Intercultural Communication Test 2
Speech Community
-"Any human aggregate characterized by regular and frequent interaction by means of a shared body of verbal signs and set off from similar aggregates by significant differences in language usage... the speech varities employed within a speech community form a system" (Gumperz) -Group of speakers who use a common and distinctive variety of a language and share specific rules for speaking and interpreting speech -People who speak the same language are not necessarily members of the same speech community -Speech communities share more than a language; they share social identity and language is crucial in creating it
Example of Affective Codeswitching
-"I love you" Asian mom
Example of Culture Clash
-1991 Miss Universe Contest: -American viewers suggested the soviet contestant had lost her composure and couldn't gather her thoughts in order to be responsive; or perhaps she was being disingenuous, or maybe was being silenced by some hidden force -However, from the then Soviet perspective, when in public and especially in the presence of outsiders there was a strong imperative not to speak of problems; one should espouse the virtues of the USSR, so this question created a dilemma for her because if she answered the questions and talked about problems, she would seem competent to the pageant judges and American, Western audiences and would enhance her standing but she would also risk accusations of incompetence, perhaps even betrayal in her motherland
Examples of Codeswitching
-A French Canadian, bilingual in French and English, may insist on using French to an official of the federal government outside Quebec -A code choice becomes a form of political expression, a move either to resist another's power, to gain power, or to express solidarity -Codeswitching underscores and creates 'we/they' relationships
Creoles
-A creole is a pidgin that has become the first language, or mother tongue, of a new generation of speakers -Born when children start learning a pidgin as their first language, and it becomes the language of a community -Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language with most of its vocabulary from the superstrate lexifier language combined with substrate grammar -Unlike a pidgin, a creole has an expanded vocabulary, more complex and regular grammar, and is not restricted in use -Like any other language, it has a full range of functions
Pidgins
-A language which develops when speakers need to communicate but don't share a common language -When pidgins are formed, usually one of the contact groups is dominant -Limited code, not 'bad' languages -Cannot regard speakers of pidgins as deficient socially and culturally, or cognitively -Not a kind of 'baby-talk' used among adults because it is the best that inferior people can manage -Highly creative linguistic solutions
Morphology of a Pidgin
-Absence of affixes: no plural or possessive 's'
Politeness
-According to Brown and Levinson we are polite in order to save 'face'
Codeswitching Myers-Scotton
-Agrees with Gumperz -Speakers know with whom they want to create identity and solidarity -Know how they want to appear to others and how they want others to behave toward them -Based on this, speakers choose a code
Face Threatening Acts
-Any communication is a risk to face -All communication carries the risk that the interlocutors may be offended (or be offensive), and that their face values may be threatened -Brown and Levinson -Act that inherently damages the face of the addressee or the speaker by acting in opposition to the wants and desires of the other -Sometimes unavoidable
Why Do People Codeswitch?
-Because of fluency or memory problems in the second language -To create and announce identity -To create solidarity and align with others socially: accommodation -To create social distance: dissimilation -Because of the metaphoric association of a language with a specific topic also known as affective codeswitching
Examples of Bilingualism
-Belgian government functionary who speaks standard Dutch at his club and a local variant of Flemish (Dutch dialect) at home. Is bi-dialectical in a diglossic situation, but also speaks French in his office so he is bilingual -'Friulian' is a Rhaeto-Romance language spoken in northeast Italy
Examples of Regional Variants/Dialects
-Boston North End accent -Yat dialect (New Orleans)
Examples of Speech Communities
-Boston North End accent -A government functionary in Brussels arrives home after stopping off at his club for a drink. He generally speaks standard French in his office, standard Dutch at his club, and a distinctly local variant of Flemish at home. In each instance he identifies himself with a different speech network to which he belongs, wants to belong, and from which he seeks acceptance. All of these networks and more are included in his overarching speech community, even though each is more commonly associated with one variety than with another (Fishman)
Culture Clash
-Britons with a long heritage of open, direct confrontation in parliament debating and in the heckling of public speakers, may be more likely to be blunt and enact FTAs than other cultures -Asians may be more reticent to engage in a sharp exchange and choose their remarks carefully so as to avoid FTAs
Politeness Theory
-Brown and Levinson -Differentiate between positive and negative face, which they propose exist universally in human culture -All people have positive and negative face to some degree
Examples of Codeswitching
-Catalans (minority group of Spain) use Catalan only to each other; use Castilian to non-Catalans and they will switch to Castilian if they become aware that other person is peaking Catalan with a Castilian accent -Catalan is only for Catalans -Never happens that one party speaks Catalan and the other Castilian (Woolard)
Example of Language vs Dialect
-Chinese languages: Mandarin and Cantonese and many other varieties spoken in China are called 'dialects' by the Chinese. However, spoken Mandarin and Cantonese are NOT mutually intelligible. They are completely different languages that share the same writing system because written symbols are not based on sounds as Western languages are. Because of their shared writing system and political reasons they are called dialects.
Codeswitching Gumperz
-Codeswitching, though unconscious, has specific triggers usually related to the need to encode information about the social relationships underpinning the discourse
How is a Speech Community Formed?
-Continued contact: over time the speech communities develop linguistic features - speech markers - that are distinct from those of other communities -"Through speech markers functionally important social categorizations are discriminated" (Giles, Scherer, & Taylor) -An obvious example of a speech marker is phonological: accent; however, markers are found across all aspects of language
Example of Interlanguage
-Czenglish: English heavily influenced by Czech pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and vice versa. Examples include confusing verbatim translations such as "basic school" with primary/elementary school. The absence of definite articles (due to the lack of articles in the Czech language) and the use of "some" in place of indefinite article
Threats to Negative Face
-Desires independence and autonomy -When an individual obstructs their interlocutor's independence and freedom of choice and action -Damage to the hearer: receiving orders, requests, threats, warnings, suggestions, advice, offers, and promises, and meddling -Damage to the speaker: accepting thanks, making excuses, accepting offers, committing to something he or she does not want to do
Positive Face
-Desires that one's positive consistent self-image or 'personality' be appreciated and approved by others. It seeks unity and solidarity -Values involvement and a person's right and need to be seen as a normal, contributing, and supporting member of society
Negative Face
-Desires to be unimpeded by others in one's actions, it is the "basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction -- i.e. to freedom of action and freedom from imposition." -Values the independence and the individuality of the participants, their right not to be dominated by the group, and to be free from impositions of others
Communicative Competence Greeting Rituals
-Differ across cultures -Speech acts that establish social ties
Metaphorical code-switching
-Driven by the topic, social values and affect (emotion, psychology) and by the speaker, not the situation -(Gumperz) Used to re-define social situations; for example, from formal to informal, official to personal, serious to humorous, and distance to solidarity -Many speakers are not aware that they switch
Why Codemix in Advertising/Signage
-Economic reasons - get business -Political reasons - assert bi/multilingualism -Practical reasons - English as a lingua franca -Metaphoric reasons - associations with a culture
Examples of Speech Networks
-England: multiplex networks at the extremes of the social-class structure
Dialect Continuum
-Exist where speakers from villages A and B are mutually intelligible and speakers of B and C are mutually intelligible, but A and C are not -There can be a continuous chain of dialects -The hardening of political boundaries in the modern world and the growth of nation-states has led to the hardening of language boundaries
Gender and Words
-Gender also affects words (lexicon) -Japanese women use of a sentence-final particles ne or wa; males do not -A male speaker refers to himself (I/me) as boku or ore; a female as watasi or atasi -The use of boku by junior high school girls has recently become quite common in Tokyo because they feel as though they cannot compete with boys in classes, games or fights with watasi
Gender
-Gender is not sex -Sex is the biological state of maleness or femaleness -Gender is the identity we construct -Sex and gender are not identical -However, gender most often coincides with sex -Therefore, gender studies can be done analyzing linguistic behaviors of men and women
Pidginization
-Generally involves 'simplification' in all aspects: phonology (sound), morphology (word structure) and syntax (grammatical structure) -The lexicon is also limited: e.g. words are more general, 'stick' would be stick, tree, log: words are compounded; e.g. 'cow+baby', not calf. -Words and phrases are metaphorical; e.g. "sunwara" sun+water=ocean "Pidginization is a complex combination of different processes of change, including reduction and simplification of input materials, internal innovation and regularization of structure." (Winford)
Example of Communicative Competence Address Terms
-Germany: Threefold distinction can be made between a second person singular du, ihr, and sie singular and pulural -Polite sie is the default form of address among German adults who are not in a close social relationship -Du is used among family, close friends, professional colleagues, or university students -Usage of du and sie is symmetrical, so the one who gives it will also receive it -One exception is that adults address children and adolescents with du, but receive sie -German woman addressing policeman with wrong one (du), got taken to court and judge agreed with policeman
Tok Pisin Creole
-Has become symbolic of a new culture -The processes of pidginization and creolization are opposites because pidginization involves simplification, whereas creolization involves complication -Tok Pisin has expanded its vocabulary and has developed grammatical categories such as tense and number, processes for word-formation and devices for structuring discourse
Example of Communicative Competence Greeting Ritual
-Hebrew and Arabic speakers: peace be upon you, upon you be peace
Variants That Differ Significantly from Standard Varieties
-Hillbilly English (USA) -Geordie (Newcastle upon Tyne in the UK)
Example of Language vs Dialect
-India and Pakistan: Opposite of China, Hindi and Urdu are dialects of the same language; differences are magnified for political and religious reasons. Speakers of Hindi and Urdu share a basic vocab and grammar, and diverge only at higher registers (formal high culture usage). Unlike Chinese languages, Urdu and Hindi, which are essentially the same language, are separated by their scripts which have become highly symbolic of the growing differences between India and Pakistan
More About Speech Communities
-Individuals generally participate in various speech communities simultaneously and at different times in their lives -Speech communities are not stable or exclusive -Speech communities when they overlap and intersect are also referred to as speech networks
Example of Communicative Competence Greeting Ritual
-Japanese: greet each other with a bow, specific meaning of it depends on the depth and length of time you hold your bow -Nod-bow, among friends, 5 degrees -Greeting bow, 15 degrees -Respect bow, 30 degrees -Highest respect bow, 45 degrees
Example of Social and Communicative Competence
-Javanese: six levels of politeness and six different ways to say the same sentence depending on the relationship the speaker wishes to establish with the hearer -Honorifics in Javanese are used to show respect and to emphasize social distance or disparity in status or to emphasize social intimacy or similarity in status -Japanese is similar
Non-verbal Communication Differs Across Genders
-Kinesics -Oculesics -Proxemics -Haptics -Paralanguage
Bald on-record
-Makes no effort to reduce the impact of FTAs -Very direct -Commonly used between people who know each other very well, who are very comfortable in their environment, close friends and family -People who are secure that there is little risk of an FTA -Giving orders -Making demands -Insulting -Emergency situations -Instructing
Gender Talk and Topics
-Male talk is competitive, hierarchically organized, centered on the exchange of information and getting things done. Men prefer a one-at-a-time floor, which may be linked to the observation that men are competitive -Women are said to be developing solidarity in order to maintain social relationships -Women will frequently talk at the same time, not to take the floor, but to share it -Men signal they are listening by remaining silent, for women silence may signal a breakdown of communication -Female topics: self, feelings, affiliation with others, home, family -Male topics: 'impersonal' and involve joking, teasing, aggression, trading insults and sports statistics
Genderlects
-Maltz and Borker: -Men and women have learned to do different things with language, particularly in conversation -Mhmm to women means I'm listening, but to men means I'm agreeing and is used less frequently -Men often believe that women are always agreeing with them and then conclude that it is impossible to tell what a woman really thinks whereas women get upset with men who never seem to be listening -Women and men observe different rules in conversing and that in cross-gender talk the rules often conflict
Speech Networks
-Means to map relationships -Trace how individuals are connected: how and on what occasions specific individuals interact -May be intensive/dense depending on how frequently individuals interact -May be extensive/multiplex depending on how much overlap there is between individuals interaction -"You are said to be involved in a dense network if the people you know and interact with also know and interact with one another. If they do not the network is a loose one. You are also said to be involved in a multiplex network if the people within it are tied together in more than one way, i.e. not just through work but also through other social activities. People who go to school together, marry each other's siblings, and work and play together participate in dense multiplex networks." (Wardaugh)
Negative Politeness
-Motivation is the assumption that you may be imposing or intruding on someone's autonomy (the independence of their physical or mental space or their belongings) -Used among people who do not know each other well and/or wish to respect autonomy -Leads to deference, indirectness, and formality in language use -Preserves social distance, asymmetric, T/V pronoun use is an example -Ask forgiveness -Minimize imposition -Pluralize the person responsible -Make a request less infringing
Language vs Dialect
-Mutual intelligibility: when speakers cannot understand each other, they are speaking separate languages. If speakers do not speak in the same variant, yet can understand each other they are said to be speaking dialects of the same language -Often a political distinction and not based on the linguistic principle of mutual intelligibility
More about Pidgins
-Never a mother tongue/native language -Most become lingua francas and exist to meet temporary local needs
Example of Codemixing
-Nina's Derriere, very expensive chocolate shop in a department store in Central Tokyo -French as a language of prestige in Tokyo -'Language' is not always 'language' -"Nina's Bum" - dramatic misnomer for a chocolate shop -Here, the French word does not function as a linguistic sign signifier (a symbolic signifier to something in the real world), instead functions as an emblematic sign: rather than being a 'French' word, it stands for 'Frenchness', the complex of symbolic associations of French with extreme sophistication, European chic and exclusiveness
Syntax of a Pidgin
-No articles, coordinated sentences not subordinated
Example of Language vs Dialect
-Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish are regarded as separate languages in distinct countries; however, speakers can understand one another
Example of Communicative Competence Greeting Ritual
-Older Chinese: "Have you eaten yet?" harks back to the days of food scarcity in China. Reply="yes, I have eaten" or "no, not yet"
Regional Lexical Variations
-Pancakes, johnnycakes or flapjacks? -Pail or bucket? -Soda or pop or other? -Mosquito hawk (Eastern USA) -Spindle (Eastern USA) -Snake feeder (Eastern USA) -Snake doctor (Eastern USA) -Snake waiter (Eastern USA)
Examples of Standard Variety/Preferred Dialect
-Parisian French -Florentine Italian -Zanzibar variety of Swahili in Tanzania
Gender and Phonology
-Phonological differences between the speech of men and women have been noted across languages; for example: -French Canadian, many more men than women drop the I in the pronouns il and elle -Schoolgirls in Scotland apparently pronounce the t in words like water and got more often than schoolboys, who prefer to substitute a glottal stop -In Chukchi, a Siberian language, men, but not women, often drop /n/ and /t/ when they occur between vowels
Verbal Communication Differs Across Genders
-Phonology -Morphology -Syntax -Discourse patterns -Dialects -Men and women speak differently across and within different cultures at all levels of language
Threats to Positive Face
-Positive face likes to be liked, admired, ratified, and related to positively -Threatened when the speaker or hearer does n ot care about their interlocutor's feelings, needs and wants, or does not want what the other wants -Damage to the hearer: receiving acts of disapproval, criticism, complaints, disagreements, contradictions, challenges, emotional or divisive topics, interrupting, ignoring -Damage to the speaker: acknowledging the speaker is in the wrong; for example, apologies or confessions
Politeness Strategies
-Positive politeness -Negative politeness -Bald on-record -Off-record -Opting out (not dealing with any situation that may threaten face)
Positive politeness paradox
-Positive politeness can employ direct (bald) speech acts, as well as swearing and insulting -Such acts show an awareness that the relationship is strong enough to cope with what would normally be considered impolite -They articulate an awareness of the other person's values, which fulfills the person's desire to be accepted -Ex=Grand Torino
Standard Variety/Preferred Dialect
-Preferred dialect of that language -Been chosen, often for political, social, religious, or economic reason, to serve as the model or norm for other varieties -Often not called a dialect at all, but is regarded as the language itself -Takes on an ideological dimension and becomes the 'right' and 'proper' language of the group of people
Communicative Competence Address Terms
-Pronoun choice can be a politeness marker -In French, it indicates the social relationship you perceive to exist - T (singular you)/V (plural you) distinction -In English, we make lexical choices instead (s'up --> how do you do?), besides when using thou
Face-Negotiation Theory
-Proposed by Stella Ting-Toomey -Seeks to understand how different cultures respond to FTAs -Looks at how "facework" manifests in different countries -Cultures may value "face" and enact "facework" differently -Cultures vary considerably in the degree of frankness expected and in their perception of and reaction to FTAs
Phonology of a Pidgin
-Reduced consonant clusters: strong > trong, dust > dus
Face
-Refers to one's sense of dignity or prestige in social contexts -To "save face" is to preserve one's social position and to ensure that one is not thought badly of by peers -To "lose face" is to lose social position and respect -Refers to the respect that an individual has for him or herself, and the need to maintain that self-esteem in public or in private situations
Off-Record (indirect)
-Remove any face-threatening imposition; for example: -Give hints -Be vague -Use humor
Modal Tags
-Request information or confirmation of information of which the speaker is uncertain -"But you've been in Prague longer than that, haven't you?"
Positive politeness
-Seeks to achieve solidarity through offers of friendship, compliments, and informal language: We treat each other as friends and allies -Minimizes the distance between interlocutors by expressing friendliness and solidarity and an interest in the need to be respected -Example: symmetric pronominal use (t/t/ V/V), attending to the hearer: "You've been working since 6 you must be hungry, how about some lunch?" -Avoiding disagreement -Assuming agreement -Hedging opinions
Example of Communicative Competence Greeting Ritual
-Senegal: greetings can last from a few minutes to hours and must include a salutation and a blessing, a repetition of each person's name full several times to acknowledge the persons entire family including ancestors . This lengthy greeting accompanied by hand shaking is repeated several times and is concluded
Example of Multilingualism
-Singapore has four official languages: English, Mandarin Chinese, Tamil, and Malay; in addition, the majority of its population are native speakers of Hokkien, another variety of Chinese -The ability to shift from one language (code) to another is the norm -Singapore English is the language of trade and government -Mandarin is the international 'Chinese' language used in business and some government offices -Malay is the language of the region -Tamil is the language of one of the important ethnic groups in the republic
Netizens
-Social networks have raised speech networks and intercultural communication to another level -A guide dog, whose apparent abduction sparked an outcry in China, has been returned to its handler with an apology note
Regional Variants/Dialects
-Speakers of regional variants, or dialects, comprise speech communities -Are a variety of a language spoken in a particular geographic area -Are noticeably different in accent, vocabulary and often some grammar, but are mutually comprehensible with the standard dialect -Certain regional variants have been given traditional names which mark them as being significantly different from standard varieties
Bilingualism
-Speech community/speaker using more than one language
Example of Language vs Dialect
-Standard Serbo-Croatian, a single South Slavic language. Was the official language of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia until it began to break apart. Was spoken in what are now Bosnia and Hercegovina, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia. 'Standard Serbo-Croatian' No longer exists as a language of the Balkans, but continues to be spoken under different names (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian) *Politics and new boarders have created 'new' languages from old dialects, but borders make non-linguistic distinctions and an artificial line on a map does not stop people from speaking the same language
Subordinate Language Group in a Pidgin
-Substrate language -Most of the syntactic and grammatical features of the pidgin come from the substrate
Dominant Language Group in a Pidgin
-Superstrate language -Most of the vocab in a pidgin comes from the superstrate. Thus, it is also called the lexifier
Diglossia & Multilingualism
-Swiss population speaks German, French, Italian, Rumantsch, and other languages -Both diglossia (between standard and Swiss German) and multilingualism
Genderlect
-Tannen coined the term for different variants of male/female speech -Term that suggests that masculine and feminine styles of discourse are best viewed as two distinct cultural dialects
Turn-Taking
-Term for the manner in which orderly conversation normally takes place (I speak, you speak, I speak; we take turns)
Examples of Diglossia
-The Arab world: Classical Arabic (as used in the Quran) exists alongside the vernacular Arabic of Egypt, Morocco, and other countries -At one time in Greece: Katharevusa, heavily influenced by Classical Greek, was the prestige dialect and Dimotiki the popular spoken language. After the end of the military regime Dimotiki was made into Greece's only standard language
Example of Multilingualism
-The Tukano of the northwest Amazon -Men must marry outside their language group, so no man may have a wife who speaks his language because it would be viewed as a kind of incest -Chooses his wife from various neighboring tribes who speak other languages -On marriage, women move into the men's longhouses -Children born into a multilingual environment: the child's father speaks one language; the child's mother another, and other women with whom the child has daily contact perhaps still others -Shift from one language to another easily and largely unconsciously
Codeswitching
-The ability to shift from one language/dialect to another -Switches can occur for reasons other than linguistically distinct situations and spaces - between separate discourses, but also within them -Can occur within a single conversation or sentence -Can occur between speakers' turns or within a single speaker's turn
Diglossia
-The coexistence of high vs. low varieties of the same language throughout a speech community -Type of codeswitching -Speakers in these communities are bi-dialectical; they communicate in both the low (regional, social) variant and in the high standard -The choice is formal and exclusive and determined by the situation; for example, one variant will be used at home, another at work, another for religious ceremonies, etc. -Often one variant is the literary or prestige dialect, and the other is a common dialect spoken by most of the population
Examples of Pidgins
-The name 'pidgin' originates from 'pissin', which means 'business' in Chinese-English pidgin -"Pidgin German of the Gastarbeiters (guest-workers) in Germany that develped in the 1970s and 1980s in cities such as Berlin and Frankfurt among workers fromm countries such as Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, and Portugal." (Wardaugh) - their children acquired standart German in school so the pidgin eventually died out
Facework
-The set of communicative behaviors to save face
Why Two Terms: 'Dialect' and 'Variant'
-The term 'dialect' has taken on a negative connotation by association with lower-economic regions and assumptions of low education -Term 'variant' is used as a neutral alternative
Examples of Lingua Francas
-The term lingua franca originated as the name of a particular language used around the eastern Mediterranean Sea and was the language of commerce and diplomacy from late medieval times until the 18th century -Arabic -Mandarin -Hindi -Swahili -In the absence of a lingua franca, people create a new language to serve as one called a pidgin
Interlanguage
-The type of linguistic system used by ESL and EFL learners who are in the process of learning a target language -Learners progress through 'interlanguage' stages en route to proficiency -Pozor: Interlanguage can "fossilize", or cease developing, in any of its developmental stages
Examples of Creoles
-Tok Pisin Creole: spoken in Melanesia, first had contact with Europeans in the early 1800s. Out of this contact, a pidgin arose which eventually became a creole and is now the official language of Papua New Guinea. In the 1960s, the pidgin was nativized, i.e., children began to acquire it as a first language, and it became a creole for them (while remaining an extended pidgin for previous generations)
Samarin's 4 Terms for Lingua Franca
-Trade language (Hausa in West Africa, Swahili in East Africa) -Contact language (Greek koiné in the Ancient World) -International language (English throughout much of our contemporary world) -Auxiliary language (Esperanto or Basic English)
Tag Questions
-Turn the statement into a question by 'tagging' it with 'verb be' + (negative) + pronoun -"I'm in the right room, aren't I?" -Associated with a desire for confirmation or approval which signals a lack of self-confidence in the speaker
Lingua Franca
-Used when individuals do not share a language yet must communicate -"A language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them." -Usually develop as a consequence of population migration (forced or voluntary) or for purposes of trade
Example of Dialect Continuum
-West Germanic continuum: Historically, the Netherlands and Germany spoke one language, Deutsch, along a continuum. Then Deutsch came to be used for the national language of Germany, and Deutsch and Dutch are so similar along the continuum that they were confused. In each country, standard Dutch/German were adopted as national languages and residents speak a local variety/dialect of Dutch/German in their daily lives. Border area speakers of the local varieties of Dutch and German remain largely intelligible to one another and are more similar to each other than the standards of their 'national' languages, but they will still tell you that they speak dialects of Dutch or German (Wardaugh)
Example of Communicative Competence Greeting Ritual
-Western Apache: greet each other with silence for a few minutes, days, or months until they feel comfortable with one another -Silence is used to assess the other person in order to make an enduring connection
Inter-Sentential switching
-When a switch occurs between sentences
Intra-Sentential Switching
-When a switch occurs within a sentence
Situational Code-Switching
-When the code (language or dialect) changes according to the situation (socio-linguistic space) -Diglossia is a type of this -Usually occurs between different communicative spaces and wholly separate discourses -Reason for the shift is usually quite apparent (school, home, office, or teacher, family, colleague...)
Communicative competence
-When you learn a language, you gain more than linguistic competence -The ability to select, from the totality of grammatically correct expressions available... forms which appropriately reflect the social norms governing behavior in specific encounters (Gumperz -Key component of social competence -Knowledge and expectation of who may or may not speak in certain settings, when to speak and when to remain silent, whom one may speak to, how one may talk to persons of different statuses and roles, what nonverbal behaviors are appropriate in various contexts, what the routines for turn taking are in conversation, how to ask for and give information, how to request, how to offer or decline assistance or cooperation, how to give commands, how to enforce discipline
Deborah Tannen
-Women and men have been raised in different subcultures -Believes children are socialized by gender related activities and attitudes and gender related language behavior -Consequently, she claims that 'cross-cultural communication' between genders can be difficult
Gender and Words in English
-Women use color words but most men do not -Adjectives such as adorable, divine, are commonly used by women but rarely by men
Regional Variants/Dialects in America
1. Yankeedom 2. New Netherland 3. The Midlands (most commonly considered "standard", "correct" or the norm - but not superior in a linguistic sense) 4. Tidewater 5. Greater Appalachia 6. Deep South 7. El Norte 8. The Left Coast 9. The Far West 10. New France 11. First Nation *Politics and language interacting again
