Hynd Bio 270 Lab Practical
What's the percent increase of a single twitch to tetany formula?
((magnitude of force - force of single twitch) / force of single twitch)) x 100
Frequency of stimulation = ?
(1 twitch / # ms on bottom graph) x 100
heart rate = what?
(1/ r to r interval) x 60
what's the formula for fick's law of diffusion
(change in concentration) x (SA) / (molecular weight x change in x)
how do you calculate mean arterial pressure (MAP)?
(systolic - diastolic / 3) + diastolic
how to calculate the *frequency of stimulation*:
*F = 1 stimulus / i ms* i = interval given from the graph (ms) convert.. X 1000ms/ 1 sec = *stimulations/second*
Diffusion rates are different because...
*Fick's law*: molecular weight is inversely related to diffusion rate
one factor that contributes to difference in metabolic rate of mouse & human:
*SA:Volume ratio* SA increases= SA:V ratio decreases SA/V increases = Metabolic rate decreases O2 intake increases= body heat escapes more slowly
scatter plot *figure caption*
*basically describes the trendline* figure 1. as the __________ increases/decreases, __________ decreases/ increases
inhibitor
*noncompetitive*- allosteric *competitive*- active site increase inhibitor = decreases rate b/c unable to bind
bar graph should include:
- NO title - NO gridlines - axis titles - error bars - figure caption - units
*ECG & pulse wave tracings lab:*
- R-R interval (seconds) - heart rate (bpm) - pulse wave velocity (m/sec)
what happens to lung volumes after exercising
- TV increases - IRV decreases - ERV decreases - VC stays the same
*single muscle twitch & tetany lab:*
- force of a single twitch (force) - contraction time in a single twitch (seconds) - relaxation time in a single twitch (seconds) - frequency vs. voltage) - % increase in strength of mm. contraction (%) - frequency of stimulation (stimulations/sec.)
*reflex amplitude lab:*
- latent period (seconds) - angle of rotation (degrees) - # of synapses
*urinalysis lab*:
- specific gravity (NO UNITS!) - glucose concentration of a sample.
*respiration lab*:
- vital capacity (VC) (liters) - respiration rate (RR)(bpm)
What is the isotonic concentration for NaCl (the first molar concentration of the NaCl solution where hemolysis did not occur)?
.16 M
. What is the isotonic concentration for glucose (the first molar concentration of the glucose solution where hemolysis did not occur)?
.32 M
Based on your answers and knowledge from the previous questions, what would you expect the isotonic concentration of iron(III) chloride (FeCl3) to be?
0.08 M
How many receptive fields are being stimulated when two points are felt as one?
1
paired:
1 group/ same person being tested twice (before & after)
Put the six steps of the Scientific Method in order of their occurrence.
1)Observe 2)Question 3)Hypothesize 4)Experiment 5)Interpret results 6)Conclude
Will your t-test to determine whether resting metabolic rate in mice is significantly greater than humans be 1-tailed or 2-tailed?
1-tailed
Parts and functions of the reflex arc
1. Sensory (afferent) receptor reacts to stimulus 2. Afferent pathway conducts nerve impulses to the CNS 3. Integration center of the CNS translates afferent information to efferent 4. Efferent motor pathway sends nerve impulses to the effector 5. Effector responds to the efferent impulses by contracting or secreting
Reflex arc steps (5):
1. receptor 2. sensory afferent neuron 3. integration center 4. motor efferent neuron 5. effector
What's the average typical specific gravity of urine?
1.001 - 1.030
Frequency formula
1/ interval
frequency
1/i
normal rate of breathing (breaths/min)
12-15 respiratory cycles per min
unpaired:
2 different groups ( male vs. females, treatment mice vs. placebo mice)
How high would the fluid rise in the tube under ideal conditions at 25° C if the solution in the bag were changed to 0.5 M NaCl? Express your answer in millimeters (mm).
252,704 mm
Under ideal conditions (that is, conditions where the hydrostatic pressure is negligible, there are no wall effects, the solution is not diluted by water influx, etc.), how high would the fluid rise in the tube at 25° C ? Express your answer in millimeters (mm).
252,704 mm
The discrepancy in the molar concentrations in the previous two questions is explained by NaCl's dissociation in water. Because of this principle, there are
2x the number of osmotically active particles in solution as glucose for a given molar concentration. This increases the tonicity of the NaCl solutions, preventing water from entering the cells and lysing the cells at lower molar concentrations.
For spatial summation, what was the smallest stimulus current required to evoke the weakest contraction (i.e., the threshold stimulus)?
4 mA
obstructive lungs can expand to _______% at a maximum but usually it's around ____%
50; 30
If arterial blood pressure is 110/50, the pulse pressure is __________________ mm Hg.
60
What's the formula for heart rate?
60 / RR
How do you measure respiration rate?
60 / amount of time one breath takes
For spatial summation, what was the smallest stimulus current required to evoke the maximal contraction?
7 mA
If arterial blood pressure is 110/50, the mean arterial pressure (MAP) is __________________ mm Hg.
70
if someone's lung capacity is normal, it can expand to _____%
80
What is FEV1/VC if someone has a restricted lung capacity due to a tumor, for example?
90% or above
*average* in excel
=average()
*stdev* in excel
=stdev()
The FEV1/VC ratio is clinically significant because it is an indicator of airway resistance .
A healthy individual's FEV1/VC ratio is near 80% , while an individual with an obstructive lung disease will likely have a FEV1/VC ratio of less than 50% because of a collapsing of the small airways.
FEV1/VC ratio
A normal FEV1/VC ratio is 80%, meaning a normal healthy human can expire 80% of their lung capacity, or vital capacity, in one second. If that number drops below 50% then the person most likely has an obstructive lung disease such as asthma. The person has healthy lungs, but the airways leading to the lungs are blocked causing the person to exhale less air in the same amount of time. If the FEV1/VC is greater than 90% then the person most likely has a restrictive lung disease such as pulmonary fibrosis. The person's lungs no long have the same compliance as a healthy individual, so a higher percentage of the air is expired since the lungs do not expand all of the way.
Valsalva's maneuver effect on heart activity
A person forcefully expires against a closed glottis, changing the intrathoracic pressure which dramatically affects CO, VR, MAP, and HR Stroke volume and blood pressure falls while the heart rate increases (intrathoracic pressure increases, heart rate doesn't change, blood pressure increases, then venous return decreases, decreasing SV and pulse pressure, heart rate increases, blood pressure drops)
Of the following, which was not a controlled variable in the scientific method lab experiment? a) All of the above were controlled variables b) None of the above were controlled variables c) angle of the microscope slide d) the height from which the solution was dropped e) the flatness of the microscope slide
A) all of the above
Which values were affected by simulated airway obstruction? Why? Should any have remained the same?
All measurements in the table except for the vital capacity were affected. A person with obstructed airways still has the same vital capacity because the lungs remain the same size and only the airways leading into the lungs are affected
Using the data in the previous two questions, you can see the vital capacity didn't significantly change because of the obstruction while peak expiratory flow decreased . Due to this change in flow, the total amount of time required to expire the entire volume of the vital capacity increased as a result of the obstruction.
Also as a result of the obstruction, FEV1 decreased , which, in turn, decreased the FEV1/VC ratio.
P- value
Always compared to .05 (less than or equal to is significant)
A physiologic explanation of the p-values calculated in the previous question is a s follows: Tidal volume increased after exercise because CO2 production increased owing to the increased metabolic rate of exercising skeletal muscle. This change in CO2 stimulated the central chemoreceptors resulting in faster and deeper breathing.
As a result of the tidal volume increasing, inspiratory and expiratory volumes both significantly decreased while vital capacity did not significantly change . Since total lung capacity is equal to the vital capacity plus residual volume (which is a constant), total lung capacity did not significantly change .
What is the relationship between surface area and metabolic rate?
As surface area increases, metabolic rate decreases
Osmotic pressure is the driving force for the influx of water into the dialysis bag and, by extension, the force that drives the sucrose solution up the tube. As the solution height increases, the weight of the column of solution also increases, resulting in a downward force; this is the hydrostatic pressure. What effect does the hydrostatic pressure have on the movement of sucrose up the tube?
As the hydrostatic pressure increases, the speed of the solution movement up the tube decreases.
What is the relationship between volume and metabolic rate?
As volume increases, metabolic rate decreases
What effect does body size have on metabolic rate?
As weight increases, metabolic rate decreases
What effect does body size have on oxygen consumption?
As weight increases, oxygen consumption increases
Based on the data posted on Canvas, would you say the atria or ventricle take longer to depolarize? Why?
Atria take longer to depolarize; the average length of the P wave is longer than the average length of the QRS complex
Explain the mechanism (process) by which blood pressure can change in response to posture.
Blood pressure can change in response to posture due to the gravitational pull of blood. When in a supine position, blood vessels are at the same level as the heart which creates less of a gravitational influence. When in a supine position for an extended period of time then switching to a standing position, there is a large gravitational change. Gravity forces the blood into the venous system of the lower limbs, also known as orthostatic hypotension. There is an immediate drop in blood pressure when this happens. Two baroreceptors in the body, in the aortic arch and the carotid sinus, measure the pressure exerted on the nearby blood vessels and notices any change in blood pressure. When the baroreceptors detect that the pressure has dropped, more action potentials will fire to send messages to the cardiovascular system in the medulla. The cardiovascular system then sends sympathetic signals to increase heart rate and this in turn will increase the cardiac output and the mean arterial pressure
What's the most important factor in stimulation of breathing?
CO2
Give a physiologically sound explanation why contraction velocity is faster than relaxation velocity.
Ca2+ reuptake by the lateral sacs is active and requires the use of pumps while Ca2+ release from the lateral sacs is passive and does not require the use of pumps.
What does an isotonic solution involving RBCs look like?
Cloudy, not red
Is color blindness a deficiency in rods, cones or both?
Color blindness is a deficiency in cones. Cones are cells that perceive color
Discrete data uses
Column graph, data can only take whole number values (ex. 1, 2, 3)
Conclusion vs. Inference
Conclusion: Ephedrine significantly decreases the weight of mice. Inference: There is a significant difference.
For spatial summation, describe the muscle contraction response as the stimulus current was increased.
Contraction force increased until reaching a plateau when all the motor units were recruited.
Where is water reabsorbed during urine formation?
Descending limb
What occurs in the the *jejunum* of a person with gall bladder disease?
Digest carbohydrates Absorb carbohydrates, proteins, cholesterol
What nutrients are absorbed in the stomach of of a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
Digestion of HCl, proteins denature
Exercise significantly increases pulse wave velocity
During exercise, the blood vessels increase in size. The sympathetic innervation on the blood vessels causes vasodilation. When the blood vessels increase in radius, the vessel becomes more stiff because the vessel has increased its elasticity.
What effect does increasing temperature have on enzymatic reactions?
Enzymatic reactions have an optimal temperature so anything below or above that would decrease the reaction rate
Look up the molecular weight of eosin and blue dextran. Match their molecular weights below.
Eosin=650 g/mol Blue dextran=2,000,000 g/mol
Exercise significantly increases heart rate
Exercise increases heart rate because the SA node is firing faster. The SA node fires faster because the sympathetic nervous system, is turned on when exercising which is allowing more permeability of ions in the cell so that depolarization can happen faster so the threshold can be met quicker.
The effect of exercise on breath-hold time
Exercise significantly reduces breath-hold time Exercise increases metabolic activity which increases CO2 concentration which triggers the central chemoreceptors to trigger a breath.
calculating *respiration rate (RR)*:
F = 1 / i = 1breathe / 1 sec. convert.. X 60 sec / 1 min = *breathe/ min* M at first peak, X on second peak (plug into equation) *(normal = 12-16 bpm)*
the percentage of the amount of total air let out in a maximal expiration over one second
FEV1/VC
What is left after digestion in a person with gall bladder disease?
Fats, amino acids, cholesterol
The number of synapses involved in a reflex is greater/fewer than a reaction?
Fewer
Which of the following captions best describes the figure below comparing exercise and caloric expenditure?
Figure 2. The effect of exercise on caloric expenditure.
What is the spirogram's red line measuring?
Flow (L/sec)
What is the spirogram's red line measuring?
Flow Rate (L/min)
When is bone conduction useful?
For those who have hearing loss due to problems with the middle ear but still have a proper functioning cochlea
Based on the values measured above for normal tidal breathing, inspiratory flow is faster than expiratory flow. This is because muscular effort is used only for inspiration at rest; conversely, expiration is passive recoil/relaxation of the diaphragm.
Further, due to the flow rates above and the fact the volume inspired is equal to the volume expired, inspiratory time is less than the expiratory time.
Heart rate:
HR = 60 / R-R = bpm
What is happening to the cells in a solution that clears?
Hemolysis
A subject determines their urine specific gravity to be 1.016. The subject then exercises vigorously, sweats profusely and drinks no extra fluids. Of the following choices, which would be the likely measurement you would expect of their urine specific gravity after this experiment?
Higher than 1.016
High R-value
Highly correlated (low value=ot correlated)
Sense of taste
Humans have difficulty identifying tastes when plugging their nose because our sense of taste is controlled by the olfactory system, which is also predominantly responsible for perceiving odors
*metabolism lab*:
IV: *species* DV: *metabolic rate*
Briefly state the hypothesis that tested in this experiment. Remember that a hypothesis has to be specific, testable and refutable. Based on your background knowledge, create a hypothesis which will predict the outcome of your experiment. Include in your hypothesis a description of how intermolecular bonds explains the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. It is a good practice to state a hypothesis in the form of "If [condition], then [prediction]." For example, "If I break the speed limit [condition or cause], then I am likely to be cited by the police [prediction or effect]." Note: make the hypothesis universal, then observe how the hypothesis applies to your specific situation. Finally, be sure NOT to reverse cause and effect (e.g. "If the police give me a citation, then I will break the speed limit").
If a solution has relatively strong intermolecular forces, then it will have a relatively small drop diameter.
Hypertonic
If a system has a higher solute concentration than its environment, it is said to be hypertonic to to its environment
Hypotonic
If a system has a lower solute concentration than its environment, it is said to be hypotonic to its environment
How does your body mimic the same effect of increasing stimulation frequency?
If the frequency is increased then the stimulus will reach threshold, creating an action potential. If there are more action potentials the movement in the muscle will increase. The action potential is caused by piggybacking of the stimulation produced. Once it has reached the threshold the muscle will twitch. This is similar to what happens in the body because your body wants neurons to be fired at a faster rate, creating tetany. If tetany is created then there will be an increase in contraction strength of the muscle
Generate a hypothesis about the migration rate of the two dyes through the agar. Remember how to formulate a hypothesis from the Scientific Method lab.
If the molecular weight is greater, then the diffusion rate will be slower.
At time 0, the osmotic pressure was driving the movement of water into the bag and forcing the sucrose solution up the capillary tube. However, as the experiment continued, the speed of the solution rising up the tube decreased due to the increasing hydrostatic pressure.
If the system were left until equilibrium was reached, eventually the hydrostatic pressure would increase in magnitude such that it was equal in magnitude and in the opposite direction of the hydrostatic pressure; this would result in a flatter plateau than seen in Figure 2 resulting from the cessation of movement of the solution up the capillary tube.
Where is NaCl reabsorbed during urine formation?
In the ascending limb
Where are water, electrolytes, and vitamins absorbed?
In the ileum
Where does carb digestion start?
In the mouth
What effect does increasing H2O2 have on enzymatic reactions?
Increasing H2O2 (substrate concentration) increases reaction rate but will eventually plateau
What effect does increasing ionic concentration have on enzymatic reactions?
Increasing NaCl decreases enzymatic reactions linearly
What effect does increasing catalase have on enzymatic reactions?
Increasing catalase (increasing enzyme) would increase the reaction rate linearly
What effect does increasing CuSO4 have on enzymatic reactions?
Increasing enzyme inhibitor concentration decreases the reaction rate linearly
What effect does increasing pH have on enzymatic reactions?
Increasing pH increases reaction rate until it reaches neutrality where it declines
Tetany
Increasing the frequency of shocks to the point where no relaxation is allowed and the muscle contraction increases smoothly up to a point of maximum strength where individual twitches cannot be observed
Explain the mechanism of temporal summation.
Increasing the frequency of stimuli results in less time for Ca2+ to be returned to the lateral sacs and when the following stimulus occurs, the Ca2+ released from the lateral sacs is added to the remaining Ca2+ in the cytosol which results in more cross-bridging and a greater contraction force.
Conduction system of the heart
Intrinsic system where a signal passes from an SA node, AV node, the bundle of His, right and left bundle branches, and the Purkinje fibers
Ion- dipole interaction as compared to dipole- dipole interaction between water molecules
Ion- dipole interaction is stronger than dipole- dipole
Which of the following is the strongest intermolecular attraction?
Ion-dipole
Why is protein not found normally found in the urine?
It is too large to be filtered
The effect of substrate concentration on reaction rate (h202)
It was shown that as the substrate concentration increased, the reaction rate increased. This continued until the reaction became saturated and is shown as the trend line plateau *increase so there would be more substrates for enzymes to bind to
List, from most sensitive to least sensitive, the body parts tested for two-point discrimination.
Lip, Hand, Calf, Neck, Back, Forearm
Finding *force of a single muscle twitch* on graph
M at start of force peak (top) X at top of peak of force (top) *force*
measure *vital capacity*:
M at the highest peak, X at the lowest peak = VC (TV+IRV+ERV) *Liters*
finding the *contraction time* of the single muscle twitch:
M at the start of the contraction (top) X at the top of the peak (top) *seconds*
finding the *relaxation time* of the single muscle twitch:
M at the top of the peak (top) X at the bottom of the peak (top) *seconds*
Find *latency period* on graph
M on beginning of Stimulus (top) X on beginning of angle peak (bot.) *seconds*
Find *Angle of rotation* on graph
M on beginning of angle peak (bot.) X on highest angle peak (bot.) *degrees* *NORMAL = 5-25 degrees*
mean arterial pressure (MAP):
MAP = (( 2 X diastolic) + systolic) / 3
For the single twitch, where are the marker and the point selector placed to measure the force?
Marker = beginning of contraction; point selector = peak of contraction
For the single twitch, where are the marker and the point selector placed to measure the latent time?
Marker = beginning of stimulus; point selector = beginning of contraction
For the single twitch, where are the marker and the point selector placed to measure the relaxation time?
Marker = peak of contraction; point selector = end of contraction
Metabolic rate of mice as compared to the metabolic rate of humans
Metabolic rate of mice is *larger than metabolic rate of humans*
Metabolic rate of mice as compared to the metabolic rate of humans
Metabolic rate of mice is larger than metabolic rate of humans
A large bucket of water and a small glass of water are each brought to a boil in a cold room. The small glass will cool faster due to its larger surface area to volume (SA:V) ratio. Its relatively large surface area compared to the volume facilitates convective heat loss ; the bucket loses heat slower due to its relatively small surface area compared to the volume.
Mice have a larger SA:V ratio than humans and therefore lose heat faster than humans. Since mice are endothermic (warm blooded; capable of internal generation of body heat), they must generate more heat per m2 via metabolism than humans to prevent their body temperature from falling .
polysynaptic
More complex reflexes usually involve additional neurons (interneurons) and more than one population of motor neurons
What occurs in a hypertonic solution involving RBCs?
More water is inside the cell than outside so water moves outside the cell, cell undergoes crenation, solution is now cloudy but not red
Purpose of the conduction system of the heart
Myogenic: specialized cardiac cells pass an electrical signal throughout the heart to ensure that the muscle tissue depolarizes and contracts in a sequential manner from atria to ventricles resulting in a coordinated heartbeat
What nutrients are absorbed in the mouth?
NONE
Large intestine absorbs
Na+, Cl-, and H2O, also vitamin K
What nutrients are absorbed in the large intestine of a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
None
What nutrients are absorbed in the duodenum of a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
None because there is no lipase of protease
If an experiment wants to know if something makes a greater (or lesser) result, what type of test is used?
One tailed
Atrial depolarization
P wave
Type 1
PAIRED T-TEST
pulse pressure (PP):
PP = systolic - diastolic *mmHg*
On an EKG, the measure of atrial depolarization and contraction
PQ interval
What interval represents the AV nodal delay on an EKG?
PQ interval
Referred pain
Pain felt in a part of the body that is not directly receiving stimuli because nerves from various parts of the body converge not their way to the spinal cord
What type of test is used when the same subject groups are used twice (before and after)?
Paired
A correlation of -1
Perfect negative linear relationship
A correlation of +1
Perfect positive linear relationship
Conclusion: Exercise significantly decreases breath-hold time.
Physiologic explanation: The increased metabolic rate associated with the increased muscle activity during exercise produces more CO2, which increases the stimulus to breathe resulting in a significantly shorter breath-holding duration.
What do rods do?
Provide vision only in shades go grey, high sensitivity to light, low visual acuity
ventricular depolarization
QRS wave
On an EKG, this represents one full cardiac cycle
RR interval
R- squared value
Reflects the amount of variation in Y that is accounted for by the variation in X
Pearson's R
Reflects the degree of linear relationship between two variables (ranges from +1 and -1)
Differentiate between a reflex and a reaction
Reflexes are faster and involuntary but purposeful while reactions are voluntary responses to external stimuli
Regression vs. Correlation
Regression indicates that one variable is dependent on another and each variable is either dependent or independent Correlation simply says two measures relate to each other but no causation is implied
Contraction time vs. relaxation time
Relaxation of a muscle takes longer because it is an active process that transports Ca2+ back to the SR
What do cones do?
Responsible for color vision, low sensitivity to light, high visual acuity
On an EKG, where systole occurs
ST interval
Increasing H2O2 shows
Saturation
What would you expect to be the breath-hold duration of an individual who exercised briefly (~2-4 minutes) then engaged in a bit of hyperventilation? Why?
Someone who engaged in a short exercise, then hyperventilated you would expect to see a "normal" breath hold time. Exercising would decrease the breath hold time but hyperventilating would increase it thus these two would cancel each other out.
Auditory pathway of bone conduction
Sound vibrations felt in the facial bones (mastoid process), bone vibrates, sound reaches the cochlea directly where it can be transmitted to the brain
Auditory pathway of air conduction
Sound waves are funneled into ear via the pinna, through the EAC, vibrating the tympanic membrane, malleus, incus, stapes, oval window, wave inc cochlea fluid set basilar membrane into motion, displacing hair cells to send neural signals to the auditory cortex in temporal lobe of the brain
ventricular repolarization
T wave
On an EKG, where diastole occurs
TP interval
Total lung capacity(TLC)
TV+IRV+ERV+RV
How does your body mimic the same effect of increasing stimulation frequency?
Temporal summation
Given the following bonds between atoms... a) C - O - H b) H - O - H ...select the correct statement below.
The O in (a) will be less partially negative than the O in (b).
Exercise significantly decreases PQ intervals.
The PQ interval represents the atrial depolarization up to the beginning of the ventricular depolarization. The AV node delay in the heart is not as long during exercise due to the sympathetic system turning on. WHen the sympathetic system turns on, ions in the cell become more permeable allowing the threshold to be met quicker.
How are PWV and blood flow different?
The PWV deals with the distance the pulse wave along the vessel wall travels with relation to time whereas blood flow of fluid is the volume of blood moving with relation to time. In order to determine the flow, velocity and length of movement along vessel would be multiplied
Which wave/interval in Figure 3 changed the most after exercise?
The TP segment change the most after exercise. The time of the segment decreased more than any of the other waves or segments. The TP segment is the period between the T wave, or ventricular repolarization, and the P wave, or atrial depolarization. This increase in change versus the others is because the intervals and segments are changeable with sympathetic innervation. The P and T waves time as well as the QRS complex stay the same because the AV and SA node are not directly influencing their firing. Since the AV node and SA node control the intervals and segments, it can increase with exercise due to the sympathetic system increasing the permeability of the cells allowing for the threshold to be met at a faster rate when exercising.
Do the atria or the ventricles take longer to depolarize?
The atria takes longer to depolarizes because potassium channels remain closed so further depolarization can not occur until the voltage gated calcium channels help it to reach the threshold and start another graded potential. There is no specialized system in the atria. The current must spread from cell to cell which will take much longer than in the ventricles. The ventricles have cardiac cells which allows the contractile muscle to move fast. This is shown in Fig. 3 through the P wave and QRS complex. The P wave represents atrial depolarization and the QRS complex represents ventricular depolarization. The graph shows that the P wave took a longer period of time than the QRS complex did
What do your results tell you about the relative locations of the rods and cones on the surface of the retina?
The colored circles aren't as large as the black one due to the fact that the location of the cones are coming from the fovea, one small point
Which relaxed faster, the muscle before exercise or the muscle after exercise? Explain why this happened with good physiological reasons as to why the relaxation times should have been different
The muscle before exercise relaxed faster. This can be explained by the mechanism of muscle relaxation. Muscle relaxation occurs when calcium is returned to the lateral sacs when electrical stimulation stops. Calcium is actively pumped from the cytosol back into the lateral sacs by the Calcium-ATPase pump. A muscle after exercise will take longer to relax because more calcium will be in the cytosol and due to saturation of the Calcium-ATPase pump, pumping more calcium back into the lateral sacs will take longer.
twitch summation
The muscle fiber therefore has not completely relaxed and the next stimulus is applied before the first muscle twitch is over. This will result in the next contraction building upon the previous contraction and add to that response
The effect of temperature on reaction rate
The overall trend showed that as the temperature increased so did the reaction rate. However, after approximately 50℃, there was a steady decrease in the reaction rate as the temperature continued to increase *temps too high will denature a protein, too low will slow down reaction rate
The effect of ionic concentration (NaCl) on reaction rate
The trend showed a gradual decline in reaction rate as the concentration of NaCl increased *due to the disassociation of NaCl into Na+ Cl-, these ions are responsible for breaking apart the hydrogen bonds located in the second and third structure of the proteins
A correlation of 0
There is NO relationship
What occurs in a hypotonic solution involving RBCs?
There is more water outside the cell than inside so water moves into the cell, the cell undergoes hemolysis and bursts, making the solution red and transparent
A correlation of 0
There is no relationship between the two variables
You should not have seen a measurable twitch at a stimulus of 0 mA. What does this tell you about the number of muscle fibers contracting at this stimulus current?
This tells us that at 0 mA there are no motor units firing. Until there was a measurable twitch, there were either no motor units firing or not enough. The motor units before about 8 mA have not reached the threshold, and there was too few of them to show a response.
The pressure change in the previous question is detected by the baroreceptors in the carotid sinuses and aortic arch which then initiate fewer impulses sent to the cardiovascular control center in the medulla oblongata. As a compensatory response to the pressure change, the cardiovascular control center increases sympathetic and decreasing parasympathetic firing.
This will increase heart rate, which will increase cardiac output and constrict arterioles, increasing total peripheral resistance. these mechanisms will collectively increase the mean arterial pressure..
Why is there differential pressure within arteries?
To ensure that arterial blood flows away from the heart
In terms of the relationship between body size (weight) and oxygen consumption, body weight increases, O2 consumption increases .
True
In terms of the relationship between of body size (weight) and metabolic rate, as body weight increases, metabolic rate decreases.
True
True or false: A physiologic explanation for the observed effect of age on pulse wave velocity would be PWV velocity is directly correlated with vascular stiffness. As one ages, the vessels progressively become "stiffer" due to things like arteriosclerosis/atherosclerosis which increases the velocity of the pulse wave.
True
If an experiment wants to know if something makes a difference, what type of test is used?
Two tailed
Since your body operates by means of action potentials which are all-or-none, how does your body mimic the same effect of increasing current?
Unless a current reaches the threshold, there will not be an action potential. Once it does reach threshold, it will be sent to the nerve causing a twitch. Your body mimics the same effect because it wants to continue to recruit more motor neurons in order to increase the contraction strength of muscles.
Now, perform a t-test to determine whether resting metabolic rate in mice is significantly greater than humans. Will you use a paired or unpaired t-test
Unpaired
What type of test is used when two different subject groups are used?
Unpaired
What is the spirogram's blue line measuring?
Volume (L)
Two factors that affect blood pressure and their influence
Volume of blood and compliance of vessels Increasing volume of blood increases blood pressure (and vice versa) and increasing the compliance of vessels decreases blood pressure (and vice versa)
*membrane transport lab*:
Water is *permeable* to the bag of glucose and it moves *into* the bag & up the tube because of *osmotic* pressure and because of *hydrostatic* pressure the *osmosis=diffusion*
Is hydrogen bonding weaker or stronger than polar covalent bonds?
Weaker
The effect of the Valsalva maneuver heart rate (bpm)
When blood returns to the heart through the inferior and superior vena cava, it is defined as venous return. When there is an increase in pressure in the thoracic cavity, the vena cava are constricted and in turn the venous return decreases. When the subject performed the valsalva maneuver, the pressure in the thoracic cavity was increased, but because the baroreceptors in the body cannot differentiate between a normal raise in blood pressure and when someone performs the valsalva maneuver, the body defaults to interpreting the increase as raise in blood pressure. When the baroreceptors are falsely triggered, the signals are sent to the cardiovascular system to increase parasympathetic nervous system activity in an attempt to lower the blood pressure. This is seen in the graph at 11 seconds by a quick drop in heart rate when the valsalva maneuver has first begun. As the maneuver continues, the heart rate begins to rise after the drop in pressure and an increase is seen in the graph at 15 to 25 seconds. Once the subject ended the valsalva maneuver and began to breathe normally again, the pressure in the thoracic cavity dropped and a drop in heart rate can be seen at 28 seconds. The heart then regulated its normal beating patterns as the pressure returned to normal and blood vessels returned to their normal radius, seen in the final part of the graph at 33 seconds.
The effect of hyperventilation time on breath-holding time
While hyperventilating there is a decrease in the amount of CO2 in your blood. The central chemoreceptors in the medulla detects an increased amount of CO2 in your blood. The more you hyperventilate, the longer you can hold your breath due to the fact that your body has to regain the CO2 in your blood to reach the threshold of the receptor to trigger a breath.
Continuous data uses
XY scatter line graph and can take any value within a range (ex. 4.5, 6, 7.8)
Muscle twitch
a brief, weak contraction produced from a single action potential that is too short and wake to be useful
What is urea?
a product formed by the liver from ammonia and carbon dioxide
What should the summation graph look like on lab tutor?
a right handed mitten
Muscle unit
a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates
mechanism of summation
a single neuron fires multiple motor units immediately following the previous one before it can fully relax. This results in a "right hand mitten" effect on the force versus stimulus current graph.
tidal volume
a specific volume of air is drawn into and then expired from the lungs
Null hypothesis
a statement that indicates there is no relationship between measured values, or no difference among groups:
Alternative hypothesis
a statement that rivals the null hypothesis
Which of the following molecules is the is the most polar? a) water (H2O) b) ethanol (EtOH) c) isopropanol (PrOH) d) potassium chloride (KCl)
a) water (H2O)
five general properties of liquids
a. Surface Tension b. Has specific evaporation point c. Takes shape of its container d. Definite Volume e. Specific Density
when labeling a table, is the figure title above or below the table?
above
Soda lime is placed in the mouse metabolism chamber to
absorb carbon dioxide
soda lime
absorbs the carbon dioxide exhaled by the mouse
What nutrients are absorbed in the large intestine of a person with gall bladder disease?
absorption of water, Na+ and Cl-
Our urine should be slightly acidic or basic?
acidic
High acidity urine (lower than 4.8)
acidosis, fever, high protein diet
Why does chewing the item help in its identification of the item?
activation of chemoreceptors also feel texture
the process by which your finger adjusts to the temperature of water
adaptation
Negative afterimage
adaptation in the rods and cones;When activated photoreceptors in the retina are exposed to light for prolonged time, their sensitivity will decrease. Cones in these regions of the retina that are subject to certain color stimuli will receive greater stimulation from other cones, thus producing complementary colors.
How does muscle fatigue influence the muscle to take a longer time to relax?
after the muscles have been exercising a lot, there is not as much ATP to help with the reabsorption of calcium into the sarcoplasmic reticulum so it takes longer
what are some things that affect metabolic rate
age, weight, stress, diet, genetics, fitness, gender
What's more effective in hearing? Osseous conduction or air conduction?
air conduction
Which of the sound conduction routes is normally the most effective in conveying vibrations to the organ of hearing
air conduction;The sound waves travel through the ear and strike the tympanic membrane. These vibrations move to the incus, malleus and stapes which then trigger the movement of the basilar membrane. The basilar membrane supports the organ of corti and hair cells can be found here. The organ of corti is what takes these signals and generates them into a neural component to be sent to the central nervous system. It is the most efficient way because the air traveling through the ear uses these parts of the ear (basilar membrane, organ of corti, hair cells etc.) to create the vibrations
Sticks which test for protein in the urine
albusticks
*p-value* from the t-est
always compared to *< 0.05* (less than or equal to is significant) excel: paired (1) unpaired (2)
Catalase
an enzyme, which is found in many cells, but in highest concentrations in the liver, since the liver often functions to break down toxins present in the blood. Catalase catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide as shown in Equation B1:
Peroxides
an form in the body during respiration, and are chemically reactive, which means that they can chemically modify (and thus render useless) other biological molecules.
NACL
an ionic compound and therefore will disassociate into 2 ions when put into water
in order to explain how something is happening
anthropomorphic
Dermatomes
are areas of the skin that originate from the same spinal nerve root *Because the elbow and forearm share the same dermatome, the pain from sticking the elbow in the cold water seemed to travel up the arm, along the same dermatome
Enzymes
are most often proteins
reflexes
are similar each time they are initiated, are faster than reactions, are said to be involuntary, and are purposeful, in that they sometimes serve to remove the stimulus that is causing harm to the body.
Pulse wave velocity (PWV):
arm length (m) / M at bottom of S wave (top) and X at the bottom of the pulse wave (bot.) *m/second*
What's the formula for pulse wave velocity?
arm length (m) / PW (s)
What is normal FEV1/VC?
around 80%
Poiseuille's Law
arterial blood flow volume takes the pressure gradient along the length of the tube, blood vessel radius, blood viscosity and length of the tubes
The effect of enzyme inhibitor concentration (CuSO4) on reaction rate
as the enzyme inhibitor concentration increased, the reaction rate gradually decreased *the concentration of this inhibitor increases, the lesser the number of enzymes can bind to substrates which in tern decreases the reaction rate
P-wave
atrial depolarization
what occurs in the P wave on an ECG?
atrial depolarization
The P wave indicates
atrial depolarization (atria is contracting, pumping blood into the ventricles)
when over a period of time, the hair cells in the ear become tired to that frequency and the sound is more difficult to hear
auditory fatigue
Mean arterial pressure (MAP)
average pressure over the length of one cardiac cycle (diastolic + 1/3 pulse pressure)
why does varying the stimulus strength affect the twitch force
because there is an increase of motor units firing as the strength is increased. This is made possible by spatial summation, with several units being fired at once increasing the force. The twitch force will plateau due to the motor units all firing at once, making the twitch force not able to continue to increase.
teleologic:
behavior of human beings "working to achieve a goal" ex. acquiring knowledge, reading a book, getting food, *to get rid, to get more, to take in more*
when labeling a graph, is the figure title above or below the graph?
below
Normal specific gravity of urine
between 1.015- 1.025
Normal pH of urine
between 4.8-7.5
Where is the AV nodal delay on an EKG?
between the P and Q
Brownish yellow or green urine indicates
bile pigments (yellow foam is definite evidence)
Brownish yellow/green
bile pigments. Yellow foam is definite evidence of bile pigments.
ileum absorbs
bile salts, water Vitamins
what's the username and password for the computer?
biology; leapfrog11
Red to smoky brown urine indicates
blood and blood pigments
Red to smoky brown
blood and blood pigments.
What color is the compliment of yellow?
blue
Adaptation
body gets use to a stimulus, resultant of phasic receptors that include a reduced number of action potential in response to maintained stimulus
a hearing aid is placed against the mastoid process of the skull, allowing sound to be heard through _____ conduction.
bone
Isotonic
both systems have the same solute concentration as well as the same solvent concentration
ERV
bottom of normal breath and the bottom of the big breath
What's the unit for heart rate?
bpm
what's the unit for heart rate
bpm
catabolism
break down food to release energy
What's the unit for respiratory rate?
breathes/ minute
muscle twitch
brief, weak contraction produced from a single action potential that is too short and weak to be useful
Exercise-induced sympathetic stimulation to the autorhythmic cells of the SA node increases the permeability of the muscle cell membrane to both calcium and sodium ions which
brings the membrane to threshold at a more rapid pace.
In comparing the two values calculated above, these values are equal because
by switching from 1 M sucrose to 0.5 M NaCl, the concentration of the solute is halved but the number of osmotically active particles is doubled
Define pulse wave velocity
calculating the distance between the heart and the finger where a transducer is attached and dividing the distance by the difference between ventricular contraction and the generation of pulse pressure in the finger
Protein in the urine
can occur because of excessive muscular exertion, prolonged cold baths, excessive ingestion of protein
waste for a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
carbohydrates, fats, proteins
Stomach digests
carbs and proteins
where are peripheral chemoreceptors located in the body?
carotid artery and aorta
Facilitated diffusion
carrier-mediated diffusion, is simply diffusion in which particles are physically transported across a membrane by a carrier (usually a protein).
What's the enzyme that was used in the enzyme lab?
catalase
Enzymes
catalyze chemical reactions so that they occur in a timely and sequential manner to produce a product.
turbulent
causes the wall of the vessel to vibrate
pinocytosis
cell drinking
Pinocytosis
cell drinking, method in which a small amount of extracellular fluid is brought into the cell in small pouch- like vesicles
Phagocytosis
cell eating
Phagocytosis
cell eating, a method used by cells to internalize large multi molecular particles
What is left after digestion in a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
cheeseburger
Taste-bud receptors
chemoreceptors, which are activated by the presence of saliva and require the chemicals to be dissolved to work
Inorganic constituents of urine
chlorides, phosphates, sulfates, and ammonia
jejunum absrobs
cholesterol, monosaccharide, amino acids, monoglycerides
Low specific gravity of urine
chronic nephritis, diabetes
What color should urine normally be?
clear
urochromogen
color of normal urine is due to a pigment called which is the end-product of hemoglobin breakdown, as shown below: Hemoglobin -> Hematin -> Bilirubin ->Urochrome -> Urochromogen
cones
color; smaller perceptive fields
measuring glucose concentration of a sample:
compare sample stick to marker, units in *mg/dL* or *%*
What are the 2 types of enzyme inhibitors?
competitive inhibitors and allosteric inhibitors
In the formula for osmotic pressure, the change in concentration = what?
concentration inside - concentration outside (1 for glucose, 0.5 for NaCl)
If a patient cannot hear sounds through regular transmission, but can hear through osseous conduction, what is likely the problem?
conduction deficiency
In color blindess, retina deficiency is in the
cones
occluded
constricted blood vessel
Formula for contraction velocity
contraction strength (d)/ contraction period (t)
Contraction velocity = ?
contraction strength (v) / contraction period (s)
Relaxation velocity = ?
contraction strength (v) / relaxation period (s)
Contraction velocity
contraction strength/contraction period
Relaxation velocity
contraction strength/relaxation period
what's the left/rising side of a twitch called?
contraction time
Which takes longer? Contraction velocity or relaxation velocity?
contraction velocity because the Ca is passively moving out of the SR but in relaxation, it is an active process as Ca must be moved back in
how do you calculate frequency of summation (twitch/sec)?
count the number of twitches before summation starts and then divide it by the time in secs where summation starts
bone conduction:
cranial bones directly to cochlea
Covalent bonds
created by the sharing of electrons between two atoms although sharing is not always equal, resulting in polar covalent bonds
A hypertonic solution causes what to occur?
crenation
the shrinking of red blood cells
crenation
ventilation
cyclical breathing movements that alternately inflate and default the alveolar air sacs
Since your body operates by means of action potentials, which are all-or-none, how does your body mimic the same effect of increasing current? a) Temporal summation b) Spatial summation c) By firing more neurons d) Two of the above are true
d) two of the above are true
What's a possible reason for someone having protein in their urine?
damage to glomerulus
As solute concentration increases, solvent concentration
decreases
Does ERV increase or decrease after exercise?
decreases
Does IRV increase or decrease after exercise?
decreases
Metabolism
definedasallthechemicalreactionsinthebodythatinvolveenergytransformation.
receptors
detect the change
blood pressure
developed, by the contraction of the heart muscle and resulting compression of the blood within the chambers of the heart.
What's a possible reason for someone having glucose in their urine?
diabetes
what's a possible reason for glucose in someone's urine?
diabetes
High specific gravity of urine
diabetes, fever, acute nephritis
Sticks which test for glucose in the urine
diasticks
the movement of particles from a higher concentration to a lower concentration
diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
diffusion in which particles are physically transported across a membrane by a carrier (usually a protein)
Osmosis
diffusion of water molecules & moving through a selectively permeable membrane
What occurs in the the * L. intestine* of a person with gall bladder disease?
digest nothing absorb water
What occurs in the the *duodenum* of a person with gall bladder disease?
digest protein absorb toxins, water
What occurs in the the *mouth & esophagus* of a person with gall bladder disease?
digest starch absorb nothing
What occurs in the the *stomach* of a person with gall bladder disease?
digest starch, protein absorb nothing
What occurs in the *duodenum* of of a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
digest start absorb toxin & water
What nutrients are absorbed in the mouth of a person with gall bladder disease?
digestion of carbs
What occurs in the the mouth of a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
digestion of carbs
What nutrients are absorbed in the duodenum of a person with gall bladder disease?
digestion of carbs, protein, fiber absorption of water
What nutrients are absorbed in the jejunum of a person with gall bladder disease?
digestion of disaccharides into monosaccharides, tripeptides into dipeptides, no absorption
What nutrients are absorbed in the stomach of a person with gall bladder disease?
digestion of proteins begins, no absorption
Functions of pepsin
digests certain peptide bonds resulting in protein fragments
Lower Specific gravity
diluted, clear, pale yellow 1.002-1.008: closer to 1 which is water *hydrated*
what are the winding tubes called right after the loop of henle in the kidneys?
distal convoluted tube
pulse wave velocity = what?
distance in m from heart to finger / s wave to shoulder in secs
2 tailed
does NOT favor a direction, NO bias; looking for the difference b/w the two -- *"is there a difference"*
Functions of HCl
does not digest anything, activates pepsinogen, denatures proteins, kills microorganisms
when discussing your conclusion based on the t test, how do you say it?
don't say there is a statistic significance between the two but say it in terms of the problem.
Hydrostatic pressure
downward force
State the dependent variable of the scientific method lab experiment.
drop diameter
Digestion of *lipids* begins in the
duodenum (pancreatic, lingual lipase) emulsification via bile salts
Digestion of lipids begins in the
duodenum (pancreatic, lingual lipase) emulsification via bile salts
monosynaptic
employs only two neurons and on synapse
jejunum digests
end starch & proteins, tri-dipeptides, disaccharides
Active transport
energy is required to move particles against a concentration gradient
Active transport
energy is required to move particles against a concentration gradient from lower concentrations to higher concentration
what's the principle of enzyme kinetics called when h202 causes oxygen production to rise and then level out?
enzyme saturation
What is salivary amylase?
enzyme secreted by the salivary glands of the mouth that hydrolyzes polysaccharides (starch, glycogen) into disaccharides (maltose) and monosaccharides (glucose)
What is lingual lipase?
enzyme secreted in the mouth that hydrolyzes long chain triglycerides into partial glycerides and free fatty acids
41 degrees celsius
equivalent to a state of hyperthermia in the body
33 degrees Celsius
equivalent to a state of hypothermia in the body
Stomach absorbs
ethyl alcohol and aspirin
Cloudy urine
evidence of phosphates, rates, pus, mucus, bacteria, epithelial cells, fat, and chyle
bar graph *conclusion*
ex. "ephedrine significantly reduces the weight of mice"
An experimental "control" and a "controlled" variable are the same thing.
false
The attraction (or repulsion) between two or more molecules in a solution is an example of an intramolecular force.
false
The greater the concentration of a substance, the ______ the rate of diffusion
faster
The greater the surface area of the cell membrane, the ______ the rate of diffusion
faster
*waste* for a person with gall bladder disease?
fats
bar graph *figure caption*
figure 1. the effect of _________ on ________.
systolic BP
first sound, top number, contracts
Blood pressure
force exerted by blood on vessel walls
osmotic pressure
force pushing water & glucose up the tube
hydrostatic pressure
force that pulls down, eventually stoping the movement of glucose up the tube
The number of stimuli that occur per minute during a contraction period
frequency
the number of twitches the muscle experiences
frequency
alveolar air sacs
gas exchange between air and blood
when asked for the magnitude of a muscle twitch, how do you find that?
get the y value at the top of the peak
Phasic receptors
get used to a sitmulus over time and stop sending signal
anthropomorphic:
giving the characteristics of humans to an animal, or inanimate object ex. *needed, expanded, stretched
*clear* test tube solution: red & transparent
glucose solution is *hypotonic* compared to inside of RBCs. explained: water concentration is high on the outside of the RBC, so then water rushes into RBC causing hemolysis
*cloudy* test tube solution: cloudy, but not red
glucose solution is *isotonic & hypertonic* compared to inside of RBCs. explained: water moves from inside to outside, causing cells to shrivel up, but not lyse yet.
what do you use to measure the glucose concentration of urine?
glucose stick
is the number of synapses necessary for a reaction greater or fewer than in the involuntary reflex?
greater
restrictive lungs can expand to what?
greater than or equal to 80%
What's the substrate that was used in the enzyme lab?
h202
what is secreted on the downward side of the loop of henle
h2o
Teleology
he use of a non-mechanistic process to explain a natural occurrence "to (verb)" 1. The purpose of the visual sense is to see 2. The heart sped up in order to send blood around the body 3. Respiration rate will increase after exercise to provide oxygen to the body
residual volume (RV)
he volume of air remaining in the lungs after a full expiration
Effect of exercise on heart activity
heart pumps blood faster to get more oxygen, increases heart rate, increases blood volume, venous return, stroke volume
how do you determine the approximate % increase in strength of muscle contraction bt the individual twitch and titanic contraction
height of tetany - height of the first hill x 100
A hypotonic solution causes what to occur?
hemolysis
what's it called when red blood cells are hypotonic and burst
hemolysis
Hemoglobin in the urine
hemolytic anemia, transfusion reactions, yellow fever, smallpox, malaria, hepatitis, mushroom poisoning, renal infections
In the solutions that that "clear" when blood is added, the red blood cells are
hemolyzing because the cells are in placed in a hypotonic solution. That is, water is/are permeating the cell membranes and increasing the intracellular volume until the cells burst . This destruction of the cells' membranes allows light to pass straight through the solution without being refracted.
Sticks which test for hemoglobin in the urine
hemosticks
what's berkeley's cat's name?
henry no
The more solutes and the darker the urine, the _______ the specific gravity will be
higher
KCL, Water, Ethanol, Isopropanol
highest surface tension from greatest to least
A nomogram is used to determine
human surface area
Given your answers from the previous question, humans should have a higher resting metabolic rate than mice because they have
humans should not have a higher resting metabolic rate than mice
Enzymes secreted int he stomach
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and pepsin
The interaction between water molecules is called
hydrogen bonding
Small intestine digests
hydrolysis of disaccharides to glucose
Small intestine digests
hydrolysis of protein fragments into amino acids
the force that eventually stops the movement of water up the capillary tube is called what?
hydrostatic pressure
when there is more solute outside the cell than outside the cell
hypertonic solution
The longer the subject hyperventilated, the longer they could hold their breath because
hyperventilation removed carbon dioxide from their blood, thus removing the stimulus to breathe.
when there is more solute inside the cell than outside the cell
hypotonic solution
Is the glucose solution hypotonic or hypertonic compared to the red blood cells
hypotonic; the water rushes into the red blood cells and cause it to lyse
hypertonic
if one system has a higher solute concentration than the other, the one with the greater amount of solute
paired t-test
if the samples are naturally paired in some way, such as assessment being performed on the same subject twice (for example, before and after an experimental medication is administered)
Bile salts are absorbed in
ileum
Digestion of *carbs* begins
in the *mouth* (salivary amylase), continues in *duodenum* (pancreatic amylase), further continues in the *jejunum* (maltase, sucrase, lactase)
Digestion of carbs begins
in the mouth (salivary amylase), continues in duodenum (pancreatic amylase), further continues in the jejunum (maltase, sucrase, lactase)
*Ketones* in urine
inadequate levels of carbs & patients with diabetes
The effect of enzyme reaction rate on catalase
increase in the catalase, the reaction rate also increased *catalase lowers the activation energy of a reaction which will overall increase the reaction, as more is introduced the reaction rate will speed up
How do you cause summation?
increase the stimulus frequency and decrease the time between contractions
A physiologic explanation for the observed effect of exercise on PQ interval would be the following:
increased sympathetic stimulation increases the excitability of the AV node and thereby decreases the length of the AV node delay .
Does exercise increase or decrease one's heart rate?
increases
Does tidal volume increase or decrease after exercise?
increases
NaCl graphs enzyme
increasing salt conc. = increase disruption - decrease in rxn. rate (linear)
Motor Unit recruitment
increasing stimulus will increase the # of motor units eventually max of motor units will be stimulated instantaneous
Temporal summation
increasing the # of times stimulus occurs every second one at a time increasing frequency leads to tetany sequential
Summation
increasing the frequency of shock so that the second stimulus is applied before the first muscle twitch is over and the second stimulus will build upon the previous and add to that response
The variable over which the experimenter has control is the __________________ variable.
independent
Enzyme concentration %
indicates *inhibition*; increasing enzyme conc. = increases rxn. rate; *linear*
Substrate [H202] concentration %
indicates *saturation*; increasing substrate= increases rxn rate until plateau at x=__
Myogenic muscle
indicates that a muscle is capable of generating an action potential and depolarization from within the muscle itself, no nerves to signal the contraction
Large intestine contains
indigestible food residue, unabsorbed bile salts, and remaining fluid
sympathetic/parasympathetic
influence heart rate and myocardial contractility, but they do not generate the electrical activity that causes the heart to actually beat.
what is the principle of enzyme kinetics called when a certain molecule is added in order to slow down the reaction?
inhibition
*spirometer*
instrument used to produce the above lung volumes
In the membrane transport lab, originally the net movement of water was where?
into the bag
initially, is net movement of water into/out of/or is there no movement in the dialysis bag
into the bag
The fluid in the body's capillaries has a greater concentration of protein than does the interstitial fluid surrounding the capillaries. The capillary wall is freely permeable to water, but impermeable to protein. In what direction will water move in this system?
into the capillaries and out of the interstitial fluid
1 tailed
introducing bias; reduces, increases, decreases, larger, smaller (ex. "er" give aways)
EKG
is NOT a recording of a single action potential across the membrane of a single cell; rather is the measurement of a wave of electricity (depolarization) spreading over the heart.
Inspiratory flow
is faster because it is an active process while expiratory flow at rest happens is a passive process. Inspiratory flow happens with the active contraction of those the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles. When those muscles relax, the elastic recoil allow for them to return back to their resting position and creates a vacuum so that CO2 is drawn out of the lungs.
resting metabolic rate (RMR)
is measured 3 to 4 hours after a light meal without prior physical activity.
skeletal muscle
is neurogenic and requires innervation and stimulation by a nerve to depolarize and consequently contract
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
is the energy required for each person to sustain vital functions in the waking state.
1-tail
is the mean of one array larger/smaller than another
2-tail
is there a difference between the means of the two arrays
Since your body operates by means of action potentials, which are all-or-none, how does your body mimic the same effect of increasing current?
it activates more motor units which increases the voltage generated
If pulse wave velocity increases, what happens to blood pressure?
it also increases
What does adding NaCl to a reaction do to it?
it causes the dissociation of NaCl and water so the hydrogen bonds are broken and the reaction velocity does down in a slanted line
after vigorous exercise, what happens to someone's inspiratory reserve volume?
it decreases
disabled catalase causes what to happen to oxygen production?
it decreases in a slanted downward sloping line
What happens to the reaction velocity when pH increases?
it goes up and then once the enzyme reaches it's optimal pH, it goes down
What happens to the reaction velocity when temperature increases?
it goes up and then once the enzyme reaches it's optimal temperature (37 deg c usually) it goes down
after vigorous exercise, what happens to someone's tidal volume?
it increass
What happens to the reaction velocity when more substrate is introduced
it rises and then flattens out as the enzyme becomes saturated
In the formula for osmotic pressure, what unit does temperature need to be in?
kelvin
Sticks which test for ketones in the urine
ketosticks
% increase of force
large peak - small peak / small peak
how to calculate the *approximate % in strength of muscle contraction*:
largest peak- smallest peak / smallest peak x 100 *percentage* USE WAVES ON RIGHT SIDE: *small peak* M at the bottom of the first peak (red) X at the top of the short/first peak (red) *large peak* M STAYS at the bottom of the first peak (red) X at the top pf the largest peak (red)
After you exercise, can you hold your breath for more or less time?
less because metabolic rate and co2 levels go up
What is FEV1/VC if someone has an obstructed airway?
less than 50%
Proprioceptors
located in the muscle, joints, and ears to determine where our bodies are located in space
is the latent period of a reaction longer or shorter than the latent period of an involuntary reflex?
longer
what's the unit for pulse wave velocity?
m/s
What's the unit for pulse wave velocity?
m/sec
The unit for the stimulus of a muscle twitch
mA
hypothetico-deductive reasoning
making intelligent guesses about the world and testing them in a yes/no manner
A MetaCheck machine is an instrument used to
measure human oxygen consumption
refractometers
measure urine specific gravity
PWV
measured by calculating the distance between the heart (approximately in the center of the chest cavity) and the finger where the transducer is attached and dividing that distance by the time difference between ventricular contraction (the end of the QRS complex) and the generation of pulse pressure in the finger
Metabolic rate
measures the rate at which the body utilizes energy
spirometry
method of choice for a fast and reliable screening of patients suspected of having chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
The metabolism of who is greater? Humans or mice?
mice
who has the higher metabolic rate? mice or humans?
mice
Diastolic
minimum pressure exerted by ejected blood during ventricular diastole (filling and relaxing)
After you hyperventilate, can you hold your breath for more or less time?
more
Where does carb digestion start?
mouth
Components of the digestive system:
mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, illium, large intestine, waste
Filtration
movement of particles due to an applied force
Spatial recruitment
multiple motor units are recruited at the same time to increase the force increase the voltage
reaction
multiple synapse w/ CNS polysynaptic (*greater* number of synapses involved)
When you don't have your eyes to guide you in a certain direction, what do you have to rely on?
muscle memory
Neurogenic muscle
muscle requires innervation and stimulation by a nerve to depolarize and consequently contract
Fatigue
muscle weakness that results in slower reactions
cardiac muscle
myogenic, indicating that it is capable of generating an action potential and depolarization (and consequent contraction) from within the muscle itself.
what's secreted on the upward side of the loop of henle
na+
Diffusion
net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
what is the name of the instrument used to determine lung volume?
neumotachometer
Tonic receptors
never get used to stimulus, continually send signals
when p is greater than or equal to 0.05, is there a statistically significant difference?
no
What nutrients are absorbed in the ileum of a person with gall bladder disease?
no digestion, absorption of b12
initially is net movement of sucrose into/out of/or is there no movement in the dialysis bag
no movement
Heart
no nerves which signal the heart to contract heart is influenced by the autonomic nervous system
In the membrane transport lab, originally the net movement of sucrose was where?
no where bc the bag is impermeable to sucrose
The instrument used to find the surface area of a mouse
nomogram
rods
non-color vision; greater perceptive fields
Stomach absorbs
none
What nutrients are absorbed in the ileum of a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
none
What nutrients are absorbed in the mouth?
none
esophagus absrobs
none
ileum digests
none
large intestine digests
none
What nutrients are absorbed in the jejunum of a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
none because there is no amylase, lipase, or protease
laminar
normal blood flow;flow near the center of the vessel is the fastest and flow near the wall is slower due to friction
air conduction:
normal way of hearing
Ketones in the urine
not an adequate amount of carbs in the diet, defect in carb metabolism so the body begins to use fatty acids, common in diabetes mellitus
Large intestine digests
nothing
What occurs in the the *ileum* of a person with gall bladder disease?
nothing
What occurs in the *L. intestine* of of a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
nothing digested absorb water
What occurs in the *jejunum* in a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
nothing digested absorb cholesterol
What occurs in the *ileum* of of a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
nothing, digested absorb vitamin B12, bile salts
Heart rate
number of heartbeats per unit of time
if someone has asthma or something causing blockage in the tubes to the lungs, this is called what
obstructive
Adaptation
occurs when sensory receptors change their sensitivity to the stimulus and become adjusted to temp, etc. Ex: fingers in hot/cold water
Tidal Volume (TV)
one normal breath -- peak of normal breath to bottom of normal breath
when performing a t test, do you always do a one tailed or two tailed test?
one tailed
glucosuria
only an extremely small amount of glucose is normally present in urine. When urine contains glucose in amounts greater *indication of diabetes mellitus *lack of insulin
pH graphs enzymes
optimal point at highest & *denaturation* at low & highest pH =
Temperature graph enzymes
optimal point highest and denaturation high temp
Components of the digestive system
oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus accessory organs: teeth, tongue salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
When a subject moves from horizontal to progressively more upright, there is a drop in blood pressure in the upper parts of the body. This is commonly associated with a feeling of dizziness and is termed
orthostatic hypotension
the movement of solvent across the semipermeable membrane down the concentration gradient
osmosis
what's the force moving the water up the capillary tube?
osmotic pressure
In this lab, metabolic rate is measured indirectly using
oxygen consumption
if you are doing an experiment and comparing the same group before and after, is it paired or unpaired?
paired
Normal color of urine
pale yellow
unbiased
parsimonious
Protein in the urine can lead to
pathologic albuminuria when albumin of the urine is due to kidney congestion, toxemia of pregnancy, febrile disease, and anemias
IRV
peak of normal breath to peak of big breath
What occurs in the esophagus?
peristaltic waves
What's the formula for osmotic pressure?
pi = iRT(change inC) in (mmH2O)
R-R interval:
placing M and X on the tops of the two peaks of QRS's (red) *seconds*
inductive reasoning
placing observations about the world into an unbiased framework
What is the name of the instrument used to measure lung volume?
pneumotachometer
bonds that make up water
polar covalent water molecules tend to orient themselves so that the oxygens are closest to the hydrogens of neighboring water molecules
Bonds that make up water
polar covalent, therefore water molecules tend to orient themselves so that the oxygen are closest tot he hydrogens of neighboring water molecules
Proteins break down into
polymers of amino acids
Carbs break down into
polymers of glucose
trendline
polynomial (group 2/3) or linear (if we seen an increase)
Volume of blood & compliance of the vessel walls
pressure is dependent on
vestibular apparatus
primarily responsible for spatial orientation as a way of maintaining balance
if patient can't hear through air conduction but CAN through bone conduction:
problem exists *through outer* or *middle ear* (inflammation) = *middle ear is NOT functioning* but cochlea is functioning*
if patient can't hear through air or bone:
problem exists within the inner ear (*cochlear damage*) =*middle ear is functioning BUT cochlea is NOT functioning*
effectors
produce a response appropriate to the situation
QRS complex
produced by ventricular depolarization; atrial repolarization also occurs during this time, but its contribution is insignificant
Small intestine absorbs
products of carb, protein, fat digestion, electrolytes, vitamins, bile salts
inspiration
provides alveoli with fresh atmospheric air
what are the winding tubes called right before the loop of henle in the kidneys?
proximal convoluted tube
a measure of arterial stiffness, or the rate at which pressure waves move down the vessel.
pulse wave velocity
Milky color
pus, bacteria, fat or chyle
Milky urine indicates
pus, bacteria, fat, or chyle
How do you measure the force of tetany?
put the m on the beginning of tetany and the x on the top when it flattens out
How do you measure latency of a twitch on lab tutor?
put the m on the beginning of the force hill and the x on the stimulus on the lower part of the screen
How do you measure the force of a single muscle twitch on lab tutor?
put the m on the bottom of the hill and the x on the top
How do you measure FEV1 on the spirogram?
put the m on the flat part right while they were holding their breath and the x on the bottom
How do you measure the relaxation of a single muscle twitch on lab tutor?
put the m on the top of the hill and the x on the bottom
when measuring the latent period of an involuntary reflex, how do you do it?
put the marker on the point right before the first up movement on the top graph and the cursor on the point at the end of the flat line before the first drop on the bottom
*phasic* receptors
rapid adapt; cold pool
amount of oxygen consumed is directly related to:
rate of ATP production
when is *Glucose* seen in urine
reabsorbed in bloodstream, usually b/c sugar is in the blood = increased blood sugar (related to diabetes b/c insufficient insulin)
Thermoreceptors
react to hot and cold
Thermoreceptors
react to hot or cold
What color is the compliment of green?
red
when a person's elbow is immersed in cold water for a period of time, the person's fingers feel the pain. what's the pain in the fingers called?
referred pain
Dermatome
referred pain areas on skin that supply nerves from a single spinal root; "false pain"
The tool used to measure the specific gravity of urine
refractometer
what do you use to measure the specific gravity of urine?
refractometer
What statistical analysis is associated with a scatter plot?
regression
tonicity
relative solute concentration
Water's surface tension
relativel high
what's the right/declining side of a twitch called?
relaxation time
expiration
removes stale air
Photoreceptors
respond to visible wavelengths fo light
Photoreceptors
respond to visible wavelengths of light
if someone has tumors in their lungs, this is called what?
restrictive
dicrotic notch
s caused by the inertia of blood flowing back toward the heart against the closed aortic valve
isotonic
same solvent concentration
type 1 error
saying there is a difference when there isn't
type 2 error
saying there isn't a difference when there is
diastolic BP
second sound, bottom number, rests b/w beats, refilling
latent periods are measured in what unit?
seconds
motor neurons
send info to effectors
sensory neurons
send the information to the central nervous system
Mechanoreceptors
sensitive to stretching & pulling
Mechanoreceptors
sensitive to stretching and pulling
Nociceptors
sensitive to tissue damage
What does exercise do to the AV nodal delay?
shortens it
In comparing the control reflex and the control reaction, the latency of the reflex was
shorter because reflexes are monosynaptic while reactions are polysynaptic . In other words, reflexes send impulses across one synapse(s) while reactions cross multiple synapse(s). Because crossing a synapse involves converting the electrical signal (via a(n) action potential ) to a chemical signal (via a(n) neurotransmitter ) and back to an electrical signal (via a(n) action potential ), more time will elapse with an increasing number of synapses to cross
Is the cardiac cycle as a whole shorter or longer after exercise? Which shorten more the intervals/segments or the waves?
shorter; the intervals/segments
Active transport
similar to facilitated diffusion except that energy is required. Active transport is used to move particles against a concentration gradient, or from lower concentrations to higher concentrations.
Osmosis
simply a specialized type of diffusion with two restrictions: 1) diffusing particles are limited to solvent molecules (usually water); and 2) these solvent molecules must pass through a selectively permeable membrane.
reflex
single synapse on spinal cord monosynaptic (*fewer* number of synapses involved) = faster & involuntary
Reaction times can be influenced by factors
sleepiness, emotional distress or consumption of alcohol
The greater the molecular weight of a substance, the ______ the rate of diffusion
slower
The greater the thickness of the cell membrane, the ______ the rate of diffusion
slower
The more compliant/stretchy someone's blood vessels are, the ______ their pulse wave velocity
slower
What's more helpful in identifying flavor? Taste or smell?
smell
Membrane is *permeable* to solute
solute moves from *high to low* concentrations
Osmosis
specialized type of diffusion restricted by diffusing particles limited to solvent molecules and these solvent molecules moving through a selectively permeable membrane
esophagus digests
starch
Stomach digests
starch & start proteins
duodenum digests
starch, protein, start lipids
What occurs in the *stomach* of of a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
starch, start protein, NO absorptions
What occurs in the the *mouth & esophagus* of a person with pancreatic insufficiency?
start digestion of starch, NO absoption
Anthropomorphisms
statements that attribute human characteristics to things that are not human "needs (to)" "wants (to)" 1. Heart rate slows after exercise because the body needs to return to normal. 2. The heart beats faster after exercise because the body needs oxygen. 3. Metabolism increases after exercise because the body wants to increase oxygen.
.05 or smaller
statistically significant
inference
statistically significant difference between the means of the tow groups
Referred Pain
stimulation in one part of the body gives rise to sensations localized in other parts of the body Ex: elbow immersed in cold water, causing pain in pinky & heart attacks
Ion-Dipole
strongest intermolecular forces
What was the IV and DV in the mouse metabolism lab?
subject; metabolic rate
the substance on which an enzyme acts
substrate
repeated stimuli that produce a response in the nerve without letting the muscle return to optimal relaxation
summation
Name one factor that contributes to the difference in metabolic rate of mice and humans.
surface area
name one factor that contributes to the difference in the metabolic rate of mice and humans?
surface area to volume ratio
how do you calculate pulse pressure?
systolic - diastolic
the formula for pulse pressure
systolic - diastolic
the formula for mean arterial pressure
systolic BP + 2(diastolic BP) / 3
pulse pressure
systolic-diastolic
blood pressure is measured how?
systolic/diastolic
*Tonic* receptors
takes awhile to adjust
in order to explain why something is happening
teleologic
What's another name for tetany?
temporal summation
Bile salts are absorbed in
terminal ileum
Digestion of *protein* begins in
the *stomach* (pepsin) continues in the *duodenum* (pancreatic proteolytic enzymes), further continues in *jejunum* (amino peptidases)
In order to measure the rotation angle of a reflex or reaction on LabStation
the Marker should be placed at the beginning of the response and the Point Selector should be placed at the peak of the response curve .
In order to measure the latency of a reflex or reaction on LabStation
the Marker should be placed at the beginning of the stimulus and the Point Selector should be placed at the beginning of the response
Residual volume
the air that remains in the lungs after a maximum exhale. A spirometry measures the flow of air out of the lungs, so it it impossible to determine the amount that remains within the lungs since a spirometry only measures exhaled air.
Stroke volume
the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle in one contraction
why some body parts are less discriminatory than others
the amount of mechanoreceptors in the specific part of the body
what happens to a reaction when there is a constant amount of enzyme and increasing H2O2
the amount of oxygen produced rises and then levels out
Properties of liquids and solids are determined by
the attraction/repulsion between molecules, determined by the bonds that hold the molecules together
How do allosteric inhibitors cause the enzyme to not work as well?
the bind to the allosteric site and change the shape of the active site and the cell so the enzyme can't bind anymore
For a single twitch...
the contraction time is *shorter* than relaxation time
Osmotic pressure
the driving force for the influx of water into the dialysis bag and, by extension, the force that drives the sucrose solution up the tube
In comparing the hypothermia and the control reflexes, the latency of the hypothermia reflex was longer because
the drop in temperature lowered the kinetic energy which slows ion movement across the muscle cell membrane, thus decreasing the speed of action potential generation in the muscle cells.
In comparing the hypothermia and control reflexes, the rotation angle of the hypothermia reflex was less because
the drop in temperature reduces the ATPase enzyme activity of the muscle cells, which reduces the potential force of the quadriceps muscle contraction.
What is uric acid?
the end product of the oxidation of purine in the body
What depicts a cell's isotonic state?
the first molarity that it doesn't lyse at
In the formula for osmotic pressure, R = ?
the gas constant, 848
What happens when a salt is dissolved into the water
the ionic bond between K+ and CL= is disrupted because the dipole of the oxygen in the water molecule is significantly strong to disrup the ionic bond
what was the DV in the lab measuring the metabolic rate of humans and mice?
the metabolic rate measured by oxygen consumption
When a hearing aid is placed against the mastoid process of the skull allowing for bone conduction, this shows that what isn't working properly and what is?
the middle ear isn't and the cochlea is
Filtration
the movement of particles due to an applied force. For example, blood pressure can force fluids through capillary walls.
Diffusion
the net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
diffusion
the net random movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. As long as temperature is above absolute zero, molecules will move randomly (i.e. they have kinetic energy) favoring movement toward an area of lower concentration.
In the formula for osmotic pressure, i = ?
the number of osmotically active particles (glucose- 1, NaCl- 2)
The effect of pH on reaction rate
the overall trend showed a steady increase in the reaction rate followed by a steady decline *pH of too low (acidic) or too high (basic) would denature the protein, optimal pH is 7
Systolic
the peak pressure exerted during ventricular systole (contracting and ejecting)
Metabolic rate measures
the rate at which the body utilizes energy
The amount of oxygen consumed is directly related to
the rate of ATP production
Tonicity
the relative solute concentration
what does it mean when there is equal amounts of water inside and outside the cell
the solution is isotonic to the red blood cell OR the red blood cell is isotonic to the solution
State the independent variable of the scientific method lab experiment.
the solutions
Digestion of protein begins in
the stomach (pepsin) continues in the duodenum (pancreatic proteolytic enzymes), further continues in jejunum (amino peptidases)
what was the IV in the lab measuring the metabolic rate of humans and mice?
the subjects (mice and humans)
hypotonic
the system with the lower solute concentration is ________ to system with higher solute concentration.
Relaxation is always slower than contraction because
the uptake of calcium during relaxation is a lot slower than the intake of calcium during contraction
To measure expiratory reserve volume (ERV), the Point Selector should be placed at the valley of a tidal expiration and the Marker should be placed at
the valley of the maximal expiration .
Cardiac output
the volume of blood pumped per min. (stroke volume x heart rate)
what does it mean when a solution is hypertonic to the red blood cell?
the water moves from inside the cell to outside the cell
what does it mean when a solution is hypotonic to the red blood cell?
the water moves from outside the cell to inside the cell
If the molecular weight is high
then the rate of diffusion is low
If the liquid has strong intermolecular forces
then the surface tension of the liquid will be strong, and the size of the drop will be smaller
what does an isotonic solution mean?
there are equal amounts of water inside and outside of the cell
p > 0.05
there is NO significant difference
p < 0.05
there is a significant difference
if a solution is hypotonic, what does it mean?
there is less solute, water rushes in to the cell so it bursts
what's the unit for magnitude or force?
there isn't one
what kind of receptors were used when we stuck our finger in hot water until it was no longer comfortable?
thermoreceptors or phasic receptors
the smallest current required to produce a contraction
threshold current
how is respiration controlled?
through the central chemoreceptors in the medulla
rate of oxygen consumption (mL/sec)
time required for the soap film to traverse a given distance of the tube is a measure of
unpaired t-test
to compare average measurements for two separate, independent groups (for example, seeing if there is a difference between the white blood cell count in men and women)
*Protein* in urine
too large to be filter at glomerulus
Vital capacity
total volume of air to be moved in and out of the lungs
What is left after digestion in a person with normal conditions?
toxins
duodenum absorbs
toxins, water
Positive regression
trend line increases
Fats break down into
trigylcerides
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are quite common in cases of glycosuria because bacteria, especially e-coli, survive by fermenting the residual sugar left behind in the urinary tract.
true
t/f: don't put in a trend line unless you are asked for it
true
The sounds of Korotkoff are produced by
turbulent blood flow
what's the unit for frequency at which summation occurs?
twitch/sec
The calculated value above is much larger than the height your solution actually rose during the time allotted in the lab because
under ideal conditions, gravity (hydrostatic pressure) doesn't exist and therefore there is no opposing force to mitigate the osmotic pressure and stop the solution from rising up the tube.
if you are doing an experiment and comparing different groups, is it paired or unpaired?
unpaired
TYPE 2
unpaired t-test
do metabolic rate and calories used go up or down after exercise?
up
What are the most important organic substances found in urine?
urea, uric acid, creatinine
What's a possible reason for someone having hemoglobin in their urine?
urinary tract infection
High alkalinity (very basic, higher than 7.5)
urine retention in bladder, chronic cystitis, anemia, obstructing gastric ulcers
Reddish amber urine indicates
urobilinogen or porphyrin, evidence of liver cirrhosis, jaundice, or Addison's disease
reddish amber color
urobilinogen or porphyrin. Urobilinogen is produced in the intestine by the action of bacteria on bile pigment. Porphyrin may be evidence of liver cirrhosis, jaundice, Addison's disease and other conditions.
IV that are discrete (categories)
use a column (bar) graph
IV that are continuous (numbers)
use a scatter plot
anabolism
use energy to synthesize food
specific gravity
use refractor to measure, look where colors line up between 1.001-1.03 is normal (odd numbers) *NO UNITS*
*Frequency* of a twitch
used to increase or decrease *multiple twitches*
*Voltage* of a twitch
used to increase or decrease a *single twitch*
pneumotachometer
used to measure airflow directly
scatter plot
used w/ *continuous numbers* x-axis= numerical
bar graph:
used w/ *discrete categories* x-axis= categorical
Glucose in the urine
usually an indication of diabetes mellitus
when is *Hemoglobin* seen in urine
usually with women who are menstruating
what occurs in the QRS wave on an ECG?
ventricular depolarization
The QRS complex indicates
ventricular depolarization (ventricles are contracting)
T wave
ventricular repolarization
The T- wave indicates
ventricular repolarization
what occurs in the T wave on an ECG?
ventricular repolarization
What lung volume should not change after exercise?
vital capacity
in the lungs, our ________ never changes
vital capacity
the strength of the twitch a muscle experiences
voltage
to increase the magnitude of a twitch, what should be increased? frequency or voltage?
voltage
Inspiratory reserve volume
volume of air in lungs that can be held above that of tidal volume
Tidal volume
volume of air inspired during one normal breath
Expiratory reserve volume
volume of air left in lungs follow normal exhalation that can be expired
Residual volume
volume of air remaining in lungs and trachea following expiration of ERV
reactions
voluntary responses to a stimulus from the environment
homeothermic
warm-blooded animals
Normal constituents of urine
waste products of cellular metabolism
Normal constituents of urine
waste products of cellular metabolism or products derived directly from certain foods that are eaten
large intestine absorbs
water
what does it mean when the red blood cell is hypotonic to the solution?
water moves from inside the cell to outside the cell
what does it mean when the red blood cell is hypertonic to the solution?
water moves from outside the cell to inside the cell
Temperature adaptation
when I placed my second finger in the water it felt a lot hotter than the first finger. This is due to the phasic receptors present in our fingers. These phasic receptors are rapidly adapting to stimuli, resulting in a reduced number of action potentials being fired. When the first finger was placed in the hot water, it was hot, but adapted quickly to the hot water, and then when the second finger was put in the hot water, it felt a very hot sensation since it did not have time to adapt yet
when can you read letters through the blood
when hemolysis has occurred
when does tetany occur on a graph?
when it levels out at the top after increasing summation
when can you not read letters through the blood
when it's isotonic
Auditory fatigue
when the phasic receptors hair cells become damaged
When are the central chemoreceptors activated? What do they do?
when they detect acid (produced as a result of co2); increase breathing
Referred pain
when two signals are sent to the brain and the brain has to make a decision between the two because both signals are synapsing on the same neuron brain in some cases will make a mistake
central nervous system
where the information is processed
Glucose
will not disassociate when put into water and therefore needs a larger molar concentration.
conclusion
would say that mean A is significantly larger/smaller than mean B, following by an explanation of the mechanism resulting in the difference.
IV
x-axis
independent variable
x-axis
DV
y-axis
dependent variable
y-axis
Higher Specific gravity
yellow, dark yellow 1.02-1.03 = *dehydration*
when p is less than or equal to 0.05, is there a statistically significant difference?
yes
Explain the mechanism (process) by which blood pressure and heart rate change in response to exercise.
~When metabolism takes place in the body, one of the byproducts is carbon dioxide. During exercise, the body's metabolic activity increases and carbon dioxide is produced at a higher rate. Carbon dioxide elevates in the body, and has to be released from the body by exhalation. As carbon dioxide increases in the blood, it stimulates the sympathetic nervous system to send signals throughout the body. The sympathetic signals increase the heart rate to create a greater cardiac output and increase the rate that carbon dioxide is taken out of the body. When more blood is being expelled from the increased cardiac output from the heart, this also raises the pressure that blood exerts on the vessel walls, otherwise known as increased blood pressure.
π = iRT(ΔC)
π = osmotic pressure (mm H2O) i = number of osmotically active particles resulting from dissociation of each molecule in solution (refer to Appendix A, page A8 in Sherwood). R = gas constant (848 L-mm H2O/mol-degree) T = temperature (K) ΔC = sucrose concentration difference of solute on the two sides of the membrane (Cinside - Coutside)