INDUSTRIAL-ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE EVALUATION

A FORMATIVE EVALUATION is conducted while a training program is being developed, and the results are used to make necessary modifications to the program. A SUMMATIVE EVALUATION is conducted after a program has been implemented in order to assess its outcomes.

JOB ANALYSIS VERSUS JOB EVALUATION

A JOB ANALYSIS is a systematic process of determining how a job differs from other jobs in terms of required responsibilities, activities, and skills. It is often the first step i the development of a predictor or criterion and is used for other purposes including identifying trading needs and determining the causes of accidents. JOB EVALUATION is conducted for the purpose of setting wages and salaries.

QUALITY CIRCLES

A QUALITY CIRCLE consists of a small voluntary group of employees who work together on a particular job and meet regularly to discuss job-related problems and solutions. Representatives of the quality circle then present their solutions to management.

REALISTIC JOB PREVIEW

A REALISTIC JOB PREVIEW is a method of providing accurate and complete information about the job and the organization to job applicants. Its primary goal is to reduce turnover by reducing disillusionment caused by unrealistic expectations about the job.

PERSON-MACHINE FIT

A distinguishing characteristic of the human factors psychology is its reliance on general systems theory, which is manifested in its emphasis on the PERSON-MACHINE FIT. From this perspective, performance is the result of an interaction between people and machines (or any other non-human element in the work environment), and any failure in performance is due to a person-machine mismatch.

ABSOLUTE TECHNIQUES (CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE, FORCED-CHOICE RATING SCALE, BARS)

ABSOLUTE TECHNIQUES (CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE, FORCED-CHOICE RATING SCALE, BARS) are methods of subjective performance assessment that indicate a rate's performance in absolute terms (i.e., not interns of the performance of other employees).

ADVERSE IMPACT/80% RULE

ADVERSE IMPACT/80% RULE occurs when use of a selection test or other employment procedure results in substantially higher rejection rates for members of legally protected (minority) group than for the majority group. The ADVERSE IMPACT/80% RULE rule can be determined if ADVERSE IMPACT is occurring. When using this rule, the hiring rate for the majority group is multiplied by 80% to determine the minimum hiring rate for the minority group.

THEORY X AND THEORY Y

According to McGregor, THEORY X managers believe that employees dislike work and avoid it whenever possible and, as a result, must be directed and controlled. In contrast, THEORY Y managers view work as being "as natural as play" and assume that employees are capable of self-control and self-direction.

SUPER (SELF CONCEPT, CAREER MATURITY, LIFE CAREER RAINBOW)

According to SUPER (SELF CONCEPT, CAREER MATURITY, LIFE CAREER RAINBOW) life-space, life-span theory, the selection of a job involves finding a job that matches one's SELF-CONCEPT (which reflects on'e values, personality, interests, etc.). The theory also emphasizes the importance of CAREER MATURITY, which is the ability to cope wit the developmental tasks of one's life stage. THE LIFE-CAREER RAINBOW related an individuals major life roles to five life stages and is useful for helping a career counselee recognized the impact of current and future roles and stages on career planning.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE (SCHEIN)

According to Schein, LEVELS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE can be described in terms of three basic levels- artifacts, espoused values and beliefs, and basic underlying assumptions.

MODELS OF INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING (SIMON)

According to the rational-economic model, MODELS OF INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING (SIMON) attempt to maximize benefits by systematically searching for the best decision or solution. In contrast, the bounded rationality (administrative) model proposes that rational MODELS OF INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING (SIMON) is limited by internal and external constraints so that MODELS OF INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING (SIMON) often satisfice rather than optimize (i.e., they consider decisions or solutions until a fairly good one is encountered and then stop searching due to limited time and resources).

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CHANGE AGENTS

An INTERNAL CHANGE AGENT is a member of the organization, is already familiar with the company culture, norms, and power structure, and has a personal interest in the change effort. An EXTERNAL CHANGE AGENT is often able to see the situation more objectively, to bring in a new perspective, and to be better received by the members of the organization because of his/her impartiality.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

As described by Taylor, SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT involves (a) scientifically analyzing jobs into their component parts then standardizing those parts; (b) scientifically selecting, training and placing workers in jobs for which they are mentally and physically suited; (c) fostering cooperation between supervisors and workers to minimize deviation from scientific methods of work; and (d) having managers and workers assume responsibility for their own share of their work.

BARS

BARS is a graphic rating scale that requires the rater to choose the one behavior for each dimension of job performance that best describes the employee.

BRAINSTORMING

BRAINSTORMING is a method of generating creative ideas that requires individuals or group members to freely suggest any idea or thought without criticism, evaluation, or censorship. Research suggests that individuals BRAINSTORMING alone do better than the same number BRAINSTORMING together.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Bandura's SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY of motivation emphasizes the self-regulation of behavior and proposes that self-regulation involves four processes- goal-setting, self-observation, self-evaluation and self-reaction.

CENTRALIZED AND DECENTRALIZED NETWORKS

CENTRALIZED AND DECENTRALIZED NETWORKS- Centralized communication networks are best for simple tasks; while decentralized communication networks are better for complex tasks and are associated with greater overall satisfaction.

COMPARABLE WORTH

COMPARABLE WORTH is also known as pay equity and refers to the principle that jobs that require the same education, experience, skills, and other qualifications should pay the same wage/salary regardless of the employee's age, gender, race/ethnicity, etc.

CONTINGENCY THEORY (FIEDLER)

CONTINGENCY THEORY (FIEDLER) proposes that a leaders effectiveness is related to an interaction between the leaders style and the nature (favorableness) of the situation. Low LPC leaders (leaders who describe their least preferred coworker in negative terms) are most effective in very unfavorable or very favorable situations; while high LPC leaders (leaders who describe their least preferred coworker kin positive terms) are better in moderately favorable situations.

CRITERION CONTAMINATION

CRITERION CONTAMINATION occurs when a criterion measure assesses factors other than those it was designed to measure. For example, contamination is occurring when a rater's knowledge of a ratee's performance on a predictor affect how the rater rates the ratee on the criterion. It can artificially inflate the criterion-related validity coefficient.

DAWIS AND LOFQUISTS

DAWIS AND LOFQUISTS Theory of work adjustment describes satisfaction, tenure, and other job outcomes as the result of the correspondence between the worker and his/her work environment on two dimensions- satisfaction and satisfactoriness: A workers satisfaction with the job depends on the degree to which the characteristics of the job correspond to his or her needs and values, while the workers satisfactoriness depends on the extent to which the workers skills correspond to the skill demands of the job.

DIFFERENTIAL VALIDITY AND UNFAIRNESS

DIFFERENTIAL VALIDITY exists when the validity coefficient of a predictor is significantly different for one subgroup than for another subgroup (e.g., lower for African American job applicants than for White applicants). UNFAIRNESS occurs when members of the minority group consistently score lower on a predictor but perform approximately the same on the criterion as members of the majority group. Both are potential causes of adverse impact.

DOWNSIZING/SURVIVOR SYNDROME

DOWNSIZING/SURVIVOR SYNDROME- Downsizing occurs when an organization attempts to reduce its cost by reducing the size of the work force and/or by eliminating entire divisions or businesses. Workers who are not "downsized" may exhibit survivor syndrome, which is characterized by depression, anxiety, guilt, stress-related illnesses, and decreased job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

EQUITY THEORY

EQUITY THEORY proposes that an employee's motivation is related to the employee's comparison of his/her input/outcome ratio to the input/outcome ratios of others performing the same or similar jobs. A perception of inequity leads to attempts to restore equity, with the perception of underpayment inequity (the belief that one is putting more into the job than one is getting from it) leading to more adverse outcomes than overpayment inequity does (the belief that one is putting less into he job than one is getting from it).

EXPECTANCY THEORY

EXPECTANCY THEORY regards job motivation as the result of three elements: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. The highest levels of motivation occur when an employee believe that high job effort results in high task success (high expectancy), that high success leads to the attainment of certain outcomes (high instrumentality), and that the outcomes are desirable (positive valence).

FORCED-CHOICE RATING SCALE

Each item in a FORCED-CHOICE RATING SCALE consists of two to four alternatives that are considered to be about equal in terms of desirability, and the rater selects the alternative that best or least describes the ratee.

FACTOR ANALYSES

FACTOR ANALYSES have identified five basic personality traits - neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Of these, conscientiousness has been found to be the best predictor of job performance across different jobs, job settings, and criterion measures.

FLEXTIME

FLEXTIME is an alternative work schedule that allows workers to choose the times they will begin and end work. It is associated with increased employee productivity, overall job satisfaction, and satisfaction with the work schedule and decreased absenteeism.

FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS (LEWIN)

FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS (LEWIN)- According to Lewin's model, organizational change involves three stages- unfreezing, changing, and refreezing.

FOUR LEVELS OF CRITERIA (KIRKPATRICK)

FOUR LEVELS OF CRITERIA (KIRKPATRICK)- Includes four levels of criteria for evaluating the effects of a training program: reaction, learning, behavioral, and results.

FRAME-OF REFERENCE TRAINING

FRAME-OF REFERENCE TRAINING- A type of rater training that emphasizes the multidimensional nature of job performance and focuses on the ability to distinguish between good and poor work-related behaviors. It is useful for eliminating rater biases.

GOAL-SETTING THEORY

GOAL-SETTING THEORY proposes that employees will be more motivated to achieve goals when they have explicitly accepted those goals and are committed to them. It also proposes that assigning specific, moderately difficult goals and providing employees with feedback about their progress toward achieving goals increases productivity.

GROUP POLARIZATION

GROUP POLARIZATION is the tendency of groups to make more extreme decisions (either more conservative or more risky) than individual members would have made alone.

GROUPTHINK

GROUPTHINK occurs when the desire of group members for unanimity and cohesiveness overrides their ability to realistically appraise or determine alternative courses of action. It can be alleviated with the group leader encourages dissent, and has someone play devil's advocate, and refrains from stating his/her decision or solution too quickly.

HOLLAND (RIASEC, DIFFERENTIATION)

HOLLAND (RIASEC, DIFFERENTIATION)- Holland's career theory emphasizes the importance of a good personality/work environment match and distinguishes between six personality and environment types ("RIASEC") - REALISTIC, INVESTIGATIVE, ARTISTIC, SOCIAL ENTERPRISING, AND CONVENTIONAL. A personality-environment match is most accurate as a predictor of job outcomes when the individual exhibits a high degree of differentiation- i.e., has clear interests as evidenced by a high score on one of Holland's six types and low scores on all others.

SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Hersey and Blanchard's SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP model proposes that the best leadership style depends on the job maturity of the workers, which is a function of ability and willingness to assume responsibility. It distinguishes between four leader styles - telling, selling, participating, and delegating.

JOB SATISFACTION (DISPOSITION, AGE, TURNOVER)

High levels of JOB SATISFACTION (DISPOSITION, AGE, TURNOVER) are associated with certain worker and job characteristics; e.g., older employees, higher-level employees, and employees whose jobs allow them to use their skills and abilities tend to be most satisfied. In addition, twin studies suggest that there is a genetic component to job satisfaction. The relationship between pay and DISPOSITION is complex and seems to be related more to the perception that one is being paid fairly than to the actual amount o pay. In terms of job outcomes, the strongest relationship is between AGE and TURNOVER (R=-.40)

INCREMENTAL VALIDITY (SELECTION RATION, BASELINE RATE)

INCREMENTAL VALIDITY (SELECTION RATION, BASELINE RATE) refers to the increased in decision-making accuracy resulting from the use of a new predictor. It is maximized with the predictors validity coefficient is high, the selection ratio is low, and the base rate is moderate. (The selection ratio is the ratio of number of jobs to job applicants; the base rate is the proportion of successful decisions without the new predictor).

JOB BURNOUT

JOB BURNOUT is caused by accumulated stress associated with overwork. Its primary symptoms are a feeling of low personal accomplishment, depersonalization, and emotional exhaustion. An early sign of burnout is a sudden increase in work effort without an increase in productivity.

JOB ENRICHMENT AND JOB ENLARGEMENT

JOB ENRICHMENT is a method of job redesign that is based on Herzberg's two-factor theory and involves making a job more challenging and rewarding in order to increase job motivation and satisfaction. It must not be confused with JOB ENLARGEMENT, which involves increasing the number and variety of tasks include in a job without increasing the worker's autonomy, responsibility, etc.

KRUMBOLTZS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

KRUMBOLTZS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY focuses on career decision-making and proposes that a persons decisions are influenced by four factors - i.e., genetic endowment and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences, and task approach skills.

DEMAND-CONTROL MODEL

Karasek's DEMAND-CONTROL MODEL predicts that job demand and control are the primary contributors to job stress. Jobs associated with the highest levels of stress are characterized by a combination of high job demand and low job control and include machine-paced jobs and service jobs.

MEDIATION AND ARBITRATION

MEDIATION AND ARBITRATION are methods of alternative dispute resolution that involve the use of a neutral third-party. However, a mediator cannot dictate an agreement between disputants but, instead, helps clarify the issues, facilitates communication, and offers alternatives and a recommended solution. In contrast, an arbitrator as more authority than a mediator and controls both the process and outcome of conflict resolution.

METHODS OF TRAINING (JOB ROTATION, BEHAVIORAL MODELING, VESTIBULE TRAINING)

METHODS OF TRAINING (JOB ROTATION, BEHAVIORAL MODELING, VESTIBULE TRAINING) - Training in organizations can be on-the-job or off-the-job. JOB ROTATION is an example of the former; BEHAVIORAL MODELING and VESTIBULE TRAINING are examples of the latter. VESTIBULE TRAINING takes place in a simulated work environment and is useful when on-th-job training would be too dangerous or disruptive.

MULTIPLE REGRESSION AND MULTIPLE CUTOFF

MULTIPLE REGRESSION AND MULTIPLE CUTOFF are methods for using multiple predictor scores. Multiple regression is a compensatory method, while multiple cutoff is non compensatory.

NATIONAL CULTURE (HOFSTEDE)

NATIONAL CULTURE (HOFSTEDE)- The culture of nations can be described in terms of five dimensions- power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, masculinity, and long-term orientation.

NEED HIERARCHY THEORY (MASLOW)

NEED HIERARCHY THEORY (MASLOW) - Theory that proposes that people have five basic needs that are arranged in a hierarchical order such that a NEED HIGHER IN THE HIERARCHY doesn't serve as a source of motivation until all lower needs have been fulfilled. These needs, in order are, Physiological, Safety, Social, Esteem, and Self-actualization. The research has not been very supportive of this theory.

NEEDS ASSESSMENT

NEEDS ASSESSMENT is also known as needs analysis and is a systematic process of identifying job performance requirements and employee performance deficits for the purpose of identifying training need and the content of training programs. It includes organizational, task (job), person, and demographic analyses.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT refers to the strength of an employee's identification with the organization. Although ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT seems to have minimal effects on productivity, a high degree of affective commitment is related to higher levels of motivation and satisfaction, lower rates of absenteeism and turnover, and a greater willingness to make sacrifices for the company.

ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE

ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE refers to workers evaluations of organizational policies and procedures the tare based on their perceived fairness. Three types of ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE are distinguished- Procedural, Distributive, and Interactional.

OVERLEARNING

OVERLEARNING refers to practicing or studying beyond the point of mastery and is associated with enhanced recall.

PATH-GOAL THEORY

PATH-GOAL THEORY is based on the assumption that an effective leader is one who can help carve a path for subordinates that allows them to fulfill personal goals through the achievement of group and organizational goals. It proposes that the best leadership style (directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented) depends on certain characteristics of the worker and the work.

PERSON-ORGANIZATION FIT

PERSON-ORGANIZATION FIT refers to the degree to which a person's values and beliefs match those of the organization's culture. A good fit is associated with a number of benefits including higher levels of job satisfaction, motivation, and organizational commitment and lower levels of stress and voluntary turnover.

PROCESS CONSULTATION

PROCESS CONSULTATION is an organizational development intervention in which a consultant helps members of the organization perceive, understand, and identify ways of improving the processes that are undermining their interactions and the organizations effectiveness.

IDENTICAL ELEMENTS

Providing IDENTICAL ELEMENTS - i.e., ensuring that training and performance environments are similar in terms of materials, conditions, etc.- maximizes transfer of training.

RATER BIASES

RATER BIASES are contaminating factors in the rating process that are related to the way that the rater assigns ratings. Common biases include the central tendency bias, the leniency/strictness bias, and the halo bias. The best way to reduce RATER BIASES is to provide raters with adequate training, especially training that helps them observe and distinguish between different levels of performance (e.g., frame-of-reference training).

SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAMS

SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAMS are autonomous work groups whose members are trained in the skills needed to effectively perform the group task. Their function is to make hiring, budget, and other decisions that were previously made by managers.

SOCIAL FACILITATION AND INHIBITION

SOCIAL FACILITATION refers to the increase in learning and performance that occurs in the presence of others; it is most likely to occur when the task is simple or well-learned. INHIBITION refers to the decrease in learning and performance that occurs in the presence of others; it is most likely to occur when the task is new or complex.

SOCIAL LOAFING

SOCIAL LOAFING is the tendency of an individual to exert less effort when acting as a member of a team that when working alone. It can be alleviated by ensuring that the individuals contribution is identified and rewarded.

RELATIVE TECHNIQUES (PAIRED COMPARISON, FORCED DISTRIBUTION)

Subjective measures of job performance that compare an employee's performance to that of other employees. When using the PAIRED COMPARISON TECHNIQUE, the rater compares each ratee with every other ratee in pairs on one or more dimensions of job performance. When using the FORCED DISTRIBUTION TECHNIQUE, the rater assigns ratees to a limited number of categories based on a predefined normal distribution on one or more dimensions of job performance.

TIEDEMAN AND O'HARA'S CAREER DECISION-MAKING MODEL

TIEDEMAN AND O'HARA'S CAREER DECISION-MAKING MODEL describes vocational identity development as an ongoing process that is tied to ego identity development and distinguishes between two phases of decision-making: anticipation and implementation/adjustment.

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM)

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) is a management theory that emphasizes customer service, employee involvement (especially teamwork), and continuous improvement in goods and services.

TRANSFORMATIONAL AND TRANSACTIONAL LEADERS

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERS are characterized by the ability to recognized the need for change, create a vision for change (including using "framing" to describe the need for change in a way that is meaningful to followers), and effetely executing the change. They are contrasted with TRANSACTIONAL LEADERS who tend to maintain the status quo and rely on rewards and punishments to motivate behavior.

TWO-FACTOR THEORY (HERZBERG)

TWO-FACTOR THEORY (HERZBERG)- A theory of both motivation and satisfaction and dissatisfaction on two separate continua. Motivator factors (increased autonomy, responsibility, control, etc.) contribute to satisfaction and motivation when they are present; while hygiene factors (pay, pleasant working conditions) contribute to dissatisfaction when they are absent.

TYPES OF GROUP TASKS

Tasks performed by TYPES OF GROUP TASKS can be classified in terms of five types- additive, compensatory, disjunctive, conjunctive, and discretionary.

AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT (ADA)

The AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT (ADA) requires companies with 15 or more employees to avoid using procedures that discriminate against people with physical or mental disabilities. It also requires that, when a disabled person is able to perform the essential functions of a job, an employer must consider the person qualified and make "reasonable accommodations" that help the person perform the job as long as the accommodations do not result in undue hardship for the employer.

COMPRESSED WORKWEEK

The COMPRESSED WORKWEEK is an alternative work schedule that involves decreasing the number of work days by increasing the number of hours worked each day. It is associated with the better supervisor ratings of employee performance, employee overall job satisfaction, and employee satisfaction with the work schedule, with the effects being the strongest for employee attitudes.

CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE

The CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE involves using a checklist of critical incidents (descriptions of successful and unsuccessful job behaviors) to rate each employee.

HAWTHORNE EFFECT

The HAWTHORNE EFFECT refers to an improvement in job performance resulting from participation in a research study (i.e., due to the novelty of the situation, increased attention, etc.).

LEADERS

The Ohio State University studies found that the behavior of LEADERS can be described in terms o two independent dimensions- consideration (person-centered style) and initiating striation (task-oriented style).

TAYLOR-RUSSELL TABLES

The TAYLOR-RUSSELL TABLES are used to estimate a predictors incremental validity when the criterion-related validity coefficient, selection ratio, and base rate are known.

NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (MCCLELLAND)

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) revealed that three basic needs underlie work motivation- need for affiliation, need for power, and NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (MCCLELLAND). Employees with high NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (MCCLELLAND) usually choose tasks of moderate difficulty and risk, apparently because success on these tasks depends more on effort that on uncontrollable factors. They also prefer frequent, concrete feedback, and, although their motivation does not depend on money, they view monetary rewards as a source of feedback and recognition.

NORMATIVE (DECISION-MAKING) MODEL

The Vroom-Yetton-Jago NORMATIVE (DECISION-MAKING) MODEL of leadership distinguishes between five decision-making strategies that vary in terms of degree of employee participation in the decision-making process and provides a decision tree to help leaders select the optimal strategy for their situation.

YERKES-DODSON LAW

The YERKES-DODSON LAW predicts that the highest levels of performance are associated with moderate levels of arousal- i.e.g, the relationship between arousal and performance takes on the shape of an inverted-U.

STAGES OF GRUP DEVELOPMENT

Tuckman and Jensen distinguish between five STAGES OF GRUP DEVELOPMENT - forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

UTILITY ANALYSIS

UTILITY ANALYSIS is used in organizations to evaluate the effectiveness of training programs and other programs and procedures and involves using a mathematical equation to obtain an estimate of the program's financial return on investment.

WORK SHIFTS

WORK SHIFTS - Of the three fixed shifts (day, sing, and graveyard), the graveyard shift is associated with the most problems; however, these problems may be alleviated if the worker voluntarily chooses the graveyard shift. The rotating shift is associated with even more problems than the graveyard shift (e.g., higher accident rates, lower productivity).

WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT

WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT refers to conflicts caused by incompatible work and family role demands. It is associated with a number of negative consequences including reduced job, marital, and life satisfaction, job burnout, job turnover, decreased job productivity, and mental and physical health problems.