IIO

def of global governance

"...the sum of the informal and formal ideas, values, norms, procedures, and institutions that help all actors - states, NGOs, civil society, and TNCs - identify, understand, and address trans-boundary problems"

Global governance: Academic definition

"...the sum of the informal and formal ideas, values, norms, procedures, and institutions that help all actors - states, NGOs, civil society, and TNCs - identify, understand, and address trans-boundary problems" Increasing range of participating non-state actors 1992: 20,000 participants 2012: 50,000 participants High degree of legitimacy through inclusion of civil society actors Important or the creation of IGOs and multilateral agreements

Social constructivism and IO

"Anarchy is what states make of it." (Wendt 1999) Norms, ideas, discourse and culture matter. Social constructivism is a meta-theory, on logics of action: logic of appropriateness vs. logic of consequences. Social constructivists investigate: 'the social content of organizations and the dominant norms that govern behavior and shape interests, and (...) decipher how these interests in turn influence actors.' IGOs are actors who shape (socially construct) world politics. Important actors: norm entrepreneurs, advocacy networks; epistemic communities, Taking non-state actors into consideration IGOs: "construct the social world in which cooperation and choice takes place." - Constitutive power (Barnett and Finnamore 2005) - conceiving IOs as autonomous actors

The tragedy of the commons

"Each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit - in a world that is limited. Ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own best interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons." Elinor Ostrom (Nobel Prize in Economics): Sustainable development and the tragedy of commons: "we need institutions to deal with complexity" Few general IOs, the majority is rather small and addresses specific aspects

Burdensharing (NATO)

"I want to keep NATO, but I want them to pay (...). We're protecting countries that most of the people in this room have never even heard of and we end up in world war three... Give me a break.' - Trump In 2018, the Netherlands spends approximately 1,35 % of its GDP on defense, European average:1,47%

Critical perspectives on the foundation of the UN

"an Alliance of the Great Powers embedded in a universal organization" Underestimated importance of British imperial thought in the creation of the UN: - e.g. role of Jan Smuts (preamble of the UN Charter): the UN as a mechanism to keep imperialist, colonialist structure - Drafting of the UN Charter heavily influenced by lessons from the failure of the League of Nations Keep allied powers together at all means (veto powers, permanent seats on SC)

Commission on Global Governance (1995)

"the sum of the many ways individuals and institutions, public and private, manage their common affairs. It is a continuing process through which conflicting or diverse interests may be accomodated and cooperative action may be taken. It includes normal...as well as informal arrangements that people and institutions have agreed to or perceive to be in their interest"

Intergovernmentalism vs. Supranationalism

'Intergovernmentalism refers to interaction among states which takes place on the basis of sovereign independence. Pooling of sovereignty among states 'Supranationalism is the existence of an authority that is higher than that of the nation-state and capable of imposing its will on it.' (Heywood 2011: 458) Delegation of sovereignty from states to supranational authority

institution

'a body of norms, rules and practices that shape behaviour and expectations, without necessarily having the physical character of an international organisation' ..it is a set of rules that organizes social and political practice

International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes

(ICSID, 1966) 161 participating states. Mediation and arbitration of investment conflicts between member states and private investors from other countries. Cases can only be discussed on a voluntary basis. So both parties must agree to refer a case to the ICSID. Decisions of the ICSID are binding.

International Development Association

(IDA, 1962) IDA consists of 173 participating states. Gives credit to the about 80 lowest-income countries (below GDP of $1.1 per capita). More favorable conditions than IBRD: no interests and long term (30-50 years) Focus on development

Theoretical perspectives on global environmental governance (neorealist)

(Neo-)Realism: - role of hegemon; - likelihood for cooperation increases with climate change being conceived as a security threat ("threat multiplier")

Initial steps towards an agreement (env:)

- 1988 Toronto Conference on the Changing Atmosphere: demand for an international convention, foundation of the IPCC by UNEP and WMO - 1990 Washington Conference (convened by UNEP): EU/AOSIS - US/OPEC divide - International Negotiating Committee set up by UN GA in 1990 preparation of a framework convention - 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change, signed by 150 states at the Rio Conference ('Earth Summit'): commitment to return to 1990 levels of emissions

Reasons for success (the Montreal Protocol )

- Actors: strong coalition led by powerful states ("Toronto Group": US, Canada, Scandinavian states) - Epistemic communities with high legitimacy - Domestic pressure: American public - Hegemonic leadership: US threatened to ban EU products EU changed position from resistance to agreement - Concessions to developing countries acceptance - Technical solution: invention of chemical replacements for CFCs - Compliance monitoring: annual reports by states to UNEP secretariat (monitoring and domestic by NGOs and rising green parties)

The origins of the EU: early ideas

- Count Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi: "Pan-Europa" (1923) suggested union of peoples of Europe - Aristide Briand (1930): "L'organisation d'un régime d'union fédérale européenne" suggested a European federation ("common market", "European Union") - Édouard Herriot (1924) and Winston Churchill (1946): suggested a "United States of Europe" Dominant theoretical approach: federalism

Theoretical perspectives on global environmental governance (Liberalism)

- Domestic pressure through civil society

Compliance (IIO)

- Explicit compliance: States explicitly decide to be part of an IGO or not ('consent to be bound'). States may explicitly follow or violate the rules of the IGO. -Implicit compliance: IGOs influence states and that leads to implicit compliance.IGOs shape the environment in which states operate(multilateralism for example) and with it the states' goals and objectives.

The failure of the League of Nations , lessons for today?

- Failure to solve Sino-Japanese conflict: no enforcement in reaction to open breach of Covenant; Japan withdrawal of membership - Dilemma of peace vs. disarmament (balance-of-power theory) No collective defense - Predominance of national interests on the side of the powerful states (GB showed no will to uphold the Covenant) Loss of credibility - Economic nationalism - Easy membership withdrawal

Paris Agreement: important achievements

- Legally binding (in contrast to Copenhagen) - Global application (97% of UNFCCC parties have handed in intended NDCs) - Core obligations but flexible approach - Long-term perspective and pledges - Review every 5 years: monitoring implementation - New model of climate action: bottom-up, facilitative regime Anchored and institutionalized commitments from sub-/non-state actors (cities, companies, etc.)

Theoretical perspectives on global environmental governance (Constructivism)

- Norms: ecological integrity; identity of a "good state" - Environmental activists as norm entrepreneurs - Autonomous effects of institutions

international regime

- Principles: beliefs of fact, causation and rectitude - Norms: standards of behaviour defined in terms of rights and obligations - Rules: specific prescriptions or proscriptions for action - Decision-making procedures: prevailing practices for making and implementing collective choices

UNEP criticism

- Size/ budget - Structure (subsidiary program, not specialized agency) - Lack of enforcement power - Logistics/ location

Theoretical perspectives on global environmental governance (neo-institutionalism)

- interdependence: environmental problems as cross-border phenomenon with effects even on powerful states - Cooperation helps to maximize gains; reduce costs

Theoretical perspectives on global environmental governance (neo-realism)

- role of hegemon; - likelihood for cooperation increases with climate change being conceived as a security threat ("threat multiplier")

UNGA: main committees

1) Disarmament and International Security Committee 2) Economic and Financial Committee 3) Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee 4) Special Political and Decolonization Committee 5) Administrative and Budgetary Committee (5th) 6) Legal Committee Committee tasks: prepare draft statements and draft resolutions and report back to the plenary meeting.

Theories of regional integration

1) Federalism 2) Functionalism 3) Neofunctionalism 4) Intergovernmentalism

Theories of Regionalism

1) Federalism: substantive integration steps through treaties; creation of a supranational authority as end-point 2) Functionalism: incremental steps towards integration, 'form follows function' 3) Neofunctionalism: interplay between economics ('low politics') and security ('high politics') spillover Critique: limits of applicability; overemphasis on states' willingness to cooperate; limited by specific historical factors as scope conditions

WTO Dispute Settlement

1) First attempt of bilateral resolution 2) Complaint to the WTO 3) WTO appoints a panel of three trade experts who write a report 4) The complaining and accused country can go into appeal to the Appellate Body. 5) Second appeal possible: Dispute Settlement Body (DSB). The DSB approves or rejects (never happened) the report. The decision of the DSB is legally binding. 6) In case of non-compliance with the decision of the DSB, economic sanctions allowed

main organs of the UN

1) General Assembly 2) Security Council 3) Secretariat 4) Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) 5) International Court of Justice 6) Trusteeship Council (until 1994: de-colonization)

States and other entities in the UN

1) Member states (193) 2) Non-member observer states (2): Holy See, State of Palestine (since 2012). Until its membership in 2002 Switzerland belonged to this category. 3) IGOs with observer status (for example AU, OAS etc) 4) EU (which got enhanced observer status in 2011) The UNGA decides what rights observers have: 1)Right to speak 2)Right to vote on procedural matters EU (since 2011): right to - speak, - voting on procedural matters, - submit proposals, amend proposals, circulate documents , etc. but no right to vote on matters of substance.

Categorisation 1 of IGO

1) Membership - Universal: every state can become a member (UN) - Limited: only some states can become amember (EU)

Defining a 'region'

1) Traditional: geographical proximity, degree of mutual interdependence 2) Constructivist: shared identity, norms and values in-group vs. out-group 'The extent of regional integration may (..) range from (..) primarily intergovernmentalism (e.g. ASEAN) to (..) supranationalism (EU)'.

Regionalism and the economy

1) free trade agreement: a agreement between trading partners to lower or completely take away tariffs an other trade barriers. 2) customs union: free trade area with a common external tariff 3) common/internal market: free movement of goods, services and capital. 4) economic union: a common/internal market and far reaching cooperation on economic and monetary policy. 5) economic and monetary/currency union: common market and a common currency (EU). Low integration going down tp high integration based on these steps.

ILO Organization

1)International Labour Conference (plenary organ) meets annually to discuss new labor standards. 2) International Labour Office (secretariat; bureaucratic support) 3)Governing Body (executive organ with 56 members). Meets regularly; monitoring function. Special: Principle of Tripartism - Government representatives - Employer representatives - Labour group representatives

three forces of IOs in world politics

1)Obligations 2)Compliance 3)Enforcement

Core ILO Conventions

1. Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87) 2. Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 (No. 98) 3. Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) 4. Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) 5. Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) 6. Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) 7. Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100) 8. Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111)

ICJ jurisdiction: types of cases

1. Legal disputes between states ("contentious jurisdiction") that have recognized jurisdiction of the ICJ - Ad hoc acceptance - Based on treaty clause - Based on general acceptance of the jurisdiction of the ICJ in all potential disputes with other states ("optional clause declarations") 2. Requests for advisory opinions on legal questions referred to the court by UN organs and specialized agencies ("advisory proceedings")

Reform of the UN Security Council

1. Size UNSC 2. Regional distribution 3. Permanent membership Competition for permanent seats: G4 (Germany, India, Japan, Brasil) vs. Uniting for Consensus / Coffee Club (Italy, Spain, Pakistan, South Korea, Argentina among others) 4. Veto power High-Level Panel proposal: "Responsibility Not To Veto" Factors hindering reform: path dependency See also theory of historical institutionalism

The history of the EU - an alternative account

1. The EU as a peace project 2. The EU as an economic project 3. The EU as an imperial project: Eurafrica - Schuman Plan: "development of African continent" as "essential task"; solve the overpopulation problem of Europe, secure resources (Sahara as "desert Ruhr") - Treaty of Rome: Eurafrica as pre-condition for France, opposed by the Netherlands Original idea: include French and Belgian Africa in common market Compromise: colonial association scheme, special agreement for Algeria (Part IV, Articles 131-136) - Eurafrica replaced colonialist rhetoric by development, progress, interdependence, and mutual benefits.

UN Security Council

15 members (P5+10) 10 non-permanent members elected in GA for 2 years (Art. 23 Charter), determined by geographical distribution Primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security (Art. 24 Charter) Allowed to establish subsidiary bodies (Art. 29 Charter), e.g. • International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993-2017) • Counter Terrorism Committee (2001) • 1540 Committee on Non-proliferation (2004) • Peacebuilding Commission (2005)

Specialised agencies

15 specialised agencies, coordinated by ECOSOC Independent IGOs created outside of or by the UN organs, e.g. World Bank, IMF, WHO, UNESCO, ILO, etc. Functional specialization, e.g. food, labour, agriculture, intellectual property etc

Specialized Agencies

15 specialized agencies, coordinated by ECOSOC Independent IGOs created outside of or by the UN organs with own founding treaty and procedures, e.g. World Bank, IMF, WHO, UNESCO, ILO, etc. Functional specialization, e.g. food, labour, agriculture, intellectual property etc. Financed by member states through assessed contributions and voluntary contributions.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) intro

17 July 1998: 120 states sign the Rome Statute. 1 July 2002: the Statute enters into force and the ICC becomes operational. Currently, the ICC has 122 members. Africa: 33 Asia-Pacific: 18 Eastern-Europe: 18 Latin-America and Caribbean: 28 Western-Europe and Others: 25 Important non-members: US, China, Russia and India.

first IGOs?

1815: Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine 1865: International Telegraph Union (ITU). 1874: Universal Postal Union (UPU) 1875: International Bureau of Weights and Measure 1885: International Railway Congress Association 1893: International Bureau for the Protection of Intellectual Property

The Bretton Woods Conference

1944 44 participating states (US and UK dominated) Objectives: - reconstruct war-torn Europe - prevent or at least mitigate an economic crisis like in the 1930's (the Great Depression) Economic liberalism: free market to preserve economic and financial stability Institutions: World Bank & International Monetary Fund Specialized agencies of the UN system

NATO Treaty: Community of values

1949 "The Parties to this Treaty reaffirm their faith in the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and their desire to live in peace with all peoples and all governments. They are determined to safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilisation of their peoples, founded on the principles of DEMOCRACY, INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY AND RULE OF LAW."

NATO membership enlargement

1952: Greece and Turkey 1955: Germany 1982: Spain 1999: Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary. 2004: Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia 2009: Albania and Croatia 2017: Montenegro Briefly considered: Ukraine and Georgia

Further important integration steps (EU)

1969: First discussion about a potential European Monetary Union 1970: European Political Cooperation (EPC) starts on a voluntary basis (predecessor of the European Foreign and Security Policy). 1979: First direct elections for the European Parliament 1985: Schengen Agreement 1986: Single European Act 1992: Treaty of Maastricht 2010: Lisbon Treaty

Global environmental governance timeline

1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment (creation of UNEP) 1992 Rio Conference on Environment and Development (sustainability; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); Convention on Biological Diversity) 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development 2012 Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (High Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development) 2015 Agenda 2030 (Sustainable Development Goals)

The Kyoto Protocol

1997 Kyoto Protocol (adopted at COP3 in Kyoto), entered into force in 2005 (without US, who signed but never ratified, and Canada, who withdrew in 2015) 192 parties (191 member states, one organization: EU) target: reduce greenhouse gas emissions until 2012 established Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

The GATT Negotiation Rounds

2001-2015: Doha Round (~160 participants) - Failure to reach an agreement to continue negotiations Increasing bilateral trade agreements

The Responsibility to Protect (R2P)

2005 World Summ it Outcome Document: • Responsibility to prevent • Responsibility to react • Responsibility to rebuild With authorization of the UN SC (!) EX: UNSC Resolution 1973 (17 March 2011) authorized military actions in Libya: "Reiterating the responsibility of the Libyan authorities to protect the Libyan population (...)" "Authorizes Member States (...), to take all necessary measures (...) to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (...)".

EU-NATO Relationship after Lisbon

2016 "NATO-EU strategic partnership. Areas of cooperation: - cyber threats - security sector reform - maritime security etc. The EU as an independent security actor? - 3 Scenarios (Howorth 2017): - Unravelling of European integration - Co-existence/ duplication of resources - Europeanization of NATO

Further steps: Paris agreement

2016 Paris Agreement: 180 of 197 Parties to the Convention have ratified the agreement until today: - Commitment to restrict increase of temperature to well below 2 degrees (1.5 in the long run) - nationally determined contributions (NDCs) - Financial assistance to developing countries to reduce emissions and build resilience - Capacity-building framework

NATO Foundation

4 March 1947: Treaty of Dunkirk (France and UK): establishing a post-war Western European security arrangement 1949: North Atlantic Treaty NATO Founding members: US, UK, Canada, the Benelux countries, France, Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Portugal and Italy NATO was primarily established as a military alliance. Lord Ismay (1st Secretary-General): 'NATO was created to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down' (as quoted in Kashmeri 2011: 22) President Eisenhower (1949): "If NATO is still needed in 10 years, it will have failed in its mission".

Importance of the WTO

97% of the world trade takes place between WTO members 99% of import tariffs of developed countries are under WTO rule - Rule-setting function - Transparency: fixed and public list of import tariffs for all products - Court-like dispute settlement procedures for complaints

Lisbon Treaty (2010): Objectives

A more effective EU: • More majority decision-making in Council of Ministers • President of the EU, more influential High Rep. Foreign Policy and European External Action Service More democratic legitimacy: • More power to the European Parliament • More attention for subsidiarity • European citizens initiative • A reference to the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights A treaty and no constitution. Abolished the pillar structure from Maastricht Treaty Establishes EU international legal personality (before only EC, Euratom, European Central Bank and the European Investment Bank). EU membership in other IOs

3 views of the characteristics of IGOs in IR

Actor, Fora, Instrument

The Treaty of Rome (1957): EEC

Actually two treaties: 1) European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) 2) European Economic Community (EEC): - Purpose: creation of a single market within 12 years (free movement of people, capital and services) - Elimination of customs and establishment of common external tariffs - Common policies on agriculture, trade transport and competition - European Social Fund, European Investment Bank

UN International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)

Ad hoc international criminal tribunal (1993-2017) Established in 1994 by the UNSC (resolution 827). Judges on the crimes committed in the former Yugoslavia after 1 January 1991. Last cases: - Ratko Mladić, sentenced to life imprisonment on 22 November. - Slobodan Praljak, 20-year sentence (appeal rejected)

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)

Ad hoc international criminal tribunal established on 8 November 1994 by the UNSC (resolution 955) Judges on crimes committed from 1 January 1994 to 31 December 1994 in Rwanda. Closed on 31 December 2015.

The Council of the EU: decision-making

Aim: consensus in decision-making. In case of voting: mostly qualified majority (55 percent of the member states (so 16 out of 28) who represent at least 65 percent of EU population), unless the Lisbon Treaty demands otherwise. In 80 percent of the cases qualified majority voting is used Unanimity is required for politically sensitive issues (e.g. financial support for Greece during the crisis).

Regional groups in the UN

Aim: facilitate the geographical distribution of members in UN committees and the presidency of the UNGA 1) African Group (54) 2) Asia-Pacific Group (53) 3) Eastern-Europe Group (23) 4) Latin American and the Caribbean (GRULAC) (33) 5) Western Europe and Others Group (WEOG) (28)

Trusteeship Council (UN)

Aim: national self-determination/ independence Took over the role of the Mandates Commission from the League of Nations. Main difference: all trust territories were prepared for independence. Last territory: Palau (independent in 1994)

LN assembly

All members of the League of Nations are represented (plenary organ) 'The Assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting peace in the world' (Art.3) It meets 'at stated intervals and from time to time, as occasion may require' (Art. 3). Decisions-making: mostly by unanimity. Exceptions: admitting new members (2/3 majority, Art.1), election of non-permanent members of the Council (simple majority, Art.4), procedural decisions (simple majority, Art. 5), approval of the Secretary General (simple majority, Art. 6).

Start of UN issues

April 1945 (San Francisco Opera House): United Nations Conference on International Organization Matters of dispute: - Role of regional organizations - Right to veto of permanent members in SC - Status of ICJ jurisdiction - Role of colonies/ independence

Conditions for UN SC reform

Art. 108 Charter: 2/3 majority in the UN GA. 1) The 2/3 majority of states need to ratify the amendment (so the amendment needs to be accepted on the domestic level as well). 2) The 2/3 majority should include the P5. Stalemate in reform of composition; focus on reform of working methods: more transparency, less vetoes

Most-favored Nation principle

Article 1 GATT: The best agreement made with another country serves as the standard for agreements with other countries. (1) simplifies the global trade system (2) leads to lower import tariffs The principle includes 'any advantage, favour, privilege' and not only tariffs. Most conflicts in the WTO involve the accusation of a breach of the MFN principle.

NATO Treaty: Diplomacy first

Article 1: 'The Parties undertake, as set forth in the Charter of the United Nations, to settle any international dispute in which they may be involved by PEACEFUL MEANS [...], and to refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.'

NATO Treaty: Economic dimension

Article 2: 'The Parties will contribute toward the further development of peaceful and friendly international relations by strengthening their free institutions, [...]. They will seek to ELIMINATE CONFLICT IN THEIR INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC POLICIES and will ENCOURAGE ECONOM IC COLLABORATION between any or all of them.'

NATO Treaty: Capacities

Article 3: 'In order more effectively to achieve the objectives of this Treaty, the Parties, separately and jointly, by means of continuous and effective self-help and mutual aid, will MAINTAIN AND DEVELOP THEIR INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE CAPACITY to resist armed attack.' Member states are expected to contribute to NATO. No NATO collective armed forces. -Instead: collective capabilities, e.g. Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS).

NATO Treaty: Mutual assistance

Article 4: 'The Parties will consult together whenever, in the opinion of any of them, the territorial integrity, political independence or security of any of the Parties is threatened.' Example: NATO assistance to Turkey in 2013

NATO Treaty: Collective defense

Article 5: - armed attack against one shall be considered an attack against them all - right of individual or collective self-defense - action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force Reported to UN Security Council Terminated if UN Security Council "has taken necessary measures" Invoked once: after terrorist attacks on the US on 11 Sept 2001

NATO Treaty: UN Security Council primacy

Article 7: 'This Treaty does not affect, and shall not be interpreted as affecting in any way the rights and obligations under the Charter of the Parties which are members of the United Nations, or the primary responsibility of the Security Council for the maintenance of international peace and security.' UNSC as the highest authority NATO did not always respect this norm (Kosovo intervention in 1999 without SC authorization).

National Treatment (GATT)

Article III(4) GATT: 'The products of the territory of any contracting party imported into the territory of any other contracting party shall be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to the like products of national origin'. Prohibits discrimination between domestic and imported goods Condition: 'like' product exceptions: General exceptions: necessary measures to protect human, animal or plant life/health - Security exceptions: protect essential national security interests - Regional trade agreements (e.g. NAFTA, EU, CETA, TTIP) - Balance-of-payments: measures to safeguard external financial situation - Temporary waivers

Organs of the LN

Assembly Council Permanent Secretariat Permanent Court of International Justice

The role of IOs in global climate governance

Assist implementation: - Financing - administering and overseeing flexible mechanisms (emissions trading schemes) Monitoring (reporting): state reports are scrutinized by an independent Compliance Committee composed of 20 experts nominated by the Conference of the Parties Information on research and current data

categorisation 4 of IGOs

Authority (decision-making authority) - Intergovernmental: interaction between states based on horizontal authority, ie: pooled sovereignty - Supranational: interaction between states-based on vertical authority (hierarchy) ie: delegated sovereignty

Uniting for Peace resolution

Based on resolution 377, the UNGA can convene emergency special sessions within 24 hours. Conditions: 1) nine UNSC members in favour of such a session. The veto powers may not be used in this situation. 2) Approval by a majority of the members of the UNGA. 10 emergency special sessions: e.g. deployment of a peacekeeping operation: UNEF I on Sinai (1956); UN GA: decision-making (Art. 18)mandate extension of ONUC mission in Congo (1960- 1964) Most recent emergency meeting on status of Jerusalem (December 2017), within the 10th emergency special session on Israel

Bound tariffs

Bound tariffs: ceilings for import taxes on specific goods: - Legally binding - Amended through negotiations (e.g. Doha round) Coverage: 99% of all imports of affluent countries; 73% of developing countries imports Categorization of goods decided by World Customs Organization (WCO)

ICJ case: Iran v. USA (2018)

Case: Alleged violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America) Court decision (3 Oct 2018): - Ruled unanimously that the US should remove any impediments related to humanitarian needs, incl. food and medicine

Oldest IGO?

Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine 1815 - Seated in Strassbourg (Fr) - 5 member states - Small secretariat with 20 staff members

UN charter

Charter: 1) Foundation of an IO: every other inter-state treaty is subordinate 2) Agreement on certain rules in international relations: - Use of force - Sovereign equality

The Organization of American States (defence)

Collective defence: Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance ('Rio Treaty' 1947) Article 3 : 'The High Contracting Parties agree that an armed attack by any State against an American State shall be considered as an attack against all the American States and, consequently, each one of the said Contracting Parties undertakes to assist in meeting the attack in the exercise of the inherent right of individual or collective self defense recognized by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations.'

NATO budget

Common funding and joint funding: • Common funding: assessed contributions (GDP; defense budgets) • Joint funding: voluntary contributions to concrete projects NATO military missions (e.g. Afghanistan, Libya) paid by participating states

Categorisation 2 of IGO

Competence - Comprehensive/ general purpose: IO deals with many different issues and topics (UN) - Limited/ issue-specific: IO focuses on a specific theme (WTO)

Example: complaints against Qatar

Complaint launched by International Transport Workers' Federation (ITF) and International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) in 2014 against Qatar for the non-observance of 1) the 1930 Forced Labour Convention 2) the 1947 Labour Inspection Convention ILO decision: one year to reform Kafala system Complaints dropped in November 2017 after reforms had been introduced (e.g. accommodation, bank payment)

ASEAN

Core principles: non-intervention in internal affairs; intergovernmentalism - Peaceful dispute resolution - Prevention of competing military alliances - Common solutions to common problems Example: 'constructive engagement' with Myanmar through the so-called 'ASEAN method' Current forms of cooperation: 'ASEAN plus 3' (Japan, China, South Korea) 'ASEAN minus X practice'

What does the WB do? (IBRD)

Credits to finance non-private sector economic activities Main clients: mid-income countries and credit-worthy low-income countries (against interest) Conditions for WB credit: good governance, economic reforms etc. Sectoral patterns of investment: from agriculture and infrastructure to governance, infrastructure, education, health-care and public sector reforms Other activities: - Research on development issues (e.g. Annual World Development Report) - Economic advice to governments

Functionalism

David Mitrany (1966): "form follows function" Cooperation in specific policy fields (function) lead to the creation of institutions (form) which further stimulate cooperation. Emphasis: rational decision of states to transfer responsibilities to supranational institutions.

UN Security Council: decision-making

Decisions are legally binding (Art. 25 Charter). Substantive decisions: 9 affirmative votes, including the P5 (veto power) (Art. 27 Charter). Procedural decisions: 9 votes (no veto possible) 'Affirmative vote' vs. Practice of abstentions: E.g. resolution 1973 (Libya) adopted with five abstentions, including 2 P-5 members: China, Russia, India, Brasil, and Germany.

ICJ jurisdiction: decisions

Decisions are public. Separate opinions as well as dissenting opinions are allowed. Judgements are legally binding; advisory opinions are not. There is no opportunity for appeal. However, it is possible to request a more detailed argumentation and interpretation of the decision. It is also possible to request a new process if important new facts appear.

Certain Expenses of the United Nations. Advisory Opinion of 20 July 1962

Demand for legal advice by UN GA on dispute relating to the Uniting for peace resolution. SU and France refused to pay contribution to the regular UN budget, based on the argument that the UNGA was not allowed to finance the Congo mission. ICJ decision (9:5): UN GA financing of the Congo mission was legal. Political consequence: introduction of a separate budget for peacekeeping operations.

Global climate governance: failure?

Dilemma: ecological vs. short-term economic interests Problem: - The average temperature has increased by 0.8 degrees Celsius since 1880 due to greenhouse gas emissions - Two-thirds of the warming has occurred since 1975 acceleration Why should we care? - Rising sea levels - Extreme weathers - Deteriorating food, water and living conditions

The European Court of Human Rights (dilemma)

Dilemmas: - caseload crisis; - membership; - lack of enforcement: repeated applications; - varying compliance (depending on domestic institutions) The Court cannot overrule or annul domestic legislation Supervision of implementation of court decisions by the CoE Committee of Ministers

LN committees and agencies

Disarmament Committees Permanent Mandates Commission International Labour Organisation League of Nations Health Organization

IGOs responsible for Env. and climate

EU, IPCC, UNEP

ILO: Compliance

Ensured through -Tripartism -Voluntarism trade-off between substance of regulations and degree of compliance reporting still required even if convention not adopted by a state

Environmental governance

Environmental governance is distinct because - non-cooperation can actively undermine cooperation (in contrast to trade) - Importance of science/ academia ("epistemic communities") - Wide range of issues: from protection of specific species and habitat to reducing carbon emissions

Neo-Functionalism

Ernst Haas (1924-2003): influence of functional (for example economic) cooperation on political cooperation. Concept of spillover: 'A process through which the creation and deepening of integration in one economic area creates pressure for further economic integration, and, potentially for political integration'. Automatic acceleration: "ever closer union", supranationalism

The World Bank

Established as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) Objectives: 1) Poverty reduction 2) Economic development Currently: 189 member states, group of 5 institutions World Bank Group

ICJ jurisdiction: sources of law

Established by Yerodia case (Article 38(1)): 1) International conventions 2) Customary law 3) National legal systems 4) Judicial scholarship Puzzle: comparatively high compliance rate despite weak enforcement mechanisms

The Organization of American States

Established in 1948 by the Pact of Bogota (Colombia) OAS Charter (Art. 2): - To strengthen the peace and security of the continent; - To promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due respect for the principle of nonintervention; - To prevent possible causes of difficulties and to ensure the pacific settlement ofdisputes that may arise among the Member states; (...) - To eradicate extreme poverty; - To achieve an effective limitation of conventional weapons that will make it possible to devote the largest amount of resources to the economic and social development of the Member States.

Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (1)

Established in 2015 by 57 states, seated in Bejing Membership also comprises all European states, except Ireland and Belgium. Also allows non-sovereign members. Origins: - Economic competition between China and US - China's dissatisfaction with WB structure (favoring US) - Reducing bilateral tensions in the region

EU Institutions

European Commission European Parliament Council of Ministers European Council European Court of Justice

Integration optimism during the 1950s

European Defence Community (EDC) proposed in 1949: Pleven Plan: common defence, European army, European minister of defence rejected by French National Assembly in 1954 West European Union (WEU) created in 1954 as intergovernmental military cooperation at the initiative of Great Britain (in the shadow of NATO, ended in 2011) European Political Community (EPC) proposed in 1952: executive council, council of ministers, court of justice, parliament (idea died with end of EDC)

LN council

Executive organ of the League of Nations (Art. 4) Meets at least once a year (or 'as occasion may acquire') Six permanent members: GB, France, Italy (until 1937), Japan (until 1933), Germany (1926-1933) and the SU (1934-1939). Four non-permanent members: elected by the Assembly 'from time to time in its discretion' 'Any member (..) not represented in the Council shall be invited to sit as member (..) during the consideration of matters specifically affecting the interests of that Member of the League.' 'The Council may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting peace in the world ' (Art.4) Decision-making by unanimity (unless otherwise expressively provided in the Covenant: procedural decisions (Art. 5) and the adoption of a report on an international dispute (Art. 15.4)). Forum: Council as a meeting place. Discussion and production of reports. Conflict resolution done by member states.

Rational design

Explains why IGO's have a specific organisational structure. Assumes a rational and logic driven decision-making process during the foundation of IGOs. Factors driving centralization of IOs (Koremenos, Lipson and Snidal 2001): 1) The level of uncertainty about the behavior of member states 2) The level of uncertainty in world politics 3) The number of member states (more states is more centralisation) 4) The extent to which member states can get away with noncompliance.

enforcement (IIO)

Few IGOs have direct enforcement powers at their disposal. Exceptions: UNSC, IMF, WTO, EU. Most IGOs rely on indirect powers: 'public shaming' for example. But even in the absence of direct enforcement powers, states often comply with IGOs (and in fact international law more in general): 'compliance without enforcement'.

ASEAN intro

Founded in 1967 by Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand Later members: Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995), Laos, Myanmar (1997), and Cambodia (1999). Objective: regional security and economic development. ASEAN Security Community ASEAN Economic Community ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community ASEAN Charter since 2008: international legal personality

categorisation 3 of IGOs

Function - Program organisation: makes policy and sets rules (UN) - Operational organisation: executes policy (IAEA)

trade and labour Agreements

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Rules on agricultural trade and subsidies (agriculture is not part of the GATT) Trade dispute resolution processes

international regime def.

Heywood (2014): '... a set of principles, procedures, norms or rules that govern the interactions of states and non-state actors in particular issues areas within international politics.' Classical definition: 'implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures around which actors' expectations converge in a given area of international relations'

What is the EU?

How should we study the EU? 1) The EU as a (special) IGO. 2) The EU as a unique political system (sui generis).

Reform demands: accountability

Human rights violations by UN peacekeepers - Haiti cholera - Human trafficking - Sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) - Abuse of power (transitional administrations) Problem of applicability of human rights to IOs (Mégret and Hoffmann 2003): • External conception • Internal conception • Hybrid conception Reforms: Code of Conduct; Conduct and Discipline Unit

what are IGOs

IGO's are organisations that include at least three states as members, that have activities in several states, and that are created through a formal intergovernmental agreement such as a treaty, charter, or statute an institution with formal procedures and a membership comprising three or more states. International organizations are characterized by rules that seek to regulate the relations amongst member states and by a formal structure that implements and enforces these rules they also have headquarters, executive heads, bureaucracies, and budgets

3 views of the characteristics of IGOs in IR INSTRUMENT

IGOs as instruments in the hands of their member states pursue their own personal interests. E.g. the strategy of the Bush administration to get the approval of the UN SC for an invasion in Iraq in 2003. Other examples: IMF; International Court of Justice Two-level game: states agree internationally and blame IO domestically

The history of the EU - an alternative account (euro-africa)

Idea of Eurafrica lost its power in 1960s, anti-colonial movement But: shaped post-colonial Africa and EU-Africa relations - Thwarted Pan-African movement (former French colonies opted for a financial association with EEC) - Reflected in later partnership agreements: - Yaoundé Convention 1964/1969; - Lomé Convention 1975; - Cotonou Agreement 2000; - Economic Partnership agreements (EPAs) and joint EU-Africa strategy since 2007)

UN GA: decision-making (Art. 18)

Important issues: 2/3 majority e.g. peace and security, election of members of the UNSC, ECOSOC and the Trusteeship Council, acceptance of new members, suspension of membership, and budgetary issues. Other issues: simple majority (including the question whether other issues should be decided by a 2/3 majority) Decisions of the UNGA are political recommendations and therefore not legally binding.

LN instruments to maintain peace n security

Instruments for maintaining peace and security: 1: Disarmament (Art. 8). 2: Peaceful resolution of disputes (Art. 12-17). 3: Conflict prevention (Art. 16,17,18, 20).

Private sector funding

International Finance Corporation (1956): 184 participating states. Supporting companies in developing countries. Promote private sector for economic development Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (1988): 156 participating states Insurances against non-commercial / political risks for private investors (e.g. civil war or expropriation) promote economic (foreign) investments in developing countries.

Foundation of UN 1940-45

January 1942 (Washington): Allied Powers (26 countries) sign the Declaration by the United Nations October 1943 (Moscow Declaration): US, USSR, UK and China declare the intention to establish a 'general international organization' when the war is over. November 1943 (Tehran): Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt: a 'world family of democratic nations'. Dumberton Oaks Conference (August-October 1944): Negotiations among great powers (UK, US, USSR, China) Learning from the failures of the League of Nations Yalta (February 1945): US, UK and USSR agree on voting procedure in the UNSC (veto rights).

The Nuremberg Tribunal

Judged on Nazi-officials between 1945 and 1949. Established by the US, UK, SU and France: London Charter of the International Military Tribunal, 8 August 1945. - Crimes against peace - War crimes - Crimes against humanity

Success story: the Montreal Protocol

Kofi Annan: "Perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol, in which states accepted the need to phase out the use of ozone-depleting substances." Use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) in refrigeration, hairsprays, deodorants etc. scientific data confirming ozone depletion in 1975 impact on health and genes Global environmental governance (UNEP with lead role): 1977 Washington Conference: World Plan of Action for theOzone Layer UNEP Governing Council working party to design a draft convention 1985 Vienna Convention: cooperation on research and data acquisition, signed by 22 states 1987 Montreal Conference: Montreal Protocol Universal ratification since 2009 1990 London Amendment: phase-out of most-damaging ozone depleting substances by 2000 (developed) and 2010 (developing countries) 1992 Copenhagen Amendment: phase-out in 1996 (developed) Further agreements: Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997), Bejing (1999)

IO bureaucracy

Led by a Secretary-General (UN, NATO) or a Director-General (OPCW, IAEA). Secretariat staff: international civil servants Independent of member state interests Cosmopolitan values among IO staff (Anderfuhren-Biget 2012) Staff hiring: regional distribution as key criteria Degree of authority: supportive, operational or decision-making

LN Permanent Secretariat

Led by the Secretary General, who is appointed by the Council with the approval of the majority of the Assembly. The secretariat existed of several departments: finances, disarmament, mandate territories etc. Main task: support the work of the Assembly and Council Secretary-Generals of the League United Kingdom, Sir Eric Drummond 1920-1933 France, Joseph Avenol 1933-1940 Ireland, Seán Lester 1940-1946

3 views of the characteristics of IGOs in IR ACTOR

Legally: IGOs are independent entities with legal personality. (ICJ opinion 1949 on Reparations for Injuries AND ICC statute: 'The court shall have international legal personality'. (Art. 4(1)) Politically: independent actorness through social recognition. -collective actors that are able to do what its constituent parts are unable to do on their own. - empirically evident through practices of influencing world politics (ICC arrest warrants; UN GA resolutions).

The European Court of Human Rights

Mechanism for individual complaints against member states - Since mid-1980s: significant increase in membership and complaints to ECtHR, over 60,000 complaints per year; mostly individual - Rules for application: individuals must have used all available domestic remedies in all instances before applying and apply within 6 months after final domestic decision Rights protected: - right to life; - the right to a fair hearing in civil and criminal matters; - the right to respect for private and family life; - freedom of expression; - freedom of thought, conscience and religion; - the right to an effective remedy; - the right to the peaceful enjoyment of possessions; - the right to vote and to stand for election. In case of substantiated violation: "just satisfaction" judgment compensation

UN Peacekeeping: Mandates

Multi-dimensional peacekeeping today: • Maintain peace & security • Protect civilians (PoC Res. S/2009/1894) • Support the organization of elections • Disarmament, demobilization, reintegration of former combatants (DDR) • Security Sector Reform (SSR) • Restore the rule of law • Promote human rights

NATO civilian structure

NATO HQ in Brussels, the permanent representative of the member states, the international staff members and several civilian agencies. The most important organs: -Secretary-General (European) -North Atlantic Council (plenary organ)

UN Peacekeeping

Not defined by the UN Charter Boutros-Ghali: "Agenda for Peace" 1992: "the deployment of a United Nations presence in the field, hitherto with the consent of all the parties concerned, normally involving United Nations military and/or police personnel and frequently civilians as well. Peacekeeping is an activity that expands the possibilities for both the prevention of conflict and the making of peace. (§ 20) No standing army National contingents wearing blue helmets Civilian staff recruited by UN Secretariat

Bretton Woods Conference (1944) (trade and labour)

Objective: creation of economic and financial institutions that would prevent or at least mitigate an economic crisis like in the 1930's (the Great Depression). Failed to establish the International Trade Organization (ITO). 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1995 GATT WTO Negotiation rounds on tariffs: Geneva (1947), Annecy (1949), Torquay (1950-51), Geneva (1956), Geneva (1960-61), the Kennedy Round (1964-67), the Tokyo Round (1973-79) and the Uruguay Round (1986-94)

NATO-Russia Council

Objective: permanent dialogue between Russia and NATO Equality Primarily forum for consultations; but with decision-making power Crises that have strained relations: Kosovo 1999, Georgia 2008 Ukraine crisis: NRC suspended in April 2014, but resumed meetings in 2016 NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg (July 2019): "Our discussion was frank but necessary. Allies and Russia hold fundamentally different views but we are committed to continuing our dialogue."

The International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Objectives: 1) International financial cooperation: ensuring international liquidity for investments 2) Monetary stability: adjusting to balance of payments difficulties 189 member states

The Council of Europe (1949) CoE

Objectives: prevent another war in Europe, establish common value system, protection of human rights, early warning mechanism. Art. 3 of the Statute: 'Every member of the Council must accept the principles of the rule of law and of the enjoyment by all persons within its jurisdiction of human rights and fundamental freedoms' European Convention on Human Rights (1953)

Federalism

Oldest theory of integration Philosophical roots: Hegel (1770-1830) and Rousseau (1712-1778) Based on delegated sovereignty: parts of sovereignty are delegated to the central government. "United States of Europe"?

Liberalism and IO

Open up the black box: States as plural actors. Domestic institutions (parliament, media, lobby groups, civil society, etc.) Cooperation because of: - Learning - Shared values (idealism) - Economic interdependence Foundations: - Human reason and belief in progress (Grotius; Enlightenment) - Immanuel Kant: democratic states will peacefully cooperate - Woodrow Wilson: creation of the League of Nations (importance of International Law)

Treaty of Paris (1951): ECSC

Origin: French mistrust of Germany's strength Cooperation in the field of coal and steel production control over the production of weapons of war "Schuman Plan" by Schuman and Monnet: place "Franco-German production of coal and steel as a whole under a common High Authority" Creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) by the Treaty of Paris in 1951, signed by Italy, Benelux, Germany and France Supranational and intergovernmental elements

The International Labour Organization (ILO)

Origins: 1919 in the context of the League of Nations Since 1946, specialised agency of the UN 185 members Nobel Peace Price in 1969

Regional Development Banks

Origins: Dissatisfaction with World Bank lending among developing countries and scarcity of funding for regional programs • 1959 Inter-American Development Bank (46 members; US with one-third of voting power; China joined in 2009) • 1966 Asian Development Bank (48 regional members, 19 non-regional members; Japan and US largest shareholders; funding of NGO projects) • 1966 African Development Bank

ICJ intro

Origins: Permanent Court of International Justice (LN) Established in 1945 as UN organ (articles 92-96 Charter). The statute of the ICJ is integrated in the Charter. UN membership = ICJ membership 15 judges, elected for 9 years by the UNGA and the UNSC (by simple majority) 2 additional "ad hoc" judges possible The Registry: Secretariat

UN GA, Peace and Security: The Uniting for Peace resolution

Origins: dispute between the Soviet Union and other Security Council members about China in 1950. UN GA adopted resolution 377(1950): If UN SC fails to reach unanimity, - the UN GA "shall consider the matter immediately emergency special sessions - the UN GA may establish a peace operation

Peacekeeping: finances

Peacekeeping costs: $7.87 billion (2016-2017) Compared to world military expenditures: estimated at $1,747 billion (in 2013) = less then 0.5 per cent! Troop-contributing countries are reimbursed by UN for their contribution with $1,332 per soldier per month.

ILO Complaint structurePeer pressure

Peer pressure Complaint structure (Art. 24, 25, 33 of ILO Constitution): - Complaints ("representation") submitted by member states, worker or employer group or ILO Governing Body - Investigated by "Commission of Inquiry" report - Ultimate action: sanctions or expulsion

3 views of the characteristics of IGOs in IR FORA

Physical forum/ focal point for debate and negotiation: -exchange of interests and information - policy-making thus, States as relevant actors Example: plenary organ (e.g. UN GA) Global democracy: one state - one vote. Sovereign equality Trade-off between participation and decision-making power

The African Union

Predecessor: Organisation of African Unity (OAU)Founded in 2002 (Constitutive Act). Seated in Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. It has 55 member states. Objectives (Constitutive Act, Art. 3): - 'achieve greater unity and solidarity between the African countries and the peoples of Africa' - 'defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of its Member States' - 'respect and promote human and peoples' rights' - 'promote sustainable development' From sovereignty to protection: the AU allows for intervention in extreme cases (e.g. genocide). Notable change: OAU AU Primarily intergovernmental: the AU is legally and politically secondary to its members. The Assembly (state leaders) dominates the decision-making.

Decision-making in WB and IMF Boards of Directors

Predominantly by consensus Voting power (majority or super majority decisions) is based on the shares held by the member state (group). IBRD voting shares as of August 2019: US: 16,46 % (IMF: 16,52 %) de facto veto Japan: 8,26 % (IMF: 6,15 %) China: 5,08 % (IMF: 6,09 %) Germany: 4,13 % (IMF: 5,32 %) France: 3,87 % (IMF: 4,03 %) UK: 3,87 % (IMF: 4,03 %) Netherlands: 1,96 % (IMF: 1,77 %)

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

Promotes international cooperation in the economic, social and humanitarian fields. Main role: coordination More important players : G7, WB, IMF, OECD ECOSOC: 54 members elected for three years. Every year, 1/3 of the council is replaced. Outreach function: ECOSOC connects the specialized agencies (ILO, FAO, IMF etc.) as well as non-governmental organizations to the UN (accreditation as consultative status).

The World Trade Organization

Purely intergovernmental in contrast to IMF and WB Ministerial Conference: highest (and plenary) decision-making organ with annual meetings of trade-ministers General Council: plenary body of trade officials, who meets in different settings to discuss trade in goods, services, agriculture, intellectual property etc. Small secretariat with just over 600 staff members Decision-making by consensus

Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (2)

Purpose: - Promote the 'Silk Road economic belt' - Infrastructure investments in Asia: overcome transport and connectivity barriers for export Debate and criticism: - China's dominance (largest shareholder) instrument for foreign policy influence (as US in WB and Japan in ADB) - Lack of accountability - Safeguards and social and economic standards Complaint Handling Mechanism

LN covenant

Rather short: only 26 articles (the UN Charter has 111 articles) Purpose of the covenant: 'to promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security' (see preamble and articles 8-17). Problem: no comprehensive prohibition on the use of force in international politics. Military force is permitted if the Council of the League of Nations is unable to unanimously decide on a conflict situation.

Regionalism and security

Regional security cooperation: 1) security community: highly integrated form of security cooperation (e.g. transatlantic security community) 2) collective defense: prevent and/or defend against an external attack (NATO).

Objectives of the WTO

Regulating international trade with the intention to decrease trade limiting practices as much as possible. Underlying macro-economic logic: trade benefits all trading partners. Specialization (Ricardo model: comparative advantage) large-scale production Avoid protectionism as causes of global crises in 1920s and 1930s.

UNEP

Result of Stockholm Conference in 1972, convened by the UN GA at theinitiative of the government of Sweden Subsidiary body to the GA no own membership nor its own compulsory member dues. Budget: 3-4% of expenses covered by GA budget, rest through voluntary contributions (~ $200 million annually) Largest contributors: Netherlands and Germany ($10 million), UK, US ($6 million) Seat: Nairobi, Kenya

Intergovernmentalism

Roots: Neo-realism (IR theory) States relevant actors for integration steps Assumption: integration limited in areas affecting national sovereignty (currency, foreign policy, defense policy etc.) Cooperation remains intergovernmental; no supranational authority

Criticism of the WTO

Seattle protests of 1999: anti-globalization movement WTO contributes to the growing inequality WTO excludes goods of poorest countries: contributed to the decline of wealth in the Global South WTO failes to address agricultural subsidies WTO rules ignore environment and labor-related issues Lack of transparency in „green room negotiations" TRIPS licencing of medicines

Compliance with WTO rules

Sources of non-compliance: 1)Political opportunism (e.g. domestic interests): protect an important domestic sector/ company 2) Free-riding through unilateral non-tariff barriers

UN Budget specialised agencies

Specialized agencies: independent IOs with own founding treaty and procedures, closely linked to UN. Examples: FAO, WHO, ILO, UNESCO, and IAEA. Financed by member states through assessed contributions and voluntary contributions.

Neo-institutionalism and IO

States: unitary actors but interdependent. IGOs enable cooperation among states, depending on the type of interest constellation thus continuous interaction, repeated "game" of cooperation IOs reduce transaction costs, i.e. increase probability of cooperation between states.

UN general assembly (the plenary organ (art. 9))

Subsidiary organs: - Main committees - Commissions (e.g. Peacebuilding commission) - Councils (e.g. Human Rights Council) - Joint Inspection Unit - United Nations Dispute Tribunal The "superbowl of diplomacy": special week (annual meeting of state leaders in September) 73rd session opening on 17 September 2019 The UNGA can also be convened in special sessions (Art. 20 Charter and Rules of Procedure)

The European Parliament

Supranational organ Represents the population of EU member states. Directly elected since 1979. Elected for 5 years Tasks: - Political monitoring of the European Commission. It can even discharge the Commission. - Co-decision with Council of Ministers about EU legislation and gives advice (depends on the specific policy area). - Co-decision with the Council of Ministers on the budget. Vote to launch Art. 7 procedure against Hungary (12 Sept 2018)

The European Commission

Supranational organ: Proposes new legislation and enforces legislation ('guardian of the treaties') College of Commissioners: 28 commissioners (1 per EU member) including the President (Ursula von der Leyen). Appointed for 5 years.

LN Permanent Court of Justice

The Court existed since 1921, when its statute entered into force. It was seated in The Hague (Vredespaleis) and consisted of nine judges. The court dealt with approximately 30 cases until 1940. The German occupation of the Netherlands ended the operations of the court.

The Treaty of Rome - first institutional battles (EU)

The Empty Chair crisis of 1965 - De Gaulle: preserving French interests in the EEC - Hallstein: expanding the influence of the Commission Issues: • Qualified majority voting (QMV) in Council • Funding (national contributions or 'EEC tax') Luxembourg Compromise 1966: veto if 'important national interests at stake' The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of 1968: Single agricultural market with guaranteed prices Large-scale commercial farmers > small farmers Environmental impact: use of pesticides Overproduction: beef and butter mountains

ICC Jurisdiction (3)

The ICC has a public prosecutor, but no police or prisons. depends on the member states to arrest suspects and to imprison individuals after they have been sentenced. Issues arrest warrants

ICC Jurisdiction (1)

The ICC has jurisdiction over:'the most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole'. The ICC has jurisdiction over individuals that committed crimes, not over states. Type of crimes: genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes (and aggression)

LN

The IGOs established in the 19th century were primarly functional or technical organisations (e.g. ITU). Effects of the First World War 'League of Nations' to ensure peace ( liberalism/ idealism) Active role of the US (new hegemonic role): Woodrow Wilson: '14 points plan' Concrete realisation of the League: GB, Fr, Italy The Covenant of the League of Nations was adopted by the Allied forces on 29 April 1919. On 10 January 1920 the Covenant entered into force (Treaty of Versailles). 32 original member states Expansion to 44 (including the Netherlands) Central Powers: Bulgaria and Austria in 1920, Hungary in 1922 and Germany in 1926. Largest number of members in winter of 1934/35: 58 states Membership withdrawals: Germany and Japan in 1933, Italy in 1935.

UN Secretary-General

The Secretary-General is appointed by the UN GA upon recommendation by the UN SC (Art. 97 Charter). Gives bureaucratic support to the other organs. Agenda-setting role (Art. 99 Charter): "Agenda for Peace, Preventive diplomacy, peacemaking and peace-keeping" (Boutros Boutros-Ghali 1992) Millennium development goals (MDGs), "In larger Freedom" (Kofi Annan 2005) Sustainable development goals (SDGs), "2030 Agenda" (Ban Ki-Moon 2015)

Collective action by the UN Security Council

The UN SC determines whether there exists 'any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression' (Art. 39 Charter). In relation to, e.g., • apartheid • war crimes • humanitarian crisis • civil wars Wider interpretation of Art. 39 than was initially meant in 1945. Involves action with respect to 'domestic affairs' (Art. 2.4 Charter). Article 41 Charter: measures not involving the use of force, e.g. sanctions (comprehensive vs. smart sanctions) Article 42 Charter: action by air, sea, or land forces.

Budget for UN funds and programs

The UN funds and programs (for example UNFPA, UNDP, UNICEF and UNHCR) are fully funded by voluntary contributions.

UN Regular budget

The UN works with four separate budgets. The regular budget finances the UNs core activities, such as the six main organs, the 8 headquarters, international conferences and political missions (e.g. UNAMA). 2000/2001: $ 2,53 billion 2010/2011: $ 5,41 billion (increase of 113,8 %) 2012/2013: $ 5,15 billion (first decrease since 1998) 2014/2015: $ 5,8 billion 2016/2017: $ 5,4 billion 2018/2019: $ 5,4 billion From 2020 on, the regular budget will be assessed annually.

IGOs and IR theory

The great debates: - Why do states cooperate, i.e. create and join IOs? - What is the role of IOs in world politics? 1) (Neo-)Realism 2) Liberalism 3) Neo-Institutionalism 4) Social constructivism 5) Critical theories

Neo-Realism and IO

The international system is anarchic, i.e. without superior authority. States: unitary actors Power - national interest IGOs are 'instruments' for (powerful/ hegemonic) states to pursue their national interests (thus Theory of Hegemonic Stability). States make cost benefit calculations and then decide whether it is wise to 'use' an IGO or not.

Global Governance

The term emerged in the 1990s because of: 1) Growing complexity of global issues (globalisation) 2) Growth of non-state actors 3) Limits of the existing multilateral system

ICC Jurisdiction (2)

Three ways to bring a case to the attention of the ICC: 1) By a member state 2) By the UNSC 3) By the ICC Prosecutor Complementarity principle: The ICC has only jurisdiction when the member state itself is not willing or able to organize a trial.

ICJ-UN relations

UN member states have committed themselves to respect the decisions of the ICJ in article 94.1 of the Charter. Non-binding advice to UNSC and UNGA, as well as to other UN organs and to the specialised agencies Well known case: - Certain expenses (1962)

Obligations for IGOs

When becoming a member of an IGO, states accept the rules and obligations of that IGO - Direct obligations (explicitly set out in the founding treaty and known in advance) - Indirect obligations (arise in the course of the operation of the organisation and are thus open ended).

ILO Policy

• Agreement on labour standards in the Conventions or Recommendations with 2/3 majority • Conventions are legally binding (recommendations are not!), if ratified. Patchwork of conventions

intro Global Economic Governance

• Historically: deal with the economic consequences of war in Europe; create economic stability to ensure peace; • Since de-colonialization: Addressing the socio-economic disparities between North and South to stabilize the global economic order Two aspects: development and trade Institutions: • WB • IMF • WTO (GATT) • UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD): voice of developing countries Current trends/ post-financial crisis: - Informal governance: G7(G8), G20 since the 1970s - Changing role of the US as a promoter of GEG - Emerging powers (BRICS, especially role of China)

What does the IMF do?

• Large-scale credit to states in financial insecurity ("bailout"): E.g. UK crisis (1976), Asia crisis (end of 1990s) and the 2014 European crisis (Ireland, Greece, Portugal, Spain). • Technical assistance • Surveillance (research on the financial state of affairs of member states) • General research: World Economic Outlook and Global Financial Stability Report

NATO military structure

• Military Committee and Military Staff: military decisions (consensus) • Allied Command Operations (ACO): operational planning and leading of military operations through Joint Forces Commands (JFCs) in Brunssum, Napels and Lisbon • Allied Command Transformation (ACT): strategic planning training and education

What does the WB do? (1)

• Origins (IBRD): rebuilding Europe and Asia (post-war reconstruction: Marshall plan); main clients: European states • After 1960s: focus on developing countries (International Development Association, IDA). • After 1990: facilitate economic transition in Eastern Europe; post-conflict reconstruction (e.g. in former Yugoslavia, Afghanistan, Iraq) • As of 2000: contribute to achieving the Millennium Development Goals (2000- 2015) and the Sustainable Development Goals (2015-).

What is NATO?

• Political-military alliance (collective self-defence: article 5) • Crisis-management organisation • Community of values

The EU Global Strategy (2016)

• Proposed by the High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Vice-President of the European Commission Elements: • Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) - 25 members • European Defence Fund (EDF) • European Peace Facility • UN "Good human rights stories" • Countering disinformation Closer cooperation with NATO

Relevance of regional IOs

• Regional problem-solving vs. individual (state) or global (UN) • Deeper knowledge about regional specificies • (Arguably) Shared norms and opinions among members • Overlapping memberships