IB ESS Exam Review Topics 1,4-8

incineration

Advantages-volume of waste reduced by 90% and waste heat can be used. Disadvantages-toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxin), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal.

natural capital

A term sometimes used by economists for natural resources that, if appropriately managed, can produce a "natural income" of goods and services. The natural capital of a forest might provide a continuing natural income of timber, game, water and recreation.

overpopulation

The number of people in an area exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living.

doubling time

The number of years needed to double a population, assuming a constant rate of natural increase.

ecosystem

a community and the physical environment it interacts with.

food web

a complex network of interrelated food chains

population density

A measurement of the number of persons per unit land area.

positive feedback loops

Destabilizing systems which tend to amplify changes and drive the system toward a tipping point where a new equilibrium is adopted.

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Energy is transformed through energy transfers. An increase in entropy arising from energy transformations reduces the energy available to do work.

Human Development Index (HDI)

Indicator of level of development for each country, constructed by United Nations, combining income, literacy, education, and life expectancy

ecological footprint

Land and water area appropriated by each nation as a resource to consume or to absorb the waste it generates; should sustainably provide all resources at the rate at which they are being consumed by a given population

LEDC

Less economically developed country: a country with low to moderate industrialization and low to moderate average GNP per capita.

Malthusian Theory

Malthus' theory that population increase would outpace increases in the means of subsistence

MEDC

More economically developed country: a highly industrialized country with high average GNP per capita.

non-renewable natural capital

Natural resources that cannot be replenished within a timescale of the same order as that at which they are taken from the environment and used; for example, fossil fuels.

renewable natural capital

Natural resources that have a sustainable yield or harvest equal to or less than their natural productivity; for example, food crops, timber.

replenishable natural capital

Non-living natural resources that depend on the energy of the Sun for their replenishment; i.e. groundwater.

1st Law of Thermodynamics

Principle of conservation of energy, which states that energy in an isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created nor destroyed

natural income

Renewable resources such as plants, animals, and soil provided by the earth's natural capital.

circular economy

Spiral loop system or self-replenishing economy designers must consider use of material after product use so the materials need to be recovered and used again

negative feedback loops

Stabilizing systems that occur when the output of a process inhibits or reverses the operation of the same process in such a way to reduce change - it counteracts deviation

Boserup's Theory

Strongly disagreed with Malthus. Thought that if people were threatened by malnutrition they would have more drive to provide

life expectancy

The average number of years an individual can be expected to live, given current social, economic, and medical conditions. Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live.

crude death rate

The number of deaths per year per 1,000 people.

crude birth rate

The number of live births per year per 1,000 people.

high infant mortality (reasons for large families)

The percentage of children who die before their first birthday within a particular area or country. One of the main factors leading to large families - have more children as some will die, but 50% will survive = large population growth

demographic transition model (DTM)

The process of change in a society's population from a condition of high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and a higher total population.

demography

The scientific study of population characteristics.

human carrying capacity

Theoretical estimates of the numbers of humans who could inhabit Earth at the same time

SEEA

Usually The System of Environmental-Economic Accounting - sometimes Socio-economic Environmental Assessment valuation of a nations environment with the aim of encouraging nations to conserve their natural capital

population pyramids

Visual representations of the age and sex composition of a population whereby the percentage of each age group (generally five-year increments) is represented by a horizontal bar the length of which represents its relationship to the total population. The males in each age group are represented to the left of the center line of each horizontal bar; the females in each age group are represented to the right of the center line

population

a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time, and which are capable of interbreeding

species

a group of organisms sharing common characteristics that interbreed and produce fertile offspring

entropy

a measure of the amount of disorder in a system

styrofoam

a plastic material used commonly in packing or takeaway foods - takes 500 years to break down/dissolve

system

a set of inter-related parts working together to make a complex whole

model

a simplified version of reality that can be used to understand how a system works and predict how it will respond to change

unstable equilibrium

a system that returns to a new equilibrium after a disturbance

stable equilibrium

a system that tends to return to the same equilibrium after a disturbance

systems approach

a way of visualizing a complex set of interactions which may be ecological or societal

environmental value system (EVS)

a world view or paradigm that shapes the way an individual or group of people perceive and evaluate environmental issues. This is influenced by cultural, religious, economic, and socio-political context.

solid domestic waste (SDW)

all the solid waste created by households: - biodegradable - recyclable - WEEE (waste electrical and electronic equipment) - hazardous - toxic - medical - inert - mixed

landfill

also known as a dump; a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the oldest form of waste treatment.

producers (autotrophs)

an organism which produces its own food

provide education (ways to reduce family sizes)

basic literacy in adults and children has been shown to reduce birth rates

anthropocentric worldview

believes humans must sustainably manage the global system; places humans as central species & assess environmental needs from human perspective

technocentric worldview

believes that technological developments can provide solutions to environmental problems

improve health (ways to reduce family sizes)

by preventing spread of diseases, increased hygiene, improved nutrition, simple medicines and vaccinations - all these will reduce child mortality = reduction in birth rate

steady-state equilibrium

characteristics of open systems where there are continuous inputs and outputs of energy and matter, but the system as a whole remains in a more-or-less constant state

natural incease

crude birth rate - crude death rate / 10 (ignore migration)

Stage 5 - DMT

declining - fertility rate is dropping even further and death rate is low - average number of children is less than 2, and so population size is decreasing - only in some MEDCs (such as in Europe)

enhanced income (ways to reduce family sizes)

e.g. microlending may provide opportunities for families to provide for themselves, and possibly even create small businesses

Stage 2 - DMT

early expanding - high birth rate but decreasing death rate due to improved economy, food supply and health - large population increase in an LEDC

children as an economic asset (reasons for large families)

especially in agricultural societies - children are needed to work on the farms

closed system

exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings

open system

exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings

isolated system

exchanges neither matter nor energy with its surroundings

cornucopians

extreme technocentrists who see the world as having infinite resources to benefit humanity

Stage 1 - DMT

high stationary - high birth rate and high death rate in an LEDC

lack of contraceptives (reasons for large families)

in MEDCs, these are the prime reason for reduced birth rates however, in may LEDCs, people are too poor to buy them, or they are not available

status of women (reasons for large families)

in many societies, women still have a lower social position, and the belief is that they should stay home and look after children

anaerobic digestion

is the decomposition of waste under anaerobic conditions to produce biogas and a compost-like residue

Stage 3 - DMT

late expanding - death rate is still falling, birth rate is also starting to fall as access to contraceptives and family planning increases - still a large population increase in an LEDC

Stage 4 - DMT

low stationary - low birth rate and low death rate, this is in an MEDC - means population growth slows or even reaches 0

environmental managers

moderate technocentrists who see the Earth as a garden that needs tending - the stewardship worldview.

non-use evaluation

natural capital that is almost impossible to put a price on - the intrinsic value (right to exist) - future uses that do not know about yet (science, medicines, gene pool) - value in existing for future generations - existence value

use valuation

natural capital that we can put a price on - economic price in market - ecological functions, e.g. water storage or gas exchange in forests - recreational function, e.g. tourism, leisure

static equilibrium

no change over time

consumers (heterotrophs)

obtain their food by eating other organisms

primary succession

occurs on a bare inorganic surface, involving the colonization of newly created land by organisms

transformation

occurs when energy or matter flows and changes its state - a change in the chemical nature, a change in state or a change in energy

transfer

occurs when energy or matter flows and changes location but does not change its state

ecological footprint calculation

per capita food consumption (kg/ha/yr) ------------------------------------------------ mean food production per hectare of arable land (kg/ha/yr) + per capita CO2 emission (kg C/yr) ------------------------------------------------ net fixation per hectare of local natural vegetation (kg C/ha/yr)

greying of Europe

population growth of Europe is falling, and its population is ageing

deep ecologists

put more value on nature than humanity. They believe in biorights - universal rights where all species and ecosystems have an inherent value and humans have no right to interfere with this

ecocentric worldview

puts ecology and nature as central to humanity

biocentric worlview

see all life as having inherent value - value for its own sake, not just for humans

demographics

statistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it.

linear economy

take, make, dump industrial economy that the material flows only go one way, from resource o production to consumption to waste without reentering the biosphere or circulation

biosphere

that part of the Earth inhabited by organisms. It extends from the upper atmosphere down to the deepest parts of the oceans which support life.

fertility rate

the average number of children a woman of childbearing years would have in her lifetime, if she had children at the current rate for her country

zonation

the change in community along an environmental gradient due to factors such as changes in altitude, latitude, tidal level or distance from shore/coverage by water

turbidity

the cloudiness of a body of fresh water

salinity

the concentration of salts expressed in 0/00 (parts of salt per thousand parts of water)

productivity

the conversion of energy into biomass over a given period of time. It is the rate of growth or biomass increase in plants and animals. It is measured per unit area per unit time.

respiration

the conversion of organic matter into carbon dioxide and water in all living organisms, releasing energy.

dynamic nature of natural capital

the importance of a resource which changes over time e.g. flint - in past extremely important for tools, now, not so uranium - in the past, unknown, unable to utilise, now - extremely valuable due to increased nuclear power

maximum sustainable yield

the maximum rate at which a renewable resource can be exploited without impairing its ability to be renewed or replenished

trophic level

the position that an organism occupies in a food chain, or in a group of organisms in a community that occupy the same position in food chains

photosynthesis

the process by which green plants make their own food from water and carbon dioxide using energy from sunlight

succession

the process of change over time in an ecosystem involving pioneer, intermediate and climax communities

recycle (strategies for minimising waste)

the sorting of materials into different types, and then transported to recycling plants

security in old age (reasons for large families)

the tradition in the family is that the children look after the parents/grandparents - therefore, more children = more care

efficiency

the useful energy, the work or output produced by a process divided by the amount of energy consumed

increase availability of contraceptives (ways to reduce family sizes)

to allow for family planning

reduce (strategies for minimising waste)

use fewer resources - the best way to reduce SDW

exploitation

use or utilization, especially for profit - often has negative inference

secondary succession

when an already established community is destroyed. Occurs on soils that have already developed.

tipping point

when an ecosystem experiences a shift to a new state in which there are significant changes to its biodiversity and the services it provides.

reuse (strategies for minimising waste)

when products are used for something other than their original purpose when returned to the manufacturer