Infant and child development exam 2

5. What are display rules and how do they develop?

Culturally specific standards for appropriate expressions of emotion

4. How accurate is infants' vision? Do infants perceive color?

- Can perceive color - Newborns can perceive some colors - Cannot perceive the whole palette available to adults - By 3-4 months; perceive color as adults do

8. Kelly et al. (2007) argued that the Other Race Effect (ORE) develops during infancy. How did they study this and what did they find?

- Discrimination of faces from different racial groups in 3-, 6-, and 9-month old Caucasian infants using habituation paradigm Results At 3 months, infants recognized adult faces from a variety of racial groups. By 9 months, infants only recognized faces from their own racial group Evidence for "Other race effect" at 9 months Other Race Effect = difficulty in recognizing faces and reading emotion for members of another race

Bowlby

1. Single main attachment figure - mother - A child has an innate (i.e. inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure - Child produces signaling behaviors that elicit contact or proximity to the caregiver (e.g., crying, smiling, locomotion) - Caregiver instinctively responds, creating a reciprocal interaction pattern 2. Attachment develops in stages 3. Internal Working Model - The child's relationship with their primary caregiver leads to expectations regarding caregiver's availability 4. Critical Period Hypothesis - Infant needs continuous maternal care for first 2 years - If attachment process is broken or disrupted during first 2 years, child will suffer irreversible long-term consequences 5. Long term consequences of maternal deprivation delinquency, reduced intelligence, increased aggression, depression, psychopathology

2. What are complex emotions and when do they develop? How are complex emotions related to the development of self-concept?

18-24 months Embarrassment, pride, guilt and shame Depend on a concept of self and ability to evaluate self in relation to adult standards Self-Conscious Emotions Displayed after child show awareness of self Mirror recognition test - reactions to self in mirror

10. How does prejudice develop in children? What patterns are found for implicit versus explicit biases?

Age 2 Preference for one's own group Preschoolers (3-5) Attribute many positive traits to own group Not prejudice per se, but enhanced view of their own group School-aged children (6-12): Knowledge of stereotypes and prejudice increases Prejudice declines developmental intergroup theory Why are bias and prejudice so prevalent? Children are motivated to understand their social worlds Want to know which of the available bases for classifying people are important within a given context. Younger children focused on perceptually salient dimensions such as race, gender, age, and attractiveness May be an innate tendency Early tendency to categorize individuals (good-bad, like me-not like me) Early tendency for in-group bias

7. What differences are found in 6-month-olds' and 9-month-olds' ability to discriminate primate faces? What is the significance of these differences?

Are the processes involved in human face perception unique to human faces? No, not for the first 6 months During the first year, the face processing system becomes "tuned to a human template" By 9 months, can no longer discriminate primate faces - Fine tuning a result of experience and synaptic pruning

fixed mindset

Belief that ability is fixed, not changeable Entity theory of intelligence Success and failure attributed to ability Response to failure: give up Learned helplessness i am as smart as I am ever going to be More likely to develop in girls. 1. Related to actual achievement? No, girls have higher achievement scores than boys. 2. Due to negative feedback from teachers? No, teachers give boys more negative feedback than girls. 3. Other feedback variables How feedback is interpreted - attributions Study of feedback patterns in classrooms Boys receive lower grades than girls Boys grades more often come with comments too messy, try harder, pay attention When girls receive poor grades, less likely to include comments Comments to boys likely to foster effort attributions (try harder) lack of comments to girls foster an entity theory of intelligence (fixed mindset) yes, induced by a lack of feedback

growth mindset

Belief that intelligence can grow Effort-based theory of intelligence Success and failure attributed to effort Response to failure: Work harder Mastery motivation Intelligence is a changeable quality, a potential that can be developed

attributions

Common explanations of behavior

temperament

Constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations as well as relative stability over time

Rothbart

Current Model Identified 3 Basic Dimensions - Surgency/extraversion Extent to which child is happy, active, vocal and seeks interesting stimulation - Negative affect Extent to which child is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy - Effortful control Extent to which child can focus attention, is not easily distracted, and can inhibit responses

16. How does Maturation theory explain motor development?

Depth perception develops as a result of: Discrimination of visual cues Experience with locomotion

children's understanding of other people

Describing Others Thinking About Others Prejudice: Developmental Intergroup Theory

Explain the role of culture and experience in the achievement of motor milestones. Consider effects of values placed on particular milestones, use of external supports (e.g., slings, walkers), and cultural views on sleep positions for babies.

Development of motor skills a result of complex interaction of many developing systems - Thelen's Dynamic Systems Theory. Perception and motor skills intricately linked in development, and linked to social, emotional, and cognitive development Achievement of motor milestones produces system-wide system-wide changes across many developing domains

21. What do studies of Romanian orphans who were adopted at different ages tell us about whether there is a critical period for attachment?

Early Adopted (EA) children more securely attached Later Adopted (LA) had more abnormal social interactions, behavior problems LA children adjustment mediated by parent/family characteristics (age, education, SES, other children) Evidence for a sensitive period

characteristics of the three types of babies identified by Thomas and Chess

Easy baby (40%) even-tempered positive mood open and adaptable to new experiences habits are regular and predictable Difficult baby (10%) active irregular in daily habits reacts negatively (and vigorously) to changes in routines Slow-to-warm-up baby (15%) inactive; moody slow to adapt to new situations responds to change with passive resistance

6. What is emotional self-regulation and how does it develop during childhood? Why is this important?

Emotional regulation is a form of self-control Influenced by age, cognitive development, temperament Regulation of emotions begins in infancy E.g., infants will look away when they encounter something frightening or confusing With age, children develop more effective strategies Mental strategies Children who don't regulate their emotions tend to have problems

mindset

Established set of attitudes held by someone How one interprets information regarding success and failure with respect to self Fixed or Growth

environmental contribution to child temperament

Evidence for environmental influences: - Effects of parenting style - Children with different temperaments may elicit different environmental responses Temperament-Environment interaction - Some children, those with DRD4 gene may be more susceptible to environmental influences due to their temperament

genetic contributions to temperament

Evidence for genetic contribution Identical twins more alike in temperament than fraternal twins

achievement-related attributions

Explanations for success and failure

What aspect of temperament does Jerome Kagan believe has a biological basis and what is the evidence to support this idea?

Is Shyness (Inhibition) Inherited? Evidence for stability of high and low levels of inhibition Children who are very inhibited or very uninhibited at 21 mos. tend to remain so at 4, 5 1/2, and 7 1/2 years

High and low self esteem

High Self-Esteem Associated With: Nurturing and involved parents who establish rules Positive comparisons with others (particularly peers) Competence in child-valued domains Low Self-Esteem Associated With: Problems with peers Psychological disorders Bullying and aggressive behavior Poor school performance Popular Conception: High Achievers - high self-esteem Low Achievers - at risk for low self -esteem Research by Carol Dweck Children's self concept tied to their achievement-related attributions and mindset

What are basic emotions and when do they develop? How do basic emotions change with development?

Joy Interest Surprise Anger Frustration Fear Sadness Disgust - become more differentiated into 8 basic emotions during the first year of life 2-4 months Social smiles 4-6 months Anger, sadness, frustration evident Anger and frustration at failure to achieve goal 6-7 months Fear is evident, especially fear of strangers Stranger anxiety or wariness By 9 months, infants experience all basic emotions Situations that elicit these emotions change due to Experience Cognitive Development Fear At 6-7 months, infants show fear of strangers 9 to 24-month-olds are afraid of masks and clowns Preschool children are often afraid of nightmares, the dark, monsters under the bed Disgust Evident in infants With age, elicited by different stimuli due to cognitive changes

12. When do infants discriminate the visual cues needed for depth perception?

Kinetic cues 1 month Visual expansion 1 month Motion parallax 1 month Retinal disparity 4 months Pictorial cues 6-7 months

characteristics of attachment

Life-long emotional bond that begins in infancy and provides the basis for future intimate relationships

19. How do securely attached babies react to the still face demonstration?

Looked longer at the unresponsive parent

self concept and self esteem measured in preschool and school-aged children (ages 3-12)

Method: Ask questions such as: Who are you? Describe yourself. I am _____

Dynamic Systems theory:motor development

Motor development involves many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet the demands of specific tasks

object segregation in infants

Movement Color Texture Edges Ability to reach and grasp objects depends on ability to differentiate objects in space Infants may learn about objects by manipulating them.

6. Describe developments in infants' perception of faces. What changes are observed in scanning and discrimination from the newborn to 12 months of age?

Newborns Interested in looking at faces -- drawn to patterns of light and dark contrast Do not recognize faces as faces; drawn to patterns of contrast (e.g., scrambled faces) 6 weeks - 3 months Prefer to look at normal (non-scrambled) faces Integrate faces and voices -- sensory integration More complete scanning, exploration of internal features at 3-4 months At 1 month fixate on particular features At 3 months exploration of internal features 3- 6 months Increases in visual acuity and more complete scanning allow infants to - Focus on distinctive features of faces Distinguish individual differences Detect emotion: discriminate happy, sad, and angry faces 9 months, - infants are using social referencing - Using another person's emotional reactions to guide one's own behavior No longer responding globally, but analyzing particular features

aspects of Bowlby's theory that have been supported by research and those that have not

Not supported Single main attachment figure -- NO Most infants become attached to more than one person (Schaffer & Emerson, 1964) Critical period hypothesis - NO Sensitive period, not critical Children can form attachments after 3 years (Hodges & Tizard, 1989) Long-term consequences - NOT SO DIRE Negative affects avoided if child is able to form attachment, even if not with mother Supported by research - Stages of Attachment - Internal Working Model - Sensitive (not Critical) Period - Long-Term Effects

10. How does experience contribute to the development of the ORE according to the article by Lee et al. (2017)?

ORE a result of early asymmetrical exposure to own- versus other-race faces - Formation of an "other," out-group category - Positive interactions with own-race faces - Implicit racial bias Is this inevitable? - Training preschool children to recognize other-race faces reduces their implicit racial bias. Fine-tuning due to experience also explains the Other Race Effect

self-esteem

One's overall evaluation of the worth of the self and the feelings that this evaluation engenders Preschool and young elementary school children (ages 4-6) Inflated sense of self-worth May reflect desires rather than genuine self-appraisals Older elementary school children (ages 7-11) Increasingly differentiated, accurate, and relatively stable sense of self Overall sense of self worth includes scholastic, athletic, social and physical senses of self

20. How does learning to walk affect social development?

Perception and motor skills intricately linked in development, and linked to social, emotional, and cognitive development

9. Bar-Haim et al. (2006) studied infants' preferences for faces from different races. What did they find and how do their results contribute to our understanding of how the ORE develops?

Preference for own-race faces at 3 months Only in infants from homogeneous own-race environments With increasing age (and increases in ORE), more exposure to other races needed to attenuate the ORE Fine-tuning due to experience also explains the Other Race Effect

development of self-concept in preschool children and school-age children - what dimensions are evident at different ages

Preschool years (3-5) Define self in terms of concrete dimensions: possessions physical characteristics preferences competencies Distinguish between internal and external self Acquire a theory of mind Tend to be positive in their self-descriptions School-Age Children (5-11) Psychological concept of self in separate domains social emotional academic physical Compares self to peers -- social comparison Adolescence - 12+ years Future orientation More stable attitudes and personality (Not responsible for material on adolescent search for identity)

4. How does the ability to recognize other people's emotions develop?

Recognizing other's emotions Happiness, surprise, sadness and anger distinguished at least by 6 months Infants first recognize mothers' emotions Then other women's, then fathers and other men's Social referencing emerges at 8-12 months Can label some emotions at age 3; improves during preschool and early school years Understand causes of emotions (anger, sadness, happiness) by 5 years

mastery-oriented attributions

Response to failure: Work harder

learned helplessness

Response to failure: give up

four patterns of attachment/insecurity types of parent-child interactions lead to the 4 different types of attachment

Secure (60-65%) - Upset when mother leaves - Not consoled by stranger - Happy when mother returns - Associated with sensitive & responsive primary care Insecure/Resistant (10-15%) - Intensely distressed when mother leaves - Distress mixed with rejection on return - Associated with unresponsive primary care. - Sometimes the child's needs and met; sometime they are ignored. Insecure/Avoidant (20%) - Unconcerned by mother's absence - Showed little interest when she returns - Associated with unresponsive primary care. - Child comes to believe that communication of needs has no influence on the caregiver. Disorganized/Disoriented (5-10%) - shows mixture of other 2 types of insecure attachment behaviors - approach/avoidant conflict when mother returns - may act dazed and confused at mother's return - Associated with nonresponsive and abusive parenting

20. What do the results of the study by Johnson et al. (2007) described in lecture tell us about the development of internal working models of attachment?

Securely attached infants looked longer at A (unresponsive parent) Insecurely attached infants looked longer at B (responsive parent )

Thomas and Chess

Studied 9 behaviors in infants and children activity level approach or withdrawal rhythmicity (regularity) adaptability threshold of responsiveness intensity of reaction quality of mood distractibility attention span and persistence Identified 3 "types" of infants Easy baby (40%) even-tempered positive mood open and adaptable to new experiences habits are regular and predictable Difficult baby (10%) active irregular in daily habits reacts negatively (and vigorously) to changes in routines Slow-to-warm-up baby (15%) inactive; moody slow to adapt to new situations responds to change with passive resistance

internal working model of attachment

The child's relationship with their primary caregiver leads to expectations regarding caregiver's availability a set of expectations about how the primary caregiver will respond when the child feels insecure

13. Describe the development of depth perception in infancy; explain the importance of size constancy, and the visual cliff experiment. Does the visual cliff experiment test for depth perception or fear of heights or both (and why)?

Visual Cliff experiment - Novice crawlers crossed the visual cliff - After several weeks of crawling experience, babies would not cross Interpretation: - Babies learned to interpret the depth information - Depth perception develops as a result of: - Discrimination of visual cues - Experience with locomotion - "Fear of heights" emerges once babies have developed depth perception - "Thus, although young babies can detect a difference between the shallow and deep sides of the visual cliff, only older, crawling babies are actually afraid of the deep side"

methods for studying infant perception.

Visual Preference or Preferential Looking - Babies are show 2 stimuli to look at. - Experimenter records how long they look at each. - whichever one the baby looks at longer demonstrates that the baby sees a difference between the two stimuli Habituation/Dishabituation - Habituation phase: repeated exposure to the same or similar stimuli - Test phase: show a new stimulus - looking - sucking Electroencephalography -- EEG Recording - Recordings of brain activity during perception -Can tell whether a discrimination is made - different areas are activated

research by Stephen Suomi and goodness of fit model

Whether or not temperamental patterns persist depends on the goodness of fit between child's temperament and parental childrearing

goodness-of-fit model of the relationship between temperament and environment.

Whether or not temperamental patterns persist depends on the goodness of fit between child's temperament and parental childrearing Relationship between child temperament and parenting in development of anxiety and depression (Kiff, Lengua & Busch, 2011) Studied relationship between child effortful control and parenting style 3-year longitudinal study beginning when children were 9 yrs. old

8. According to Brummelman et al. (2014), how does praise from adults affect children's self esteem?

Why can't we raise children's self-esteem by telling them how incredibly amazing they are? For children with low self-esteem, inflated praise - Increases pressure to perform at exceptional levels - Decreases challenge seeking

Strange Situation

a behavioral test developed by Mary Ainsworth that is used to determine a child's attachment style

12. How does prejudice develop according to Developmental Intergroup Theory (DIT)?

biases are influenced by the social environment Implicit grouping (e.g. segregation) create salient categories - Children notice similarities among those who live, work, and socialize together - Infer that the social divisions were caused by inherent differences between groups. Proportional group size - Proportionally smaller (minority) groups more distinctive than proportionally larger (majority) groups - More likely targets of stereotypes and prejudice Group Labels - Salience of grouping criteria (e.g., gender, reading ability) increases when adults label groups

According to DIT, what factors and characteristics of the social environment contribute to bias (and how)?

group labels - Salience of grouping criteria (e.g., gender, reading ability) increases when adults label groups group size - Proportionally smaller (minority) groups more distinctive than proportionally larger (majority) groups - More likely targets of stereotypes and prejudice implicit grouping (e.g. segregation) create salient categories - Children notice similarities among those who live, work, and socialize together - Infer that the social divisions were caused by inherent differences between groups.

15. What is ADHD and what is the best treatment for ADHD?

hyperactivity, inattention, impulsivity ongoing treatment (chronic)

5. How do infants integrate information from different senses?

infants can recognize visually an object that they have touched previously babies can detect relations between information presented visually and auditorily

18. Adoph argues that infants are "learning to learn" when developing locomotion skills. What does she mean and how her view different from the maturation view of motor development? Why does Adolph propose that there are 4 learning curves when infants are learning to use depth information?

infants learn how to adapt to current biomechanical constraints What infants learn in one posture must be relearned in a new posture, taking into consideration the new constraints maturational=biological 4 learning curves= environmental

2. When are babies able to smell and taste? When can they respond to touch and experience pain?

keen sense of smell, can recognize mothers smell Cannot perceive the whole palette available to adults pain is experienced right away- you can tell by the cry sensitive to touch- helps them recognize mothers

How does adult feedback to children affect the development of learned helplessness and different types of mindsets

lack of comments to girls foster an entity theory of intelligence (fixed mindset) yes, induced by a lack of feedback

methods used to study self concept in infants and pre-verbal children

mirror test,do the infants recognize themselves in the mirror shopping cart test:

3. How well do infants hear? How do they use sounds to understand their world?

not as well as adults 4.5 months- recognize names

What are the long-term consequences of secure and insecure attachment

secure- fewer behavior problems, able to form better relationships insecure- health and relationship problems

in-group bias

tendency to favor individuals within our group over those from outside our group