International Organizations

MIGA (Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency)

Institution of the World Bank that helps organize and guarantees private loans for development.

Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)

International non-profit private organizations that engage in a variety of international activities, services, and humanitarian functions. Activities are 1) Emergency assistance, 2) Promotion of sustainable development, 3) Protection of child health, 4) Health, 5) Provision of technical assistance.

low politics

Issue areas that are seen not to involve a state's vital national interests, whether in the foreign or the domestic sphere.

the Trusteeship Council

Pivotal in the 1960's - was established to help oversee the transition of colonies into self-governing territories. its main object was to ensure that the interests of the inhabitants of these non-self-governing territories were placed at the forefront of the decolonization process. Members were sworn to respect the cultures of people involved and respect their political, economic, and social development; territories were administered in the best interests of their inhabitants and of international peace and security. Largely obsolete today since all the original UN trusts are autonomous or self-governing so there is little left for the TC to do. was discontinued at the 2005 UN World Summit.

International Finance Corporation

Provide loans and take equity position in private companies of developing countries and works toward developing capital markets in those economies

Machiavelli

Renaissance writer; formerly a politician, wrote The Prince, a work on ethics and government, describing how rulers maintain power by methods that ignore right or wrong; accepted the philosophy that "the end justifies the means." "Is it better to be loved than feared? It's best to be both, but if just one is possible, it's better to be feared."

European Commission

Responsible for proposing EU legislation, implementing it, and monitoring compliance

Theory of Comparative Advantage

Ricardo's theory that specialization and free trade will benefit all trading parties, even those that may be "absolutely" more efficient producers. "the theory of comparative advantage holds that nations should produce and export those goods and services in which they hold a comparative advantage, and import those items that other nations can produce at a lower cost"

epistemic community

Scientific experts on a subject of inquiry such as global warming that are organized internationally as NGOs to communicate with one another and use their constructed understanding of "knowledge" to lobby for global transformations.

Adam Smith

Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. Seen today as the father of Capitalism. "Humans are economic creatures driven by a quest to acquire and dispose of property." "Society is born out of economic exchange between individuals."

Laissez-faire

Smith argues that the government should not interfere in the market, lest it disrupt the markets' natural tendencies toward equilibrium. Economic self-interest promotes social harmony, while passions such as racism and nationalism promote conflict and violence. Economics is strongly associated with peace, and politics as associated with war. the economic interests of individiuals should determine the politics of the state. "Wealth of nations"

the European Parliament (EP)

The EU legislative body made up of directly elected representatives, the EU Parliament amends, approves or rejects EU laws, together with the Council of Ministers. Mainly responsible for overseeing the Commission

MSC members

The MSC consists of the Chiefs of Staff from the Security Council's permanent five members (P5): China, France, Russia, the UK and the U.S. Responsibility is delegated to the Heads of Delegations (P-5 Military Advisers).

Doha Round of Negotiations

The WTO launched a new round of negotiations in Doha, Qatar, in late 2001. The renewed negotiations were designed to lower trade barriers further and to help poor nations in particular.

Congress of Vienna

The earliest modern precedent to today's IGOs. Meeting of representatives of European monarchs called to reestablish order and stability to the continent after the Napoleonic Wars. A forum for int'l collaboration on European security and commerce.

sovereign equality

The idea that all countries have the same rights, including the right of noninterference in their internal affairs.

The Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM)

The main transparency instrument of the WTO, affording opportunities for a process of collective evaluation of the trade policies and practices of individual members.

General Assembly (GA)

The organ of the UN that acts as its legislative branch. All member nations can send delegates to the General Assembly. It is also a forum for international dialogue. - discusses issues and - makes recommendations, although has no power to enforce its resolutions or compel state action. other functions include - admitting new members; - selecting members of the Economic and Social Council, the nonpermanent members of the Security Council, and the Trusteeship Council; - supervising the activities of the other UN organs, from which the General Assembly receives reports; and - participating in the election of judges to the International Court of Justice and the selection of the secretary-general. Decisions usually are reached by a simple majority vote. On important questions, however—such as the admission of new members, budgetary matters, and peace and security issues—a two-thirds majority is required.

The International Court of Justice (ICJ)

The primary court - principal judicial organ of the UN (AKA the World Court), established for resolving legal disputes between states , and providing advisory opinions to international agencies and the UN General Assembly. Decisions are reached by a majority vote.

National Treatment Principle

The principle of nondiscrimination between foreign goods and local goods. Requires each member country to extend to nationals of other members treatment no less favorable than that which it gives its own nationals regarding intellectual property rights Equal treatment for imported and local goods in a domestic market. A country accords no less favorable treatment to imported goods than it does to domestic goods.

TRIPS ej prio

Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

Jeremy Bentham

Utilitarianism: the greatest good for greatest number. This view shapes the expected behavior and policies of international organizations.

socially constructed

Values and ideas that are created by human beings who are shaped by their social ties and identities. Those values and ideas change over time as human beings learn more information.

TRIMS (Trade Related Investment Measures) ej prio

WTO agreement imposed on foreign firms so they don't hurt trade in goods/services

Hugo Grotius

a Dutch journalist who called for an international code based on natural law. Believed that one body of rules could reduce the dealing of governments to a system of reason and order. ** He tried to prove that such a thing as a natural law existed and that states were bound by it, first to propose the concept of a "united nations" and believed war should be outlawed. Wrote Law of War and Peace

Military Staff Committee (MSC)

a United Nations Security Council subsidiary body whose role is to advise and assist the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Council's military requirements for the maintenance of international peace and security, the employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of armaments, and possible disarmament.

European Union (EU)

a comprehensive multipurpose regional organization established in 1957 by a number of Western European countries to promote economic and political integration among its members.

Institutionalism

a hybrid of realism, game theory, and functionalism. Like realists, Liberal institutionalists argue that a hegemonic power is necessary for the creation of IGOs and regimes. Like realists, institutionalists see the state as a unitary, rational actor interacting in a dangerous and uncertain world. Unlike realists, institutionalists are more optimistic about the importance of international organizations when a hegemon is in decline.

financial crisis

a major disruption in financial markets that is characterized by sharp declines in asset prices and the failures of many financial and non financial firms

Balance of Power

a political situation in which no one nation is powerful enough to pose a threat to others

collective action problem

a situation in which people would be better off if they all cooperated; however, any individual has an incentive not to cooperate as long as others are cooperating.

Maastricht Treaty (EU)

a treaty signed in 1992 that set strict financial criteria for joining the proposed monetary union, with it single currency and set 1999 as the start date for its establishment.

Anarchy

absence of government or control; lawlessness; state of disorder Hobbes' means that without a world government, international relations can be very dangerous, so states must be prepared for war. Thus, 'the law of the jungle' applies in nation-states existing in this international state of nature. Essence of interstate relations are conflictual and often violent.

collective security

agreement by a group of nations for an obligation to defend the other in case of an attack on any member

European Commission (EC)

an EU body responsible for proposing EU legislation, implementing it, and monitoring compliance.

ICSID (International center for the settlement of investment disputes)

an independent, depoliticized and effective dispute-settlement institution. Its availability to investors and States helps to promote international investment by providing confidence in the dispute resolution process. It is also available for state-state disputes under investment treaties and free trade agreements, and as an administrative registry.

League of Nations

an international association established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and peace. was set up at the end of WW1. its goal would be to keep peace among nations. WW2 spelled the demise of LoN as a viable organization, Essentially powerless - officially dissolved in 1946.

United Nations (UN)

an international organization of independent states formed in 1945 at the end of WW2. Its purposes are: to maintain international peace and security; to develop friendly relations among nations; to address economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems; and to promote respect for universal human rights. z The UN commits its members to the nonuse of force and the peaceful settlements of disputes.

Peaceful settlement of disputes

any dispute that is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security should first be addressed through negotiation, mediation or other peaceful means, and states that the Security Council can call on the parties to use such means to settle their dispute.

Liberalism

can be thought to revolve around three interrelated principles: - Rejection of power politics as the only possible outcome of international relations; it questions security/warfare principles of realism - It accentuates mutual benefits and international cooperation - It implements international organizations and nongovernmental actors for shaping state preferences and policy choices. This school of thought emphasizes three factors that encourage more cooperation and less conflict among states: - International institutions, such as the United Nations, who provide a forum to resolve disputes in a non-violent way - International trade because when countries' economies are interconnected through trade they are less likely to go to war with each other - Spread of democracy as well-established democracies do not go to war with one another, so if there are more democracies, interstate war will be less frequent

multi-national corporations (MNCs)

companies that span multiple countries.

Military measures

demonstration, blockade, operations by air, sea, and land forces before using military measures of intervention, you have to have made attempts of intervention with non-military measures

floating exchange rate system

exists when a country allows the When a currency's exchange rate is determined by the free interaction of supply and demand on a foreign exchange market that determines the relative value of that currency.

IDA (International Development Association)

extends loans at low interest rates to poor nations that cannot qualify for loans from the World Bank

International Organizations

formal international institutions with organizational structures, members, and legal personality (formal, explicit, concrete, official entity). Membership: multilateral(universal membership), regional, minilateral, bilateral Issue Areas: security, economic(trade, money, development), social(labor, environment, human rights, humanitarian aid, education, culture, etc.)

high politics

geostrategic issues of national and international security that pertain to matters of war and peace

Schengen Agreement (EU)

in 1995, several European countries lifted all border controls between them, allowing for unimpeded access across international boundaries. It now includes most Western and Central European countries as well as many Eastern European countries.

Neorealists

inspired by the objectivity of natural science, that sees the actions of states as constrained primarily by the distribution of power in international system Don't believe liberal institutionalism can work

IBRD (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)

institution of the World Bank that focuses on middle-income countries

Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)

institutions created and joined by nation-states' governments, which give them authority to make collective decisions to manage particular problems on the global agenda.

Contemporary Liberalism

international institutions facilitate cooperation >democratic peace theory >international trade and the value of absolute gains the positive state; faith in solving problems collectively through government. programs to provide for the economic well-being of the nation; including the basic materials needs of each individual; tolerance of various lifestyle

collective self-defense

is authorized, along with individual self-defense, by Article 51 of the UN Charter. Put simply, if a country in the international system has suffered an armed attack, then any other country has the right, but not the duty, to use armed force against the aggressor in reliance upon the principle of collective self-defense. - The notion that an armed attack on one member of the particular organization of States constitutes an attack on all, thus authorizing a collective response to the aggressor (NATO) - Article 51 recognizes the inherent right of collective self-defense in response to an "armed attack" against a UN Member (1991 Gulf War & S.C. Res. 687) - The ICJ position: the principle of nonintervention trumps the right of collective self-defense in cases involving the overthrow of regimes (See Nicaragua Case)

hegemony

leadership or dominance, especially by one country or social group over others.

The Security Council (SC)

main organ within the UN responsible for MAINTAINING PEACE AND SECURITY; composed of 5 permanent (Great Power(GP)-victors of WW2) and 10 rotating members with two year terms elected by the GA. Each permanent member posses an absolute veto over substantive SC actions, and it cannot be overridden. Absent a veto, resolutions are passed by an affirmative vote of nine members.

Peacekeeping Operations (PKOs)

operation in which troops and observers are deployed to monitor a cease-fire or peace agreement * No use of force * Must be impartial & non-threatening

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

part of the UN that makes loans to countries to finance development

the Trusteeship Council

responsibly for helping eleven territories that were not colonial possessions but also did not enjoy self government at the end of WWII

The Secretariat

serves as the UN bureaucracy. Consists of the Secretary-General and the bureaucratic staff required to carry out UN complex tasks and functions. The secretary general is the chief diplomat, whose task is to represent the UN to member states. Staff is recruited based on merits, efficiency, competence, integrity, and geographic diversity.

G-7

seven most industrialized nations (USA, UK, FR, Ger., Italy, Japan, Canada)

Contemporary Realism

stories that take place in the present time and portray attitudes and mores of the present culture

trade-off hypothesis

suggests that states will seek to maximize security, not power. posits that excessive spending in the military sector can compromise economic health.

The European Court of Justice

the EU Supreme Court that decides the legality of EU legislation and its implementation.

Peacekeeping

the active maintenance of a truce between nations or communities, especially by an international military force.

permanent five (P5)

the five permanent members of the UN Security Council: the U.S, U.K, France, Russia, and China

Eurozone

the group of European Union nations whose national currency is the euro.

Complex Interdependence

the interdependent relationship that exists between states such that variation in one state's behavior significantly affects the other (alt) A model of world politics based on the assumptions that states are not the only important actors, security is not the dominant national goal, and military force is not the only significant instrument of foreign policy; this theory stresses crosscutting ways in which the growing ties among transnational actors make them vulnerable to each other's actions and sensitive to each other's needs. (alt) "A school of thought that predicts increased international cooperation because of the decline in the utility of military force and the increase in global interdependence."

Non-intervention

the principle that external powers should not intervene in the domestic affairs of sovereign states.

Trade Liberalization

the process of reducing barriers to international trade by eliminating trade protection and barriers to trade.

fiscal tools

tools used by the government to expand or contract the economy

European Council

ultimate decision-making body of the EU, it passes legislation from the commission into law and is comprised of one representative from each member state's government

Dispute Settlement System

was created as part of the WTO Agreement during the Uruguay Round.

Immanuel Kant

"States need to form a federation whereby they can peacefully resolve their disputes." The formation of a world republic is part of the natural evolution of human society.

"Might makes right"

(realism) (Thucydides) What is just and moral is relative and usually defined by the powerful. The stronger of two opponents will always control the situation 1. "It's the victors who write the history books, and they are not going to portray themselves as brutal, violent oppressors. The victors in any war are always just and righteous liberators." 2. "the strong do what they have the power to do, and the weak accept what they have to accept.

G-8

(when Russia was member 1997-2014) Group of 8 largest industrialized countries: Britain, France, Russia, Germany, Canada, USA, Japan, Italy; Great Powers

Functions, objectives and key features of the dispute settlement system

*Providing security and predictability to the multilateral trading system *Preserving the rights and obligations of WTO Members *Clarification of rights and obligations through interpretation *"Mutually Agreed Solutions" as "Preferred Solution" *Prompt settlement of disputes *Prohibition against unilateral determinations

Q: "why can't the WTO move forward?"

- institutional explanation - power-based explanation (eg. realist view?) - domestic explanation - policy substitute? -regionalism

6 Main Organs of United Nations

- the General Assembly - the Security Council - the Economic and Social Council - the Trusteeship Council - the International Court of Justice - the Secretariat

UN founding principles

- the Sovereign Equality of all members. - UN members voluntarily accept responsibility to carry out certain international obligations upon joining the UN, one of which is to abide by Security Council decisions. - the peaceful settlement of disputes. - Member states agree not to threaten use of force in international relations. - UN Non-intervention in members domestic affairs

UN ambitions and challenges

- the UN suffers from resource difficulties. The US is the UNs largest debtor (84% of what is totally owed the UN). - Enormous difficulties protecting its personnel; UN workers have been assaulted, kidnapped and even killed in record numbers in hot spot locations around the world. UN remain at risk while attempting to deliver humanitarian aid and development assistance. (example: 2003, Iraq UN HQ suicide bombings, to which both US as the protecting power and the UN with inadequate security measures bears some responsibility.) - has suffered from a lack of state leadership, Trump leadership has deteriorated US-UN relationships further. (?)

WTO members

164 (acccounting for 98% of world trade) (22 countries are negotiating membership)

Alexander Hamilton

1789-1795; First Secretary of the Treasury. He advocated creation of a national bank, assumption of state debts by the federal government, and a tariff system to pay off the national debt.

WTO Dispute Settlement Body

A board composed of one representative from each WTO member nation that reviews panel reports. The enforcement body of the World Trade Organization, which can empower aggrieved states to impose retaliatory tariffs against countries that violate the organization's rules.

"Invisible Hand"

A phrase coined by Adam Smith to describe the process that turns self-directed gain into social and economic benefits for all. According to Smith, the market is governed as if by an "invisible hand" the regulates the behavior of individuals in a society. Self-interested individuals interacting with other self-interested individuals creates competition ot generate the goods and services a society needs at a price it is willing to pay (Heilbroner, 1986, 55). Competition ensures that no one provider will artificially raise prices to take advantage of consumer, because a competitor will offer the same good or service at a fair price. This self-regulating market promotes the welfare of individuals and societies. Adam Smith writings support Lockes' idea of a limited government.

Uruguay Round (UR)

A series of negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) that began in Uruguay in 1986 and concluded in 1994 with agreement to create the WTO. followed earlier GATT negotiations such as the Kennedy Round and the Tokyo Round.

Prisoner's Dilemma

A situation in which two (or more) actors cannot agree to cooperate for fear that the other will find its interest best served by reneging on an agreement. a particular "game" between two captured prisoners that illustrates why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficial.

feminist perspective

A sociological approach that focuses on inequity of gender as the most central source of conflict and inequality in societies. The theoretical approach assumes: - gender matters - int'l relations are conflictual. Conflict results from the superior-subordinate nature of gender relationships. scholars examine exploitation beyond the market or economic class. - Patriarchy (male dominance) is the main feature of the int'l system. - Hierarchy of contemporary int'l issues is decided based on masculine preferences, marginalizing "feminine" issues. Govt's, states, decisionmakers, and senior-level beurecrats of organizations like UN, WTO are masculine not because they are 'evil men' but because they view and understand the world in a masculine way. These assumptions allow criticising realism, liberalism and marxism and offer alternative lens for viewing international relations and international organisations. Highlighting and evaluating the role of women in international organizations. NGOs are more "feminine" in nature and empower woen to take more control over their lives. Also tend to be more horizontally structured. Often work with IGOs to provide aid and relief to the "victims of world politics".

World Bank

A specialized agency of the United Nations that makes loans to countries for economic development, trade promotion, and debt consolidation.

Fixed-but-Adjustable Exchange-Rate System

A system in which governments establish a central or official rate for their currency against some standard, as in a fixed exchange rate system, but are also allowed to change the official rate occasionally, usually under a set of well defined circumstances.

Common External Tariff (CET)

A tariff agreed upon by members of a preferential trading bloc. Implementation of a CET marks the transition from a free trade area to a customs union

Most Favored Nation (MFN)

A way for a country to give the lowest tariff rates it offers on all goods to another country. Every member is treated as well as the "most favored one": ie: if U.S. offers low tariff to Canada on ice cubes: every other GATT member is entitled to the same treatment

GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services) ej prio

Addresses international copyright violation and free access to foreign markets

Preferential Trade Agreement

An agreement between two or more countries to lower trade barriers between them on particular products, resulting in an easier access to the markets of other members for selected products, compared with the access of countries that are not members.

Anti-dumping

An argument that justifies trade protection policies: if a country's trading partner is suspected of practicising dumping, than the country should have the right to impose trade protection measures (tariffs or quotas) to limit quantities of the dumped good.

non-use of force

Article 2(4) of the UN Charter. prohibits UN Member States from using force directed against the territorial integrity or political independence of another state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.

Marxist Perspective

Attention to modes of production (the manner in which goods and services are provided) and economic forces that shape international life. Emphasis on economic and political inequality in international relations, an inequality that leads to superior-subordinate relationships. Such relationships result in both violent and nonviolent international conflict. Capitalists seek to maximize profits in a competitive global market. Such competition creates winners and losers and determines the position and behavior of actors in international affairs. The capitalist accumulation process and the exigencies of the market affect individuals and societies in ways that are not always positive. Capitalism - 2 main classes: Bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and proletariat (salaried and wage-earning workers). International relations are conflictual, divided between rich and poor. Wars and conflicts are rooted in class exploitation, and issues that seem to be geostratic really are economic in nature. Marxists believe that int'l fincancial institutions like the World Bank and the IMF are mechanisms of capitalist domination - who, pry open markets and force privatization and encouraging foreign investment. MNCs entangle societies in a malignant web of dependency that causes underdevelopment and a gross maldistribution of wealth within and between societies. INGOs and law further the interests of capitalists, particularly regarding capital that is transnational rather than national in nature. Capitalism expands under the guise of promoting global economic and social welfare.

constructivist approach

Centers on the role of ideas, beliefs, and interests in shaping the interactions and understandings of actors in world politics. Rests on the notion that reality or "interest" is socially constructed. Values and ideas are created by men, who are shaped by social ties and identities. Those values and ideas change over time as men LEARN more information. _________ does not seek to explain the world as it is, but how the world is what we make it. Explores how rules and norms are created

Realism

Conceives of world politics as essentially conflictual. Sovereign states are seeking power and exercising power against each other. States seek to survive and maximize their national interests in an uncertain and dangerous world. Jonathan Haslam characterizes realism as "a spectrum of ideas." Its theories revolve around four central propositions: - states are the central actors in international politics, rather than leaders or international organizations; - the international political system is anarchic, as there is no supranational authority to enforce rules; - states act in their rational self-interest within the international system; and - states desire power to ensure self-preservation.

David Ricardo

English economist who argued that the laws of supply and demand should operate in a free market. Iron Law of Wages. Theory of Comparative Advantage

Hobbes

English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings (1588-1679)

John Locke

English philosopher who argued that people have natural rights. Locke's political theory was founded on social contract theory. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is characterised by reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed people to be selfish.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

Est. in 1995 to foster and bring order to international trade. successor to the GATT Ensures global trade commences smoothly, freely and predictably. Creates and embodies the ground rules for global trade among member nations, offering a system for international commerce. The WTO aims to create economic peace and stability in the world through a multilateral system based on consenting member states (in 2017 there were 164 members) that have ratified the rules of the WTO in their individual countries as well. This means WTO rules become part of a country's domestic legal system. The rules, therefore, apply to local companies conducting business in the international arena.

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

Established under the UN charter (chapter X) to promote economic and social cooperation among member states such as trade, development, education, and human rights and social welfare. 54 members, each has one vote. Decisions are based on majority rule.

EU Institutions

Form a federal pattern with executive, parliamentary and judicial branches: the European Commission, the Council of Ministers, the European Parliament, and the Court of Justice

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade; international trade organization that encourages free trade by lowering tariffs and other trade restrictions Replaced by WTO 1995

G-20

Group of 20; group of finance ministers and central bank governors from 20 economies: 19 countries, plus the European Union

Von Clausewitz

Had 9 principles of war, most important one is objective

Antonio Gramsci

He was a humanist, philosopher, and neo-Marxist known for having developed the concept of hegemony, first utilized in the early 1960. It describes the ideological control of the ruling class over the proletariat, in the context of a discussion of a "war of position". The ruling class' ideology imposed itself as normality, over and above the ideology of other classes. According to him, such control could be overcome through "organic intellectuals" and their new revolutionary ideas on how to run society.