intro psych Ch 7
Even chimpanzees can appreciate the value of tokens that they can exchange for grapes. The tokens have taken on the role of ____.
secondary reinforcers
No matter the type of punishment involved, the primary purpose of punishment is to ____.
decrease the likelihood of a behavior
Whether a pet, a child, or a college student is involved, to be most effective, punishment for an undesirable behavior should be ____.
immediate
Which of the following refers to a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces some, but not all, instances of a desired response?
partial schedule of reinforcement
In operant conditioning, which of the following refers to a neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing after being associated with a primary reinforcer?
secondary reinforcer
Jason observes that his dog is much more likely to "work harder" for training session treats when she is hungry than she is after meals. This example demonstrates that the effect of reinforcement is stronger ____.
when the organism has been deprived of primary reinforcement
For which problem might biofeedback training be helpful?
learning to relax one's muscles more completely
Pavlov was mistaken in his belief that ____.
with repeated association, any stimulus could become a conditioned stimulus
Which of the following characteristics relates to learned helplessness?
A feeling of futility caused by the belief that one has little or no control over events in one's life, which can make one stop trying and become depressed
What is meant by instrumental conditioning?
A form of learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable, depending on its consequences
What is meant by a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement?
A partial schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for the first desired response made after a set length of time
Which of the following characteristics relates to a variable-interval schedule of reinforcement?
A partial schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for the first desired response made after varying, unpredictable lengths of time
Which of the following characteristics relates to continuous schedule of reinforcement?
A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for each instance of a desired response
After failing to perform some important tasks on the job, Rodney's salary is docked one full day's pay. This consequence is an example of ____.
After failing to perform some important tasks on the job, Rodney's salary is docked one full day's pay. This consequence is an example of ____.
Which of the following characteristics relates to operant conditioning?
F. Skinner's term for instrumental conditioning, a form of learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable, depending on its consequences
____ has been used to teach people how to play musical instruments and autistic children to speak more often.
Forward chaining
What is the first step in observational learning?
paying attention to the model
The core concept of classical conditioning involves ____.
association of a neutral stimulus with one that elicits a reflexive response
In operant conditioning, what term describes a stimulus that indicates the likelihood that a particular response will be reinforced?
discriminative stimulus
Mindy is pleasantly surprised the first time she observes her infant son sitting up in his crib. Within a few months or so, he begins crawling around. Such changes in behavior are due to ____.
maturational processes
In operant conditioning, which of the following refers to the process by which an aversive stimulus decreases the probability of a response that precedes it?
punishment
Pulling away from a hot object, gagging when the back of the throat is stimulated, or sneezing are examples of ____.
reflexes
Why was Tolman's study involving rats learning a maze important?
he study showed that learning can occur in the absence of reward and then be observed when reinforcers are available.
Sarah loves Chinese food. At first, walking into a Chinese restaurant would make her mouth water. Now she salivates when she's just reading recipes in her Chinese food cookbook. What principle best explains her response?
higher-order conditioning
In operant conditioning, which of the following refers to an increase in the probability of a behavior that is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus?
negative reinforcement
What term is used to describe in classical conditioning, a stimulus that automatically elicits a particular unconditioned response?
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Behaviors for which members of a species are ____ have no survival value for them and are difficult to learn.
unprepared
Which schedule of reinforcement is the most resistant to extinction?
variable-ratio
What name is given to neurons that appear to be involved in the neural circuits responsible for observational learning?
mirror neurons
What is meant by the Premack principle?
The principle that a more probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less probable one
How are positive and negative reinforcement similar?
They both increase the frequency of a particular response.
Which statement most accurately describes Albert Bandura's approach to the learning of social behaviors?
Which statement most accurately describes Albert Bandura's approach to the learning of social behaviors?
What is meant by chaining?
An operant conditioning procedure used to establish a desired sequence of behaviors by positively reinforcing each behavior in the sequence
In the classic "Little Albert" study, the child's fear of the white rat was the ____.
CR
Which statement best describes a token economy?
Children are given tokens for engaging in desirable behaviors, which may then be traded for valued objects or activities.
Which statement best describes the concept of behavioral preparedness?
Evolution results in animals' differential ability to learn particular behaviors.
What is meant by a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a particular conditioned response after being paired with a particular unconditioned stimulus that already elicits that response
What is meant by stimulus discrimination?
In classical conditioning, giving a conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus but not to stimuli similar to it
Which of the following characteristics relates to extinction?
In classical conditioning, the gradual disappearance of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
Which of the following characteristics relates to a conditioned response (CR)?
In classical conditioning, the learned response given to a particular conditioned stimulus
Which of the following characteristics relates to primary reinforcer?
In operant conditioning, an unlearned reinforcer that satisfies a biological need such as food, water, or oxygen
Which of the following characteristics relates to spontaneous recovery?
In operant conditioning, the reappearance after a period of time of a behavior that has been subjected to extinction
The strategy of punishment has several drawbacks. In what way does using positive reinforcement along with punishment help?
It gives the child information about what to do.
Jeff and Jody are teaching their dogs to sit. Jeff gives his dog a treat each time the dog sits. Jody gives her dog a treat every fifth time the dog sits. Whose dog will perform longer without receiving a treat?
Jody's
Which of the following characteristics relates to latent learning?
Learning that occurs without the reinforcement of overt behavior
How are punishment and negative reinforcement different?
Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring, while negative reinforcement increases that likelihood.
Which of the following statements most accurately reflects Thorndike's law of effect?
Satisfaction or annoyance after a response will influence whether that response will be strengthened or weakened.
Which of the following refers to an enclosure that contains a bar or key that can be pressed to obtain food or water and that is used to study operant conditioning in rats, pigeons, or other small animals?
Skinner box
What is meant by blocking?
The process by which a neutral stimulus paired with a conditioned stimulus that already elicits a conditioned response fails to become a conditioned stimulus
Which of the following refers to the establishment, in classical conditioning, of a conditioned response to a neutral stimulus that has been paired with an existing conditioned stimulus?
Which of the following refers to the establishment, in classical conditioning, of a conditioned response to a neutral stimulus that has been paired with an existing conditioned stimulus?
According to Watson and Rayner's classic study as well as later, methodologically sounder studies, many phobias may be ____.
acquired through classical conditioning
The core of the concept of latent learning involves the idea that ____.
actual learning may not be apparent in observable behavior
Domestic cats will not learn to swim to receive reinforcement. This suggests that when it comes to swimming, cats ____.
are biologically contraprepared
Tammy finds writing papers to be a very aversive experience. Therefore, she never takes any classes that require term papers. Tammy's behavior is an example of ____.
avoidance learning
What name is given to learning to prevent the occurrence of an aversive stimulus by giving an appropriate response to a warning stimulus?
avoidance learning
In ____, the final action of a sequence of action is reinforced, and once that action is learned, the action that precedes the final action is reinforced, and so forth until the first action of the sequence of action is reinforced and learned.
backward chaining
The application of operant principles to help mental patients change their abnormal behaviors is called ____.
behavior modification
What term is used to describe relationships between behaviors and their consequences, such as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment?
behavioral contingencies
What name is given to the degree to which members of a species are innately prepared to learn particular behaviors?
behavioral preparedness
Thorndike observed that evolution seems to have created tendencies to associate certain behaviors with certain consequences. This idea is referred to as ____.
belongingness
Which of the following refers to a form of operant conditioning that enables an individual to learn to control a normally involuntary physiological process or to gain better control of a normally voluntary one when provided with visual or auditory information indicating the state of that response?
biofeedback
A psychologist conditions a woman to blink in response to a clicking sound by making a clicking noise and then immediately blowing in her eye. The psychologist then precedes the clicking noise and blowing in her eye with another sound, a ringing bell. The woman does not respond to the bell by blinking. This is because of a concept called ____.
blocking
Computer assisted instruction ____.
can be used with a wide variety of students and settings
As a child, Richard had to have many throat examinations. Every time the doctor would examine his throat, Richard would gag reflexively. Now, whenever the physician asks him to open his mouth, he gags. Which principle explains Richard's response?
classical conditioning
Which of the following refers to a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being associated with a stimulus that already elicits that response?
classical conditioning
The term Pavlov applied to his dogs salivating at the sight of their dog dishes or lab assistants' approach was ____.
conditional response
Heroin addicts sometimes die of respiratory failure after they inject a "normal" dose in a new setting or environment. Some researchers believe this occurs because ____.
conditioned stimuli that usually counter physiological responses to that dose are not present
A researcher pairs the sound of a buzzer with a firm tap on the knee of a research participant. Thereafter, the subject's knee extends after hearing the sound of the buzzer. Here, the buzzer is a/an ____.
conditioned stimulus
Which schedule of reinforcement results in the most rapid extinction once reinforcement stops?
continuous
Your dog receives some food every time she places her front paws on the dining room table. Her behavior is under the control of what kind of reinforcement schedule?
continuous
Ellen eats lobster for the first time. Hours later, she experiences severe stomach pains and other gastrointestinal distress. Ellen is no longer willing to eat lobster. The fact that many hours passed between her consumption of the lobster and her illness has led to her total avoidance of lobster and ____.
contradicts the idea that there must be close contiguity between events for learning to occur
In which classical conditioning technique is there a one-second interval between the presentation of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus?
delayed conditioning
Which of the following classical conditioning techniques produces the strongest level of learning?
delayed conditioning
Little Ronnie loves candy. He has learned that having temper tantrums around his parents gets no extra candy, but tantruming when he is with the babysitter always results in extra candy. In other words, the babysitter is serving as a ____.
discriminative stimulus
When reinforcement stops, the initial reaction of the organism is to ____.
engage in a flurry of the behavior that was once reinforced
They both increase the frequency of a particular response.
escape learning
What term describes learning to perform a behavior that terminates an aversive stimulus, as in negative reinforcement?
escape learning
The Little Albert study could not be done today because ____.
ethical standards governing psychology research would not permit such a study be done
A puff of air to the eye will result in reflexive blinking. David has been conditioned to blink to a red light that was paired with the puff of air. Then, the red light is presented for thirty trials without any puff of air, and David stops blinking when the red light appears. David's blinking is undergoing ____.
extinction
Students in your class raise their hands to ask questions, but the instructor always ignores this and continues to lecture. Students eventually stop raising their hands. In this example, hand raising behavior has been ____.
extinguished
What term is used to describe a partial schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement after a set number of desired responses?
fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement
While little Rosa is having her first experience with ice cream, several loud thunderclaps occur. These frighten Rosa. For years afterwards she becomes fearful when offered ice cream. In this situation, Rosa ____.
has developed a phobia about ice cream
According to many researchers, a major problem with using physical punishments, such as hitting, with children is that the children often ____.
imitate their parents, and resort to hitting others
An animal trainer operantly conditions a raccoon to take coins from audience members and place them in a "Donation Box for Raccoons Injured in a Recent Oil Spill." Before the raccoons place the coins in the box, they rub them with their paws. In the wild, raccoons typically rub the sand off food while washing it in water. Most likely, their coin rubbing behavior is an example of ____.
instinctive drift
What term describes the reversion of animals to behaviors characteristic of their species even when being reinforced for performing other behaviors?
instinctive drift
Cranes engage in a complex courtship "dance" involving high leaps and intricate footwork. Such behaviors constitute ____.
instincts
What name is given to Edward Thorndike's principle that a behavior followed by a satisfying state of affairs is strengthened and a behavior followed by an annoying state of affairs is weakened?
law of effect
In his original research, Martin Seligman exposed restrained dogs to inescapable electric shock, thus triggering a stream of research on ____.
learned helplessness
What term is used to describe a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior resulting from experience?
learning
One key to the successful use of punishment is that the ____.
level of the punishment should fit the level of misbehavior
Darren is taking a course on sexually transmitted diseases. He finds the lectures and class discussion to be very anxiety producing, and so he often leaves the classroom. David's attempt to reduce his anxiety is being ____ through the process called ___
negatively reinforced; escape learning
Darren is taking a course on sexually transmitted diseases. He finds the lectures and class discussion to be very anxiety producing, and so he often leaves the classroom. David's attempt to reduce his anxiety is being ____ through the process called ____.
negatively reinforced; escape learning
Which of the following refers to learning produced by observing the consequences that others receive for performing particular behaviors?
observational learning
Because Melissa failed to mow the lawn for three weeks, her parents now insist that she also has to clean out the garage. This consequence is an example of ____.
positive punishment
Flyaway Airlines offers free trips to Europe to those passengers who fly 500,000 miles with that airline. This increases use of that airline by certain passengers. In other words, this airline is applying the principle of ____.
positive reinforcement
In operant conditioning, what name is given to an increase in the probability of a behavior that is followed by a desirable consequence?
positive reinforcement
Behaviors for which members of a species are ____ have evolved because they have survival value for them and are easily learned.
prepared
The key concept in understanding operant conditioning is the ____.
relationship between responses and their consequences
Frances uses her paycheck to purchase food, beverages, and a home in which to sleep. In behavioral terms, her paycheck is a ____.
secondary reinforcer
What term is used to describe, in classical conditioning, the use of words as conditioned stimuli?
semantic conditioning
In operant conditioning, what name is given to a procedure that involves the positive reinforcement of successive approximations of an initially improbable behavior to eventually bring about that behavior?
shaping
Laura commands her new puppy to "Shake!", lifts his paw, and then reinforces him. After several repetitions, she merely touches the dog's paw, says, "Shake!" and reinforces the dog. Later on, she merely extends her hand near the dog's paw and says, "Shake!" The dog now raises his paw to "shake." In training her dog, Laura has used the technique called ____.
shaping
Celeste has trained her dog to run outside, look for the newspaper, bring it inside and place it on the dining room table. Most likely, this complex behavior was learned through ____.
shaping and chaining
Observational learning is a central component of which psychological theory?
social learning theory
What term describes a theory of learning that assumes that people learn behaviors mainly through observation and mental processing of information?
social learning theory
After being bitten by a cocker spaniel, Rowena is fearful of all cocker spaniels, but she is not afraid of any other type of dog. Rowena is demonstrating ____.
stimulus discrimination
In classical conditioning, what name is given to giving a conditioned response to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus?
stimulus generalization
Warren's cat has learned to purr and rub against him whenever the cat hears the sound of the can opener. Lately, Warren has noticed that his cat behaves the same way if Warren uses his blender or his electric drill. Warren's cat is demonstrating ____.
stimulus generalization
Students in an elementary school classroom love to use the computer. They do not particularly like to complete their math assignments. A teacher allows more time on the computers for those who complete their math assignments. This teacher is employing ____.
the Premack principle
Garcia found that conditioned taste aversions could occur even when an animal did not become nauseous until hours after being exposed to the taste. This finding violates ____.
the principle of contiguity
Which of the following factors has been shown to be very important in the acquisition of classically conditioned responses?
the time interval between presentation of the CS and the UCS
An early study done by Valentine that attempted to classically condition fear using an opera glass failed. The most likely explanation, supported with more recent research, is ____.
there are biological constraints to learning
What term describes an operant conditioning procedure that uses tokens as positive reinforcers in programs designed to promote desirable behaviors, with the tokens later used to purchase desired items or privileges?
token economy
Different types of conditioning could be used for Pavlov's study. An example of ____ would be if the tone were presented and then turned off just before the meat powder was placed on the dog's tongue.
trace conditioning
You are driving home from class. A commercial for a fast food restaurant comes on the radio. You start to hum along to the music accompanying the ad and start to feel satisfied and content. Your emotional reaction to the advertisement can best be attributed (in classical conditioning terms) to ____.
trace conditioning
A researcher pairs the sound of a buzzer with a firm tap on the knee of a research participant. Thereafter, the subject's knee extends after hearing the sound of the buzzer. Here, the tap on the knee is a/an ____.
unconditioned stimulus
What name is given to a partial schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement after varying, unpredictable numbers of desired responses?
variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement
In general, trace conditioning produces ____ conditioning.
moderately strong
The traditional associationistic model of learning is based on the principle of ____.
contiguity
