. What is this called?

-Finalism (children's tendency to attribute human causes to natural events)

What are the four possible identity statuses? Describe each with examples.

-Identity diffusion status -Identity foreclosure stays -Identity moratorium status -Identity achievement stats "Don't Follow Me Anymore."

What is the difference between simultaneous and sequential bilingualism?

-In simultaneous bilingualism children learn two different languages at the same time causing them to be a little slower than monolingual children. Thus causing a delay in retrieving information from LTM into STM when needed to make reference towards an object of some sort. At around the age 8-9 or so children will be able to function without any delay. i.e.- seeing a car with a specific color: car blue/azul auto causing children to make minimal errors in grammar and/or punctuation. -In sequential bilingualism children learn one language FIRST then incorporate a Second language thereafter. Causing children to have a more difficult time absorbing the second language as opposed to simultaneous bilingualism.

What are underextensions? Provide an example.

-Incorrectly restricting the use of a language term (i.e. believing that only one's pet, Fido, deserves the label "dog"; or using the word "cat" to refer to only the yellow family pet and not to the other felines in the neighborhood).

I cannot remember anything that happened before age 3. --What does this demonstrate? -What are some reasons for my inability to remember anything from an earlier age?

-Infantile Amnesia -infants represent events differently than older children. -Children with better verbal scores have higher capacity to remember things -At 3 children are learning to use language to organize memory with the help of adults -Depending on their development of self-concept.

How is the nativist perspective different from the behaviorist perspective?

-Nativists theorists believe that language is solely based on biology. -empiricist position (behaviorist), which holds that language is acquired the way every other complex ability is acquired, via the mechanisms of learning.

______ is responsible for the idea of an innate universal grammar.

-Noam Chomsky

How do sensation, perception, and cognition differ?

-Perception involves organized input that enables an individual to organize and interpret events into meaningful knowledge. -Sensation is disorganized input and allows an individual to be aware of different sense. -Cognition is used to refer to higher-level processing(copying another person, remembering an experience, realizing objects continue to exist even though they are out of one's immediate perception (view) as opposed to perception (lower-level processing; discriminating two sights or sounds)

How is private speech different from inner speech?

-Private speech involves children usually talking to themselves whether it is language that is comprehensible to themselves or others. -inner speech is how children speak out loud their thoughts such as thinking and problem solving.

Samantha decided to take a year off after college to travel. -Erikson would describe this as a ______________.

-Psychosocial moratorium (time out period when, where possible, young people have a chance to explore who they are and what they want to be; in both near and distant future).

What are the basic social-cognitive skills underlying theory of mind development? (See pp. 286-288)

-Self-awareness -social cognition (seeing oneself and others as intentional agents-individuals who cause things to happen in order to achieve some goal). -Perspective talking(ability to take the point of view of others; another person may know things that you do not know) -Shared attention (two people both attending the same thing or event and sharing that experience)

List Piaget's stages of cognitive development in order.

-Sensorimotor Stage (0-2yrs) -Preoperational Stage (2-7yrs) -Concrete operational stage (7-11yrs) -Formal Operational stage (11-16yrs) -"Sam Played Catch Friday"

What is the third source of evidence for the existence of a sensitive period for language development?

-Similar to the findings of people's proficiency in a second language, people's proficiency in American Sign Language—their first language—was related to the age at which they were first exposed to it and not to the number of years.

What are the five cognitive abilities associated with executive functioning?

-Speed of processing (how quickly children can process information), -Working memory, -Various aspects of attention, -Inhibition and children's abilities not to respond, -Cognitive flexibility "Sam Wants Victory In Contests."

What is conversational babbling?

-Strings of sound are filled with a variety of intonations and rhythms to sound like meaningful speech. -Infants often sound as if they are carrying on their end of a conversation, with their intonations sometimes sounding as if they reflect questions or explanations, but their "words" are only babble sounds.

Define Pidgins & Creoles.

-Structurally simple communication systems that arise when people who share no common language come into constant contact. (PIDGIN) -Languages that develop when children transform the pidgin of their parents to a grammatically more complex "true" language (CREOLE)

What is the fourth source of evidence for the existence of a sensitive period for language development?

-The fourth type of evidence for a sensitive period is from recovery of language function after brain damage. -Basically, when the language areas of the left hemisphere are damaged early in life, there is much plasticity, with other areas of the brain taking over the language function of the destroyed areas. -Although the language acquisition of young children with significant left-hemisphere damage may proceed slowly and may be somewhat impaired compared to typical children, they usually learn to speak, and their language may be indistinguishable from that of a child without brain damage to all but trained language professionals. -As children age, their ability to recover from such brain damage decreases

What are overextensions? Provide an example.

-The stretching of a familiar word beyond its correct meaning (for example, calling all four-legged mammals "doggie," OR using the term "Fluffy," to refer not only to the family pet but also to all cats one encounters).

Define Overregularization.

-The tendency to extend the use of some morphological rules beyond their scope, that is, when they are not appropriate (for example, runned, foots, mices).

What are the six sub-stages of the sensorimotor period?

-The use of REFLEXES(birth-1 month) -Primary Circular Reactions (1-4months) -Secondary circular reactions (4-8months) -Coordination of second circulatory reactions (8-12) -Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 Months) -Invention of new means through mental combinations (18-24Months)

What is the First sub-stage of the Sensorimotor period? What happens during this sub-stage?

-The use of reflexes (Birth - 1 Month) -infants apply the set of reflexes to object and events they encounter. -behaviors are automatic, reactions BUT not intentional -grasping and sucking; perception

Why would children use a memory strategy that is not successful?

-They do not realize that the strategy is not working for them. -They lack the mental resources to both execute a strategy and devote to the problem at hand. -Children may use a new strategy just for the sake of trying something new; not for effectiveness but as a goal without caring if it is successful or not.

What are different ways used to measure infant cognition?

-Violation-of-expectation method -conjugate reinforcement procedure -deferred imitation

Define Sequential Bilingualism.

-When children learn a second language after mastering the first.

How do researchers measure visual acuity in infants?

-When infants look at a striped pattern like this one (the black and white stripes) LONGER than at a plain gray one, we know that they can see the lines. -When their looking time is equivalent between a striped and gray pattern, we know the narrowest width of stripes that infants can discriminate, and this measure is used to determine their visual acuity.

Betty had to go grocery shopping, but could not take a list. Before leaving her house she memorized the shopping list. She did this by grouping together all of the meats, all of the drinks, and all of the condiments. -Which memory device is she using?

Clustering (sort items into groups into a study phase and recalling them according to their category membership.).

define Tertiary circular reactions.

It is a sensorimotor sub-stage where infants from 12-18 months stop making the a-not-b error. This is a experimental stage. Testing the consequences of actions. (i.e. dropping a ball at different angels and heights and finding out where it may land; "what happens if I do this?")..

Non-intentional sucking, grasping, eye movements, and vocalizations in response to sounds are examples of what type of sensorimotor sub stage?

The use of Reflexes (birth - 1 month)

Define Receptive Expressive Language.

The way language is performed as well as perceived.

Define Morphology.

The knowledge of word formation; -Refers to the structure of words and rules for combining the smallest units of language into words

Define object continuity and cohesion.

The knowledge that objects are cohesive entities and move continuously through space. (ex: we see the dish on top of the table but do not perceive the dish to be part of the table as well.)

Define object permanence.

The knowledge that objects have an existence in time and space independent of one's own perception or action on those objects. (i.e. the knife still exists even if you put your napkin over it).

What is conservation?

The knowledge that the quantity of a substance stays the same despite changes in its form.

Define Morphemes.

The minimum meaningful language units. i.e. word endings ("ing," "ed," and "s") are also morphemes, providing an added and/or different meaning to a word.

Sue sees a picture of a dog. She stares at it for a while. Eventually, she stops looking at the image. When she is later shown a picture of the dog and a new stimulus, a goldfish, she directs her gaze to the goldfish. -This paradigm of infant perception is termed ________.

VISUAL PREFERENCE PARADIGM