Instrument Pilot Oral Exam Guide Eighth Edition

What other useful info can be found in an A/FD?

-Enroute flight advisories -ARTCC -Aeronautical chart bulletins -Preferred IFR routes -Special notices -VOR receiver checkpoints

What are the alternate airport requirements?

1-2-3 Rule—If from 1 hour before to 1 hour after your planned ETA at the destination airport, the weather is forecast to be at least 2,000-foot ceilings and 3-mile visibilities, no alternate is required. If less than 2,000 and 3 miles, an alternate must be filed using the following criteria: a. If an IAP is published for that airport, the alternate airport minimums specified in that procedure or, if none are specified, the following minimums— • Precision approach procedure: ceiling 600 feet and visibility 2 statute miles. • Nonprecision approaches ceiling 800 feet and visibility 2 statute miles. b. If no IAP has been published for that airport, the ceiling and visibility minimums are those allowing descent from the MEA, approach, and landing under basic VFR.

What are the standard temperature and pressure values for sea level?

15°C and 29.92" Hg are standard at sea level.

If the air temperature is +6°C at an airport elevation of 1,200 feet and a standard (average) temperature lapse rate exists, what will be the approximate freezing level?

4,200 MSL; 6° at the surface divided by the average temperature lapse rate of 2°C results in a 3,000-foot freezing level, converted to sea level by adding the 1,200-foot airport elevation.

What are the required tests and inspections of aircraft and equipment to be legal for IFR flight?

A Annual Inspection within the preceding 12 calendar months (14 CFR 91.409) A Airworthiness Directives complied with as required (14 CFR 91.403) V VOR check, if used for IFR, every 30 days (14 CFR 91.171) 1 100-hour inspection, if used for hire or flight instruction (14 CFR 91.409) A Altimeter, altitude reporting equipment, and static pressure systems tested and inspected (for IFR ops), every 24 calendar months (14 CFR 91.411) T Transponder tests and inspections, every 24 calendar months (14 CFR 91.413) E Emergency locator transmitter, operation and battery condition inspected every 12 calendar months

What is the function of a magnetometer?

A magnetometer is a device that measures the strength of the earth's magnetic field to determine aircraft heading. It provides this information digitally to the AHRS, which relays it to the PFD.

After filing an IFR flight plan, can you depart VFR and pick up your IFR clearance in the air?

A VFR departure can be used as a tool that allows you to get off the ground without having to wait for a time slot in the IFR system; however, departing VFR with the intent of receiving an IFR clearance in the air can also present serious hazards worth considering. A VFR departure dramatically changes the takeoff responsibilities for you and for ATC: a. Upon receiving clearance for a VFR departure, you are cleared to depart; however, you must maintain separation between yourself and other traffic. b. You are also responsible for maintaining terrain and obstruction clearance as well as remaining in VFR weather conditions. You cannot fly in IMC without first receiving your IFR clearance. c. Departing VFR relieves ATC of these duties, and basically requires them only to provide you with safety alerts as workload permits. d. You must maintain VFR until you have obtained your IFR clearance and have ATC approval to proceed on course in accordance with your clearance. If you accept this clearance and are below the minimum IFR altitude for operations in the area, you accept responsibility for terrain/obstruction clearance until you reach that altitude.

An applicant for an instrument rating must have at least how much and what type of flight time as pilot? (14 CFR 61.65)

A person who applies for an instrument-airplane rating must have logged the following: A. 50 hours of cross-country flight time as PIC, of which 10 hours must have been in an airplane; B.40 hours of actual or simulated instrument time in the Part 61 areas of operation, of which 15 hours must have been received from an authorized instructor who holds an instrument airplane rating, and the instrument time includes: -3 hours of instrument flight training from an authorized instructor in an airplane that is appropriate to the instrument-airplane rating within 2 calendar months before the date of the practical test; -Instrument flight training on cross country flight procedures, including one cross-country flight in an airplane with an authorized instructor, that is performed under IFR, when a flight plan has been filed with an ATC facility, and that involves a flight of 250 NM along airways or ATC-directed routing, an instrument approach at each airport, and 3 different kinds of approaches with the use of navigation systems

How can a pilot obtain the latest GPS NOTAMS?

A pilot can specifically request GPS aeronautical information from a FSS during preflight briefings.

If a pilot allows his/her instrument currency to expire, what can be done to become current again?

A pilot is current for the first 6 months following his/her instrument checkride or proficiency check. If the pilot has not accomplished at least 6 approaches (including holding procedures, intercepting/tracking courses through the use of navigation systems) within this first 6 months, he/she is no longer legal to file and fly under IFR. To become legal again, the regulations allow a "grace period" (the second 6-month period), in which a pilot may get current by finding an "appropriately rated" safety pilot, and in simulated IFR conditions only, acquire the 6 approaches, etc. If the second 6-month period also passes without accomplishing the minimum, a pilot may reinstate his/her currency by accomplishing an instrument proficiency check given by an examiner, an authorized instructor, or an FAA-approved person to conduct instrument practical tests.

What conditions are necessary for a pilot to log instrument time?

A pilot may log as instrument flight time only that time during which he/she operates the aircraft solely by reference to instruments, under actual or simulated conditions.

What are the recency-of-experience requirements to be PIC of a flight under IFR?

A. A flight review; b. To carry passengers, 3 takeoffs and landings within the preceding 90 days in an aircraft of the same category, class and type, if a type rating is required (landings must be full stop at night or in a tailwheel). c. Within the 6 calendar months preceding the month of the flight, performed and logged in actual weather conditions or under simulated conditions using a view-limiting device, at least the following tasks in an airplane: • Six instrument approaches. • Holding procedures and tasks • Intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigational electronic systems. Note: 14 CFR §61.57(c) allows the use of an aircraft and/or a flight simulator, flight training device, or aviation training device for maintaining instrument experience, subject to certain limitation

When utilizing GPS for IFR navigation, are you required to have an alternate means of navigation appropriate for the route of flight?

Aircraft using GPS TSO-C129 or TSO-C196 (non-WAAS) navigation equipment under IFR must be equipped with an approved and operational alternate means of navigation appropriate to the flight. During preflight, ensure that this equipment is onboard and operational and that all required checks have been performed (e.g., 30-day VOR check). Active monitoring of alternative navigation equipment is not required if the GPS receiver uses RAIM for integrity monitoring. Active monitoring of an alternate means of navigation is required when the RAIM capability of the GPS equipment is lost. Note: Aircraft equipped with a WAAS receiver may use WAAS as a primary means of navigation. No additional equipment is required.

What instruments are affected when the static port freezes?

Airspeed indicator—Accurate at the altitude frozen as long as static pressure in the indicator and the system equals outside pressure. If the aircraft descends, the airspeed indicator would read high (outside static pressure would be greater than that trapped). If the aircraft climbs, the airspeed indicator would read low. Altimeter—Indicates the altitude at which the system is blocked. Vertical speed—Will indicate level flight

What documents must be on board an aircraft to make it legal for IFR flight?

Airworthiness Certificate Registration Certificate Radio station license (if conducting international operations) Owner's manual or operating limitations Weight and balance data

What information must a pilot-in-command be familiar with before a flight? (14 CFR 91.103)

All available information including: a. Weather reports and forecasts b. Fuel requirements c. Alternatives if the flight cannot be completed as planned d. Known ATC delays e. Runway lengths of intended use f. Takeoff and landing distances

When can you cancel your IFR flight plan?

An IFR flight plan may be canceled at any time the flight is operating in VFR conditions outside of Class A airspace. Pilots must be aware that other procedures may be applicable to a flight that cancels an IFR flight plan within an area where a special program, such as a designated TRSA, Class C airspace, or Class B airspace, has been established

What display information will be lost when an AHRS failure occurs?

An inoperative attitude indicator (red X) on a PFD indicates failure of the AHRS.

At what rate does atmospheric pressure decrease with an increase in altitude?

Atmospheric pressure decreases approximately 1" Hg per 1,000 feet.

What instruments contain gyroscopes?

Attitude indicator, heading indicator and turn coordinator/indicator.

What are "area charts"? (AIM 9-1-4)

Area charts show congested terminal areas such as Dallas/Ft. Worth or Atlanta at a large scale. They are included with subscriptions to any conterminous U.S. set Low (Full set, East or West sets). Revised every 56 days.

Is the attitude indicator subject to errors?

Attitude indicators are free from most errors, but depending upon the speed with which the erection system functions, there may be a slight nose-up indication during a rapid acceleration and a nose-down indication during a rapid deceleration. There is also a possibility of a small bank angle and pitch error after a 180° turn. On rollout from a 180° turn, the AI will indicate a slight climb and turn in the opposite direction of rollout. These inherent errors are small and correct themselves within a minute or so after returning to straight-and-level flight.

What type of error is the heading indicator subject to?

Because of precession (caused by friction), the heading indicator will creep or drift from the heading it is set to. The amount of drift depends largely upon the condition of the instrument (worn and dirty bearings and/or improperly lubricated bearings). Additionally, the gyro is oriented in space and the earth rotates in space at a rate of 15 degrees in 1 hour; therefore, discounting precession caused by friction, the heading indicator may indicate as much as 15 degrees of error per every hour of operation.

What is the definition of the term "ceiling"?

Ceiling is defined as the height above the Earth's surface of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena reported as "broken," "overcast," or "obscuration," and not classified as "thin" or "partial.".

What are Enroute High-Altitude Charts?

Enroute high-altitude charts are designed for navigation at or above 18,000 feet MSL. This four-color chart series includes the jet route structure; VHF NAVAIDs with frequency, identification, channel, geographic coordinates; selected airports; reporting points. Revised every 56 days.

When logging instrument time, what should be included in each logbook entry?

Each entry must include the location and type of each instrument approach accomplished and the name of the safety pilot, if required

What are Enroute Low-Altitude Charts?

Enroute low-altitude charts provide aeronautical information for navigation under IFR conditions below 18,000 feet MSL. These charts are revised every 56 days. All courses are magnetic and distances are nautical miles.

The requested altitude on an FAA flight plan form (Block 7) represents which altitude for the route of flight—the initial, lowest, or highest

Enter only the initial requested altitude in this block. When more than one IFR altitude or flight level is desired along the route of flight, it is best to make a subsequent request direct to the controller.

What is the definition of the term "flight time"?

Flight time means pilot time that commences when an aircraft moves under its own power for the purpose of flight and ends when the aircraft comes to rest after landing

What corrective action is needed if the pitot tube freezes? If the static port freezes?

For pitot tube—Turn pitot heat on. For static system—Use alternate air if available or break the face of a static instrument (either the VSI or A/S indicator).

How will loss of a magnetometer affect the AHRS operation?

Heading information will be lost.

State the general characteristics in regard to the flow of air around high and low pressure systems in the northern hemisphere. (AC 00-6)

Low pressure—Air flows inward, upward, and counterclockwise. High pressure—Air flows outward, downward, and clockwise

What minimums are to be used on arrival at the alternate?

If an instrument approach procedure has been published for that airport, the minimums specified in that procedure are used.

For IFR flight, what is the maximum allowable error for an altimeter?

If the altimeter is off field elevation by more than 75 feet, with the correct pressure set in the Kollsman window, it is considered to be unreliable.

How does an altimeter work?

In an altimeter, aneroid wafers expand and contract as atmospheric pressure changes, and through a shaft and gear linkage, rotate pointers on the dial of the instrument.

What indications should you expect while using alternate air?

In many unpressurized aircraft equipped with a pitot-static tube, an alternate source of static pressure is provided for emergency use. If the alternate source is vented inside the airplane where static pressure is usually lower than outside, selection of the alternate static source may result in the following indications: Altimeter will indicate higher than the actual altitude Airspeed will indicate greater than the actual airspeed Vertical speed will indicate a climb while in level flight Note: Always consult the AFM/POH to determine the amount of error.

When a display failure occurs, what other system components will be affected?

In some systems, failure of a display will also result in partial loss of navigation, communication, and GPS capability. Reference your specific AFM/POH.

If a failure of one of the displays (PFD or MFD) occurs in an aircraft with an electronic flight display, what will happen to the remaining operative display?

In the event of a display failure, some systems offer a "reversion" capability to display the primary flight instruments and engine instruments on the remaining operative display.

What are the different types of aircraft speeds?

Indicated Airspeed (IAS)—IAS is shown on the dial of the instrument, uncorrected for instrument or system errors. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)—CAS is the speed at which the aircraft is moving through the air, which is found by correcting IAS for instrument and position errors. The POH/AFM has a chart or graph to correct IAS for these errors and provide the correct CAS for the various flap and landing gear configurations. Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)—EAS is CAS corrected for compression of the air inside the pitot tube. EAS is the same as CAS in standard atmosphere at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure altitude increase, the CAS becomes higher than it should be, and a correction for compression must be subtracted from the CAS. True Airspeed (TAS)—TAS is CAS corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature. TAS and CAS are the same in standard atmosphere at sea level. Under nonstandard conditions, TAS is found by applying a correction for pressure altitude and temperature to the CAS.

Define and state how to determine the following altitudes: Indicated altitude True altitude Absolute altitude Pressure altitude Density altitude

Indicated altitude—read directly from the altimeter when set to the current altimeter setting. True altitude—the vertical distance of the aircraft above sea level (MSL). Airport, terrain, and obstacle elevations on aeronautical charts are true altitudes. Absolute altitude—the vertical distance of an aircraft above the terrain, or above ground level (AGL). It may be read on a radio/radar altimeter. Pressure altitude—indicated altitude with altimeter set to 29.92 in. Hg. Pressure altitude is used to compute density altitude, true altitude, true airspeed (TAS), and other performance data. Density altitude—pressure altitude corrected for variations from standard temperature

What display information will be affected when an ADC failure occurs?

Inoperative airspeed, altitude, and vertical speed indicators (red Xs) on the PFD indicate the failure of the air data computer.

What is a composite flight plan?

It is a flight plan that specifies VFR operation for one portion of a flight, and IFR for another.

What are the limitations of the vertical-speed indicator?

It is not accurate until the aircraft is stabilized. Sudden or abrupt changes in the aircraft attitude will cause erroneous instrument readings as airflow fluctuates over the static port. These changes are not reflected immediately by the VSI due to the calibrated leak.

What are the limitations the airspeed indicator is subject to?

It must have proper flow of air in the pitot/static system.

What are the limitations of an attitude indicator?

Limits depend upon the make and model of the instrument; bank limits are usually from 100° to 110°, and pitch limits are usually from 60° to 70°. If either limit is exceeded, the instrument will tumble or spill and will give incorrect indications until restabilized. Some modern attitude indicators are designed so they will not tumble.

How does the magnetic compass work?

Magnets mounted on the compass card align themselves parallel to the Earth's lines of magnetic force.

When will ATC delete from the system a departure flight plan that has not been activated?

Most centers have this parameter set so as to delete these flight plans a minimum of 1 hour after the proposed departure time. To ensure that a flight plan remains active, pilots whose actual departure time will be delayed 1 hour or more beyond their filed departure time are requested to notify ATC of their revised departure time.

What additional aircraft documentation should be onboard an aircraft equipped with an IFR-approved GPS?

Most systems require an Airplane Flight Manual Supplement (AFMS) and Cockpit Reference Guide or Quick Reference Guide to be onboard as a limitation of use

Where can information on possible navigational aid limitations be found?

NOTAMs as well as A/FDs will contain current limitations to NAVAIDs.

May portable electronic devices be operated on board an aircraft?

No person may operate nor may any PIC allow the operation of any portable electronic device: a. On aircraft operated by an air carrier or commercial operator; or b. On any other aircraft while it is operated under IFR. Exceptions are: portable voice recorders, hearing aids, heart pace-makers, electric shavers or any other portable electronic device that the operator of the aircraft has determined will not cause interference with the navigation or communication system of the aircraft.

What are NOTAMs?

Notices To Airmen (NOTAM)—Time critical aeronautical information, which is of either a temporary nature or not known sufficiently in advance to permit publication on aeronautical charts or in other operational publications, receives immediate dissemination via the National NOTAM System. It is aeronautical information that could affect a pilot's decision to make a flight. It includes such information as airport or primary runway closures, changes in the status of navigational aids, ILS's, radar service availability, and other information essential to planned en route, terminal, or landing operations.

What instruments are affected when the pitot tube, ram air inlet, and drain hole freeze?

Only the airspeed indicator will be affected. It acts like an altimeter—it will read higher as the aircraft climbs and lower as the aircraft descends. It reads lower than actual speed in level flight.

What are the various compass errors?

Oscillation error—Erratic movement of the compass card caused by turbulence or rough control technique. Deviation error—Due to electrical and magnetic disturbances in the aircraft. Variation error—Angular difference between true and magnetic north; reference isogonic lines of variation. Dip errors: a. Acceleration error—On east or west headings, while accelerating, the magnetic compass shows a turn to the north, and when decelerating, it shows a turn to the south. Remember: ANDS—Accelerate North, Decelerate South b. Northerly turning error—When turning in a northerly direction, the compass float assembly leads rather than lags resulting in a false northerly turn indication. Because of this lead of the compass card, or float assembly, a northerly turn should be stopped prior to arrival at the desired heading. c. Southerly turning error—When turning in a southerly direction, the compass float assembly lags rather than leads resulting in a false southerly turn indication. The compass card, or float assembly, should be allowed to pass the desired heading prior to stopping the turn. Remember: UNOS—Undershoot North, Overshoot South

Describe the function of the following avionics equipment acronyms: PFD, MFD, AHRS, ADC, FMS, FD, TAWS, TIS.

PFD—primary flight display. A PFD provides increased situational awareness to the pilot by replacing the traditional six instruments used for instrument flight with an easy-to-scan display that provides the horizon, airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, trend, trim, and rate of turn, among other key indications. MFD—multi-function display. A cockpit display capable of presenting information such as navigation data, moving maps, aircraft systems information (engine monitoring), or should the need arise, PFD information. AHRS—attitude and heading reference system. An integrated flight system composed of three-axis sensors that provide heading, attitude, and yaw information for an aircraft. GPS, solid state magnetometers, solid state accelerometers, and digital air data signals are all combined in an AHRS to compute and output highly reliable information to the cockpit primary flight display. ADC—air data computer. An aircraft computer that receives and processes ram air, static air, and temperature information from sensors, and provides information such as altitude, indicated airspeed, vertical speed, and wind direction and velocity to other cockpit systems (PFD, AHRS, transponder). FMS—flight management system. A computer system containing a database to allow programming of routes, approaches, and departures that can supply navigation data to the flight director/autopilot from various sources, and can calculate flight data such as fuel consumption, time remaining, possible range, and other values. FD—flight director. An electronic flight calculator that analyzes the navigation selections, signals, and aircraft parameters. It presents steering instructions on the flight display as command bars or crossbars for the pilot to position the nose of the aircraft over or follow. TAWS—terrain awareness and warning system. Uses the aircraft's GPS navigation signal and altimetry systems to compare the position and trajectory of the aircraft against a more detailed terrain and obstacle database. This database attempts to detail every obstruction that could pose a threat to an aircraft in flight. TIS—Traffic Information Service is a ground-based advanced avionics traffic display system which receives transmissions on locations of nearby aircraft from radar-equipped air traffic control facilities and provides alerts and warnings to the pilot

What instrument approach procedures may you flight plan to use as the planned approach at the required alternate when using TSO-C145/-C146 (WAAS) equipment?

Pilots with TSO-C145/C146 WAAS receivers may flight plan to use any instrument approach procedure authorized for use with their WAAS avionics as the planned approach at a required alternate, with certain restrictions

When flight planning an RNAV route, where should your route begin and end?

Plan the random route portion of the flight plan to begin and end over appropriate arrival and departure transition fixes or appropriate navigation aids for the altitude stratum within which the flight will be conducted. The use of normal preferred departure and arrival routes (DP/STAR), where established, is recommended.

What are the errors that the airspeed indicator is subject to?

Position error—caused by the static ports sensing erroneous static pressure; slipstream flow causes disturbances at the static port preventing actual atmospheric pressure measurement. It varies with airspeed, altitude, configuration and may be a plus or minus value. Density error—changes in altitude and temperature are not compensated for by the instrument. Compressibility error—caused by the packing of air into the pitot tube at high airspeeds, resulting in higher than normal indications. It usually occurs above 180 KIAS

What are preferred routes and where can they be found? (P/CG)

Preferred routes are those established between busier airports to increase system efficiency and capacity. Preferred routes are listed in the Airport/Facility Directory.

When must a pilot file an IFR flight plan?

Prior to departure from within or prior to entering controlled airspace, a pilot must submit a complete flight plan and receive clearance from ATC if weather conditions are below VFR minimums. The pilot should file the flight plan at least 30 minutes prior to the estimated time of departure to preclude a possible delay in receiving a departure clearance from ATC.

All (D) NOTAMs will have keywords contained within the first part of the text. What are several examples of these keywords? (AIM 5-1-3)

RWY, TWY, APRON, AD, OBST, NAV, COM, SVC, AIRSPACE, ODP, SID, STAR, CHART, DATA, IAP, VFP, ROUTE, SPECIAL, SECURITY, (U) or (O)

Explain the function of RAIM.

Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) is the self-monitoring function performed by a TSO-129 certified GPS receiver to ensure that adequate GPS signals are being received at all times. The GPS alerts the pilot whenever the integrity monitoring determines that the GPS signals do not meet the criteria for safe navigation use

What are two important characteristics of gyroscopes?

Rigidity—the characteristic of a gyro that prevents its axis of rotation tilting as the Earth rotates; attitude and heading instruments operate on this principle. Precession—the characteristic of a gyro that causes an applied force to be felt, not at the point of application, but 90 degrees from that point in the direction of rotation. Rate instruments such as the turn coordinator use this principle.

Does an aircraft have to remain stationary during AHRS system initialization?

Some AHRSs must be initialized on the ground prior to departure. The initialization procedure allows the system to establish a reference attitude used as a benchmark for all future attitude changes. Other systems are capable of initialization while taxiing as well as in-flight.

When is a RAIM check required?

TSO-C129 (non-WAAS) equipped aircraft—If TSO-C129 (non-WAAS) equipment is used to solely satisfy the RNAV and RNP requirement, GPS RAIM availability must be confirmed for the intended route of flight (route and time) using current GPS satellite information. TSO-C145/C146 (WAAS) equipped aircraft—If TSO-C145/C146 (WAAS) equipment is used to satisfy the RNAV requirement, the pilot/operator need not perform the prediction if WAAS coverage is confirmed to be available along the entire route of flight. Outside the U.S. or in areas where WAAS coverage is not available, operators using TSO-C145/C146 receivers are required to check GPS RAIM availability. Note: In the event of a predicted, continuous loss of RAIM of more than five (5) minutes for any part of the intended flight, the flight should be delayed, canceled, or re-routed where RAIM requirements can be met. Pilots should assess their capability to navigate (potentially to an alternate destination) in case of failure of GPS navigation

What restrictions apply concerning filing an airport as an alternate when using TSO-C129 and TSO-C196 (non-WAAS) GPS equipment?

TSO-C129 and TSO-C196 GPS-equipped users may file a flight plan for a GPS-based IAP at either the destination or the alternate airport, but not at both locations. At the alternate airport, pilots may plan for applicable alternate airport weather minimums using: a. LNAV or circling MDA. b. LNAV/VNAV decision altitude (DA) if equipped with and using approved baro-VNAV equipment. c. RNP 0.3 DA on an RNAV (RNP) IAP if specifically authorized with approved baro-VNAV equipment. To take advantage of this option the pilot must: a. Ensure the navigation system has fault detection and exclusion (FDE) capability. b. Perform a preflight RAIM prediction at the airport where the RNAV (GPS) approach will be flown. c. Have proper knowledge and any required training and/or approval to conduct a GPS-based IAP. If the above conditions cannot be met, any required alternate airport must have an approved IAP other than GPS that is anticipated to be operational and available at the ETA, and which the aircraft is equipped to fly.

What other useful information can be found in the Airport/Facility Directory which might be helpful in route planning? (A/FD)

The A/FD contains additional information for each of the seven regions covered, such as: a. Enroute Flight Advisory Services—locations and communications outlets. b. ARTCC—locations and sector frequencies. c. Aeronautical Chart Bulletins—recent changes after publication. d. Preferred IFR routes—high and low altitude. e. Special notices—flight service station, GADO, Weather Service office phone numbers. f. VOR receiver checkpoints—locations and frequencies.

What causes the winds aloft to flow parallel to the isobars?

The Coriolis force causes winds aloft to flow parallel to the isobars.

What conditions must exist in order to log "actual" instrument flight time?

The FAA has never defined the term "actual" instrument time. 14 CFR Part 61 defines "instrument flight time" as that flight time when a person operates an aircraft solely by reference to instruments under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions. A reasonable guideline for determining when to log "actual instrument time" would be any flight time that is accumulated in IMC conditions with flight being conducted solely by reference to instruments. The definition of IMC is weather conditions below the VFR minimums specified for visual meteorological conditions. VFR minimums are found in 14 CFR §91.155.

How does the vertical-speed indicator work?

The VSI is a rate-of-pressure-change instrument that gives an indication of any deviation from a constant pressure level. Inside the VSI instrument case is an aneroid. Both the inside of the aneroid and the inside of the instrument case are vented to the static system. The case is vented through a calibrated orifice that causes the pressure inside the case to change more slowly than the pressure inside the aneroid. Changing pressures inside the case and the aneroid compress and expand the aneroid, moving the pointer upward or downward indicating a climb, a descent, or level flight.

What are the fuel requirements for flight in IFR conditions?

The aircraft must carry enough fuel to fly to the first airport of intended landing (including the approach), the alternate airport (if required), and thereafter, for 45 minutes at normal cruise speed. If an alternate airport is not required, enough fuel must be carried to fly to the destination airport and land with 45 minutes of fuel remaining.

How does the airspeed indicator operate?

The airspeed indicator measures the difference between ram pressure from the pitot head and atmospheric pressure from the static source.

What limitations does the magnetic compass have?

The jewel-and-pivot type mounting gives the float freedom to rotate and tilt up to approximately 18° angle of bank. At steeper bank angles, the compass indications are erratic and unpredictable.

How does the attitude indicator work?

The gyro in the attitude indicator is mounted on a horizontal plane and depends upon rigidity in space for its operation. The horizon bar represents the true horizon and is fixed to the gyro; it remains in a horizontal plane as the airplane is pitched or banked about its lateral or longitudinal axis, indicating the attitude of the airplane relative to the true horizon.

What information does the turn coordinator provide?

The miniature aircraft in the turn coordinator displays the rate of turn, rate of roll and direction of turn. The ball in the tube indicates the quality of turn (slip or skid). Slip—ball on the inside of turn; not enough rate of turn for the amount of bank. Skid—ball to the outside of turn; too much rate of turn for the amount of bank

Can a GPS with an expired database be used for navigation under IFR?

The navigation database contained in the GPS/FMS must be current if the system is to be used for IFR approaches. Some units allow enroute IFR operations with an expired database if the navigation waypoints are manually verified by referencing an official current source, such as a current en route chart. To determine equipment approvals and limitations, refer to the AFM or AFM supplements. Note: The FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual Supplement (required to be onboard the aircraft) is regulatory and specifies the requirements and operations permitted

How often are GPS databases required to be updated?

The navigation database is updated every 28 days. Obstacle databases may be updated every 56 days and terrain and airport map databases are updated as needed.

How does the heading indicator work?

The operation of the heading indicator works on the principle of rigidity in space. The rotor turns in a vertical plane, and fixed to the rotor is a compass card. Since the rotor remains rigid in space, the points on the card hold the same position in space relative to the vertical plane. As the instrument case and the airplane revolve around the vertical axis, the card provides clear and accurate heading information.

How can a pilot determine what type of operations a GPS receiver is approved for?

The pilot should reference the FAA-approved AFM and AFM supplements to determine the limitations and operating procedures for the particular GPS equipment installed.

Who is responsible for determining if an aircraft is in an airworthy condition?

The pilot-in-command is responsible

What instruments operate from the pitot/static system?

The pitot/static system operates the altimeter, vertical-speed indicator, and airspeed indicator. All three instruments receive static air pressure for operation with only the ASI receiving both pitot and static pressure.

What does the term "UNRELIABLE" indicate when used in conjunction with GPS and WAAS NOTAMs?

The term UNRELIABLE is an advisory to pilots indicating the expected level of WAAS service (LNAV/VNAV, LPV) may not be available. WAAS UNRELIABLE NOTAMs are predictive in nature and published for flight planning purposes. Upon commencing an approach at locations NOTAMed WAAS UNRELIABLE and where the WAAS avionics indicate LNAV/VNAV or LPV service is available, vertical guidance may be used to complete the approach using the displayed level of service. If an outage occurs during the approach, reversion to LNAV minima may be required.

How does the turn coordinator operate?

The turn part of the instrument uses precession to indicate direction and approximate rate of turn. A gyro reacts by trying to move in reaction to the force applied, thus moving the miniature aircraft in proportion to the rate of turn. The inclinometer in the instrument is a black glass ball sealed inside a curved glass tube that is partially filled with a liquid. The ball measures the relative strength of the force of gravity and the force of inertia caused by a turn.

How does the vacuum system operate?

The vacuum or pressure system spins the gyro by drawing a stream of air against the rotor vanes to spin the rotor at high speeds, essentially the same as a water wheel or turbine operates. The amount of vacuum or pressure required for instrument operation varies by manufacturer and is usually between 4.5 to 5.5 in. Hg. One source of vacuum for the gyros installed in light aircraft is the vane-type engine-driven pump, mounted on the accessory case of the engine.

What are the limitations of the heading indicator?

They vary with the particular design and make of instrument: on some heading indicators in light airplanes, the limits are approximately 55 degrees of pitch and 55 degrees of bank. When either of these attitude limits are exceeded, the instrument "tumbles" or "spills" and no longer gives the correct indication until it is reset with the caging knob. Many modern instruments used are designed in such a manner that they will not tumble.

What aircraft instruments/equipment are required for IFR operations?

Those required for VFR day and night flight plus: G Generator or alternator of adequate capacity R Radios (nav. and comm. equipment suitable for the route to be flown) A Altimeter (sensitive) B all (slip/skid indicator of turn coordinator) C Clock (sweep second hand or digital presentation A Attitude indicator R Rate of turn (turn coordinator) D Directional gyro D-ME or RNAV (for flight at FL240 and above if VOR equipment is required for the route

What is the source of power for the turn coordinator?

Turn coordinator gyros can be driven by either air or electricity; some are dual-powered. Typically the turn coordinator is electrically powered, but always refer to the AFM for specifics.

Can a pilot perform the required database updates or must this action be accomplished by authorized maintenance personnel?

Updates of databases of installed avionics may be performed by pilots provided they can be initiated from the flight deck, performed without disassembly of the avionics unit, and performed without the use of tools and/or special equipment

How can the use of the "PAVE" checklist during preflight help a pilot to assess and mitigate risk? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Use of the PAVE checklist provides pilots with a simple way to remember each category to examine for risk during flight planning. The pilot divides the risks of flight into four categories: Pilot-In-Command—illness, medication, stress, alcohol, fatigue, emotion (I'M SAFE) Aircraft—airworthiness, aircraft equipped for flight, proficiency in aircraft, performance capability enVironment—weather hazards, type of terrain, airports/runways to be used, conditions External pressures—meetings, people waiting at destination, desire to impress, desire to get there, etc.

Name several types of power sources commonly used to power the gyroscopic instruments in an aircraft.

Various power sources used are: electrical, pneumatic, venturi tube, wet-type vacuum pump, and dry-air pump systems. Aircraft and instrument manufacturers have designed redundancy into the flight instruments so that any single failure will not deprive the pilot of his/her ability to safely conclude the flight. Gyroscopic instruments are crucial for instrument flight; therefore, they are powered by separate electrical or pneumatic sources. Typically, the heading indicator and attitude indicator will be vacuum-driven and the turn coordinator electrically-driven.

Can a handheld GPS receiver be used for IFR operations?

Visual flight rules (VFR) and hand-held GPS systems are not authorized for IFR navigation, instrument approaches, or as a principal instrument flight reference. During IFR operations they may be considered only as an aid to situational awareness.

When is an instrument rating required? (14 CFR 61.3e, 91.157)

When carrying passengers for hire on cWhen operations are conducted: a. Under instrument flight rules (IFR flight plan), b. In weather conditions less than the minimum for VFR flight, c. In Class A airspace, d. Under Special VFR within Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E surface areas between sunset and sunrise. e. When carrying passengers for hire on cross-country flights in excess of 50 nautical miles or at night cross-country flights in excess of 50 nautical miles or at night.

What restrictions apply to flight planning when using WAAS avionics at the alternate airport?

When using WAAS avionics at an alternate airport, flight planning must be based on flying the RNAV (GPS) LNAV or circling minima line, or minima on a GPS approach procedure, or conventional approach procedure with "or GPS" in the title. 14 CFR Part 91 non-precision weather requirements must be used for planning. Upon arrival at an alternate, when the WAAS navigation system indicates that LNAV/VNAV or LPV service is available, then vertical guidance may be used to complete the approach using the displayed level of service.

Are electronic chart systems (electronic flight bags) approved for use as a replacement for paper reference material (POH and supplements, charts, etc.) in the cockpit?

Yes; electronic flight bags (EFBs) can be used during all phases of flight operations in lieu of paper reference material when the information displayed is the functional equivalent of the paper reference material replaced and is current, up-to-date, and valid. It is recommended that a secondary or back-up source of aeronautical information necessary for the flight be available

What airspeeds are indicated by the various color codes found on the dial of an airspeed indicator?

White arc -flap operating range Lower limit of white arc (VS0) -stall speed or minimum steady flight speed in landing configuration (gear and flaps down) Upper limit of the white arc (VFE) -maximum speed with the flaps extended Green arc -normal operating range Lower limit of green arc (VS1) -stall speed or minimum steady flight speed obtained in a specified or clean configuration Upper limit of green arc (VNO) -maximum structural cruising speed. Do not exceed this speed except in smooth air. Yellow arc -caution range; fly within this range only in smooth air, and then, only with caution. Red line (VNE) -never exceed speed; operating above this speed is prohibited; may result in damage or structural failure.

Where can NOTAM information be obtained? (AIM 5-1-3)

a. AFSS/FSS b. DUATS vendors c. NTAP printed NOTAMs. Published every 28 days; once published, these NOTAMS are not provided during pilot weather briefings unless specifically requested by the pilot. The NTAP is available online at the FAA's website d. NOTAMs are available at the FAA website

What type of errors is the altimeter subject to?

a. Mechanical errors—Differences between ambient temperature and/or pressure can cause an erroneous indication on the altimeter. b. Inherent errors—Non-standard temperature and pressure. Warmer than standard air—The air is less dense and the pressure levels are farther apart. The pressure level for a given altitude is higher than it would be in air at standard temperature, and the aircraft is higher than it would be if the air were cooler. True altitude is higher than indicated altitude whenever the temperature is warmer than International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Colder than standard air—The air is denser and the pressure levels are closer together. The pressure level for a given altitude is lower than it would be in air at standard temperature, and the aircraft is lower than it would be if the air were warmer. True altitude is lower than indicated altitude whenever the temperature is colder than ISA. Extreme cold altimeter errors—A correctly calibrated pressure altimeter indicates true altitude above mean sea level (MSL) when operating within ISA parameters of pressure and temperature. When operating in extreme cold temperatures (i.e., +10°C to -50°C), pilots may wish to compensate for the reduction in terrain clearance by adding a cold temperature correction. High pressure to low pressure—If an aircraft is flown from an area of high pressure to an area of lower pressure without adjusting the altimeter, the true altitude of the aircraft will be lower than indicated altitude. Low pressure to high pressure—If an aircraft is flown from an area of low pressure to an area of higher pressure without adjusting the altimeter, the true altitude of the aircraft will be higher than indicated altitude. Remember: High to Low or Hot to Cold—look out below

What are several methods a pilot can use to satisfy the predictive RAIM requirement (RAIM check)?

a. Operators may contact a FSS (not DUATS) to obtain non-precision approach RAIM. Briefers will provide RAIM information for a period of 1 hour before to 1 hour after the ETA, unless a specific time frame is requested by the pilot. b. Use the FAA en route and terminal RAIM prediction website www.raimprediction.net. c. Use a third-party interface, incorporating FAA/Volpe Center RAIM prediction data without altering performance values to predict RAIM outages for the aircraft's predicted flight path and times. d. Use the receiver's installed RAIM prediction capability (for TSO-C129a/Class A1/B1/C1 equipment) to provide non-precision approach RAIM

What are the required qualifications for a person to act as a "safety pilot"?

a. Possess at least a private pilot certificate with category and class ratings appropriate to the aircraft being flown. b. Possess an appropriate medical certificate (the safety pilot is acting as a required crewmember). c. If the flight is to be conducted on an IFR flight plan, the person acting as PIC of the flight must hold an instrument rating and be instrument current

Before conducting an IFR flight using GPS equipment for navigation, what basic preflight checks should be made?

a. Verify that the GPS is properly installed and certified for the planned IFR operation. b. Verify that the databases (navigation, terrain, obstacle, etc.) have not expired. c. Review GPS and WAAS NOTAMs. d. Review GPS RAIM availability for non-WAAS receivers. e. Review operational status of ground-based NAVAIDs and related aircraft equipment (e.g., 30-day VOR check) appropriate to the route of flight, terminal operations, instrument approaches at the destination, and alternate airports at ETA

Explain the following types of NOTAMs: (D) NOTAMS, FDC NOTAMs, Pointer NOTAMs, Military NOTAMs, and SAA NOTAMs. (AIM 5-1-3)

a.. (D) NOTAMs—Information that requires wide dissemination via telecommunication, regarding enroute navigational aids, civil public-use airports listed in the A/FD, facilities, services, and procedures. b. FDC NOTAMs—Flight information that is regulatory in nature including, but not limited to, changes to IFR charts, procedures, and airspace usage. c. POINTER NOTAMs—issued by a flight service station to highlight or point out another NOTAM; for example, an FDC NOTAM. These NOTAMs assist users in cross-referencing important information that may not be found under an airport or NAVAID identifier. d. MILITARY NOTAMs—these pertain to U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine, and Navy navigational aids/airports that are part of the NAS. e. SAA NOTAMs—issued when Special Activity Airspace will be active outside the published schedule times and when required; SAA includes special use airspace (restricted area, military operations area [MOA], warning area, and alert area airspace), instrument and visual military training routes, aerial refueling tracks and anchors