Intro to Psychology - Chapter 9 Study Guide

In order to study the entire human life span, what additional techniques do they need to add to their research?

*Cross-Sectional Design: in developmental psychology, a research technique that measures individuals of various ages at one point in time and provides info about age differences *Longitudinal Design: in developmental psychology, a research design that measures individuals over an extended period and gives info about age changes

Which of the following terms are correctly matched? Lorenz, ageism Piaget, permissive parenting Harlow, contact comfort Baumrind, accommodation

Harlow, contact comfort

What did Piaget study?

He showed that an infant begins at a cognitively "primitive" level and that intellectual growth progresses in distinct stages, motivated by an innate need to know. *Schemas, assimilation, and accomodation

How do psychologists conduct research with infants especially before they can even talk?

One of the earliest experimenters, Robert Fantz (1956, 1963), designed a "looking chamber" to find out what infants can see and what holds their attention. Babies are placed on their backs inside the chamber facing a lighted "testing" area above them. Using this apparatus, Fantz and his colleagues measured how long infants stared at various stimuli. They found that infants prefer complex rather than simple patterns and pictures of faces rather than pictures of nonfaces

What are schemas?

a Piagetian term for a cognitive framework, or "blueprint," formed through interaction with an object or event; organize interactions with environment *In the first few weeks of life, the infant apparently has several schemas based on innate reflexes such as sucking and grasping. These schemas are primarily motor activities and may be little more than stimulus-and-response mechanisms—the nipple is presented, and the baby sucks. Soon, other schemas emerge. The infant develops a more detailed schema for eating solid food, a different schema for the concepts of "mother" and "father," and so on. Assimilation and accommodation are the two major processes by which schemas grow and change over time.

A specific time during which an organism must experience certain stimuli in order to develop properly in the future is known as ______. the cohort years a critical period the thanatology phase maturation

a critical period

What is puberty?

biological changes during adolescence that lead to an adult-sized body and sexual maturation as well as the ability to reproduce; when adolescence officially begins *Growth spurts *Maturation and hormone secretion cause rapid development of the ovaries, uterus, and vagina and the onset of menstruation (menarche) in the adolescent female. In the adolescent male, the testes, scrotum, and penis develop, and he experiences his first ejaculation (spermarche). The testes and ovaries produce hormones that lead to the development of secondary sex characteristics, such as the growth of pubic hair, deepening of the voice and growth of facial hair in men, and growth of breasts in women *Most girls are about two years ahead of boys in their growth spurt and are therefore taller than most boys between the ages of 10 and 14

According to Harlow's research with cloth and wire surrogate mother monkeys, ______ is one of the most important variable in attachment. contact comfort "comfort food" neonatal breast feeding age group peer contact ("free play" periods)

contact comfort

If you wanted to predict how a human child anywhere in the world was going to grow up, what is the best way to determine?

culture; Developmental psychology has traditionally studied people (children, adolescents, and adults) with little attention to the sociocultural context

Teratogens are ______. maternal defects that cause damage during neonatal development. factors that cause damage during prenatal development. popular children's toys that studies have shown cause damage during early childhood development. environmental diseases that cause damage during early childhood development.

factors that cause damage during prenatal development.

The ability to think abstractly and hypothetically occurs in Piaget's ______ stage. egocentric postoperational formal operational concrete operational

formal operational

What is permissive parenting associated with?

found a link between permissive parenting and college students' sense of "academic entitlement," which in turn is associated with more perceived stress and poorer mental health among college students *Cross-cultural and longitudinal studies also suggest that lack of parental warmth and/or parental rejection may have long-lasting negative effects. The neglect and indifference shown by rejecting parents tend to be correlated with hostile, aggressive children who have a difficult time establishing and maintaining close relationships. As might be expected, these children are more likely to develop psychological problems that require professional intervention

The clearest and most physical sign of puberty is the ______, characterized by rapid increases in height, weight, and skeletal growth. menses spermarche growth spurt age of fertility

growth spurt

What is assimilation?

in Piaget;s theory, the incorporation (assimilation) of new information into existing schemas *For instance, infants use their sucking schema not only in sucking nipples, but also in sucking blankets and fingers

What are the numerous benefits of a child's good attachment?

lower levels of aggressive behavior, fewer sleep problems, and less social withdrawal but, some children never form appropriate, loving attachments

What three major questions are studied in developmental psychology? nature versus nurture, stages versus continuity, and stability versus change nature versus nurture, "chunking" versus continuity, and instability versus change nature versus nurture, stages versus continuity, and stagnation versus instability none of these options

nature versus nurture, stage versus continuity, and stability versus change

What did Ainsworth and her colleagues discover?

several differences in the type and level of human attachment. Infants with a secure attachment style generally had caregivers who were sensitive and responsive to their signals of distress, happiness, and fatigue. In contrast, anxious/avoidant infants had caregivers who were aloof and distant, and anxious/ambivalent infants had inconsistent caregivers, who alternated between strong affection and indifference. Caregivers of disorganized/disoriented infants tended to be abusive or neglectful *Used the strange situation procedure to measure the attachment between infants and their mothers and how infants responded to the presence or absence of their mother and a stranger

What is the result of FAS and FASD?

suggests that alcohol may leave chemical marks on DNA that abnormally turn off or on specific genes; In addition, children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy are more likely to be obese as adolescents, perhaps because in-utero exposure to nicotine changes a part of the brain that increases a preference for fatty foods

What is emerging adulthood?

the age period from approximately 18-25 in which individuals in modern cultures have left the dependency of childhood but not yet assumed adult responsibilities; characterized by the search for a stable job, self-sufficiency, and/or marriage and parenthood, along with five distinguishing features 1. Identity exploration— young people decide who they are and what they want out of life. 2. Instability— a time marked by multiple changes in residence and relationships. 3. Self-focus—freed from social obligations and commitments to others, young people at this stage are focused on what they want and need before constraints of marriage, children, and career. 4. Feeling in-between—although taking responsibility for themselves, they still feel in the middle between adolescence and adulthood. 5. Age of possibilities—a time of optimism and belief that their lives will be better than those of their parents. **During emerging adulthood, some individuals experience modest increases in height and muscular development, and most of us find this to be a time of maximum strength, sharp senses, and overall stamina. However, a decline in strength and speed becomes noticeable in the 30s, and our hearing starts to decline as early as our late teens.

Describe the teenage brain?

the brain and other parts of the nervous system grow faster than any other part of the body during both prenatal development and the first two years of life. In contrast to the rapid synaptic growth experienced in the earlier years, the adolescent's brain actively destroys (prunes) unneeded connections. Although it may seem counterintuitive, this pruning actually improves brain functioning by making the remaining connections between neurons more efficient. Perhaps more surprising, full maturity of the frontal lobes is not accomplished until the mid-20s. Do you recall your teenage years as a time of exaggerated self-consciousness, feelings of special uniqueness, and risky behaviors? Psychologists now believe these effects may be largely due to your less-than-fully-developed frontal lobes *In teenage brain, there is a higher risk of risky behaviors During early childhood (ages 3-6), the frontal lobes experience a significant increase in the connections between neurons, which helps explain a child's rapid cognitive growth *This rapid synaptic growth shifts to the temporal and parietal lobes during the ages of 7-15, which corresponds to notable increases in language and motor skills *During ages 16-20, synaptic pruning of unused connections in the frontal lobes leads to increased brain efficiency, but full frontal lobe maturity only occurs int he mid-20s

What is DNA?

the main constituent of chromosomes found in all living organisms, which transmits hereditary characteristics from parents to children; short for deoxyribonucleic acid *DNA of all humans (except identical twins) has unique, distinguishing features, much like the details on our fingerprints. This uniqueness is commonly used in forensics to exclude or identify criminal suspects. Furthermore, DNA analysis is often used for genetic testing during prenatal development to identify existing or potential future disorders

What is epigenetics?

the new study of how nongenetic factors, such as age, environment, lifestyle, and diseases, affect how (and if) genes are expressed; "epi" means "above" or "outside of" *Epigenetic factors can switch genes "ON" or "OFF." As a case in point, an epigenetic factor like malnutrition or childhood abuse can prevent a child from reaching his or her full potential genetic height or maximum genetic intelligence

What is imprinting?

the process by which attachments are formed during critical periods in early life

What is developmental psychology?

the study of age-related behavior and mental processes from conception to death and studies the growth and change throughout the eight major stages of life

What are behavioral genetics?

the study of the relative effects of heredity and the environment on behavioral and mental processes and used to identify and study polygenic traits

What is conservation?

the understanding that certain physical characteristics (such as volume) remain unchanged, even though appearances may change; a hallmark of Piaget's concrete operational stage

What is the theory of mind (ToM)?

the understanding that other people don't have the same thoughts and feelings that we do, which generally develops during early childhood *One of the first experiments on ToM was conducted with children between the ages of 3 and 9. The children first listen to a story about Maxi and how his mother moves some chocolate from a blue cupboard to a green one. When asked where Maxi will look for the chocolate, the children not only have to remember that the chocolate was moved but also, more importantly, must recognize that Maxi has no way of knowing that his mom moved the chocolate, since he was playing outside during the move. Therefore, Maxi will assume the chocolate is still in the blue cupboard. Interestingly, 3- and 4-year-olds often fail such tests, pointing to the actual position of the chocolate versus where Maxi will think it is. They apparently are unable to understand that although they know where the chocolate is, Maxi doesn't. On the other hand, most 6-year-olds succeed.

Describe the results of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs?

*Cross-sectional studies sometimes confuse genuine age differences with cohort effects—differences that result from specific histories of the age group studied; environmental effects on cross-sectional studies; The essential thing to remember is that because the different age groups, called cohorts, grew up in different historical periods, research results that apply to them may not apply to people growing up at other times. With the cross-sectional design, age effects and cohort effects are sometimes inextricably tangled. *Longitudinal is expensive in terms of time and money, and it is difficult for us to generalize their results. Because participants often drop out or move away during the extended test period, the experimenter may end up with a self-selected sample that differs from the general population in crucial ways. Each method of research has strengths and weaknesses

What are the major points psychologists are studying in reference to developmental behavior based on sociocultural context and environment?

*Culture may be the major determinant of development:If a child grows up in an individualistic/independent culture (such as those of the United States, Canada, and most countries in Western Europe), we can predict that this child will probably be competitive and question authority as an adult. Were this same child reared in a collectivist/interdependent culture (common in Africa, Asia, and Latin America), she or he would most likely grow up to be cooperative and respectful of elders *Human development cannot be studied outside its sociocultural context: In parts of Korea, most teenagers see a strict, authoritarian style of parenting as a sign of love and concern. Korean American and Korean Canadian teenagers, however, see the same behavior as a sign of rejection. Thus, rather than studying any general response to "authoritarian parenting styles," discussed later in this chapter, researchers in child development prefer to study children only within their developmental niche. A developmental niche has three components: the physical and social contexts in which the child lives, the rearing and educational practices of the child's culture, and the psychological characteristics of the parents *Each culture's ethnotheories are key determinants of behavior: Within every culture, people have a prevailing set of ideas and beliefs that attempt to explain the world around them (an ethnotheory). In the area of child development, for example, cultures have specific ethnotheories about how children should be trained. As a critical thinker, you can anticipate that differing ethnotheories can lead to problems between cultures. In fact, the very idea of "critical thinking" is part of our North American ethnotheory regarding education. And it, too, can produce culture clashes. Concha Delgado-Gaitan (1994) found that Mexican immigrants from a rural background have a difficult time adjusting to U.S. schools, which teach children to question authority and think for themselves. In their culture of origin, these children are trained to respect their elders, be good listeners, and participate in conversation only when their opinion is solicited. Children who argue with adults are reminded not to be malcriados (naughty or disrespectful). *Culture is largely invisible to its participants: Culture consists of ideals, values, and assumptions that are widely shared among a given group and that guide specific behaviors. Precisely because these ideals and values are widely shared, they are seldom discussed or directly examined. Just as a "fish doesn't know it's in water," we take our culture for granted, operating within it, though being almost unaware of it

What are the vast changes that occur in the nine months of pregnancy divided into?

*Germinal Period: the first stage of prenatal development, beginning with ovulation and followed by conception and implantation in the uterus; the first two weeks of pregnancy *Embryonic Period: the second stage of prenatal development, which begins after uterine implantation and lasts through the eight weeks *Fetal Period: the third, and final, stage of prenatal development (eight weeks to birth)

Describe the Formal operational stage (ages 11 and over)?

*Limits: Adolescent egocentrism at the beginning of this stage, with related problems (imaginary audience and personal fable.) *Abilities: Can think abstractly and hypothetically *Example: Children at this stage generally show great concern for physical appearance.

Describe the Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7)?

*Limits: Cannot perform mental "operations" (lacks reversibility and conservation) Egocentric thinking (inability to consider another's point of view) Animistic thinking (believing all things are living) *Abilities: Has significant language and thinks symbolically *Example: Children at this stage often believe the moon follows them.

Describe the Concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11)?

*Limits: Cannot think abstractly and hypothetically Thinking tied to concrete, tangible objects and events *Abilities: Can perform "operations" on concrete objects Understands conservation (realizing that changes in shape or appearance can be reversed) Less egocentric *Example: Children at this stage begin to question the existence of Santa.

Describe the Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)?

*Limits: Lacks "significant" language and object permanence (understanding that things continue to exist even when not seen, heard, or felt) *Abilities: Uses senses and motor skills to explore and develop cognitively *Example: Children at this stage like to explore and play with their food.

What are some prenatal environmental conditions that endanger a child?

*Malnutrition: low birth weight, malformations, less developed brain, greater vulnerability to disease *Exposure to environmental toxins, X-rays, excessive stress: low birth weight, malformations, cancer, hyperactivity, irritability, feeding difficulties *Legal and illegal drugs (prescription drugs, alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine): inhibition f bone growth, hearing loss, low birth weight, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD), intellectual disability, attention deficits in childhood, death *Diseases (heart and thyroid disease, diabetes, asthma, infectious diseases): blindness, deafness, intellectual disability, heart and other malformations, brain infection, spontaneous abortion, premature birth, low birth weight, death

Describe each parenting style and its effects?

*Permissive-neglectful: Parents make few demands, with little structure or monitoring (low C). They also show little interest or emotional support; may be actively rejecting (low W); Children tend to have poor social skills and little self-control (being overly demanding and disobedient) *Permissive-indulgent: Parents set few limits or demands (low C), but are highly involved and emotionally connected (high W); Children often fail to learn respect for others and tend to be impulsive, immature, and out of control *Authoritarian: Parents are rigid and punitive (high C), but low on warmth and responsiveness (low W); Children tend to be easily upset, moody, and aggressive and often fail to learn good communication skills *Authoritative: Parents generally set and enforce firm limits (high C), while being highly involved, tender, and emotionally supportive high W); Children become self-reliant, self- controlled, high achieving, and emotionally well adjusted; also seem more content, goal oriented, friendly, and socially competent

What are the life span development stages?

*Prenatal: conception to birth *Infancy: birth to 18 months *Early Childhood: 18 months to 6 years *Middle Childhood: 6 years to 12 years *Adolescence: 12 years to 20 years *Young adulthood: 20 years to 45 years *Middle adulthood: 45 years to 60 years *Late adulthood: 60 years to death

Describe the feelings of children in terms of attachment?

*Secure: seeks closeness with mother when stranger enters; uses her as a safe base from which to explore, shows moderate distress on separation from her, and is happy when she returns; 60% *Anxious/ambivalent: becomes very upset when mother leaves and shows mixed emotions when she returns; 10% *Anxious/avoidant: does not seek closeness or contact with mother and shows little emotion when the mother departs or returns; 15% *Disorganized/disoriented: exhibits avoidant or ambivalent attachment, often seeming either confused or apprehensive in the presence of the mother; 15%

What is the criticism of Baumrind's research?

1. Child temperament. Research shows that a child's unique temperament may affect the parents' chosen parenting style, just as the parenting style may shape a child's temperament. In other words, the parents of mature and competent children may have developed the authoritative style because of the children's behavior, rather than vice versa. 2. Parent and child expectations. Cultural research suggests that a parent's expectations of a child's temperament and a child's expectations of how parents should behave also play important roles in parenting . As you read earlier in this chapter, adolescents in Korea expect strong parental control and interpret it as a sign of love and deep concern. Adolescents in North America, however, might interpret the same behavior as a sign of parental hostility and rejection. 3. Limited attention to father's role in parenting. Until recently, the father's role in discipline and child care was largely ignored by most developmental researchers. But fathers in Western countries have begun to take a more active role in child-rearing, and there has been a corresponding increase in research. From these studies, we now know that children do best with authoritative dads, who are absorbed with, excited about, and responsive to their children. Children also do best when parents share the same, consistent parenting style. However, mothers and fathers often differ in their approaches, and research shows that such differences may increase marital conflict and child behavior problems.

What is the formal operational stage?

4th stage of cognitive development (around age 11 and beyond), characterized by abstract and hypothetical thinking *Before filling out applications for part-time jobs, adolescents may think about possible conflicts with school and friends, the number of hours they want to work, and the kind of work for which they are qualified. Formal operational thinking also allows the adolescent to construct a well-reasoned argument based on hypothetical concepts and logical processes.

What is accommodation?

According to Piaget, the process of adjusting (accommodating) existing schemas to incorporate new information *Accommodation generally occurs when new information or stimuli cannot be assimilated. New schemas are developed or old schemas are changed to better fit with the new information. An infant's first attempt to eat solid food with a spoon is a good example of accommodation *When feeding from a spoon, infants initially try to suck on the spoon

How do genetics (nature) and life experiences (nurture) influence development?

According to the nature position, development is largely governed by automatic, genetically predetermined signals in a process known as maturation. Just as a flower unfolds in accord with its genetic blueprint, humans crawl before we walk and walk before we run *Naturists believe in critical periods

What is adolescence?

Adolescence is the loosely defined transition period of development between childhood and adulthood. In the United States, it roughly corresponds to the teenage years. However, the concept of adolescence and its meaning vary greatly across cultures Adolescence is not a universal concept. *Unlike the United States and other Western nations, some nonindustrialized countries have no need for a slow transition from childhood to adulthood; children simply assume adult responsibilities as soon as possible.

Describe the Germinal Period: From conception to Implantation?

After discharge from either the left or right ovary, the ovum travels to the opening of the Fallopian tube; if fertilization occurs, it normally takes place in the first third of the Fallopian tube. The fertilized ovum is referred to as a zygote; when the zygote reaches the uterus, it implants itself in the wall of the uterus, and begins to grow tendril-like structures that intertwine with the rich supply of blood vessels located there. After implantation, the organisms is known as an embryo

Describe late adulthood?

After middle age, most physical changes in development are gradual and occur in the heart and arteries and in the sensory receptors. Cardiac output (the volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute) decreases, whereas blood pressure increases due to the thickening and stiffening of arterial walls. Visual acuity and depth perception decline, hearing acuity lessens (especially for high-frequency sounds), smell sensitivity decreases, and some decline in cognitive and memory skills occurs. Why do we go through so many physical changes? What causes us to age and die? Setting aside aging and deaths resulting from disease, abuse, or neglect, known as secondary aging, let's focus on primary aging (gradual, inevitable age-related changes in physical and mental processes). According to cellular-clock theory, primary aging is genetically controlled. Once the ovum is fertilized, the program for aging and death is set and begins to run. Researcher Leonard Hayflick (1965, 1996) found that human cells seem to have a built-in life span. After about 100 doublings of laboratory-cultured cells, they cease to divide. Based on this limited number of cell divisions, Hayflick suggests that we humans have a maximum life span of about 120 years—we reach the Hayflick limit. Why? One answer may be that small structures on the tips of our chromosomes, called telomeres, shorten each time a cell divides. After about 100 replications, the telomeres are too short and the cells can no longer divide. The second major explanation of primary aging is wear-and-tear theory. Like any machine, repeated use and abuse of our organs and cell tissues cause our human bodies to simply wear out over time.

Describe the Fetal Period: From eight weeks to birth?

After the eight week, and until the moment of birth, the embryo is called a fetus; at four months, all the actual body parts and organs are established; the fetal stage is primarily a time for increased growth and "fine detailing"

What is the power of touch in relativity to psychological aspects?

As we've just seen, contact comfort is critical for the physical and mental well-being of both monkeys and human infants. But did you know that the touch of others is an invaluable asset throughout our life span? Human touch has been repeatedly shown to be an effective way to solicit and provide social support. It also can reduce the perception of pain, lower heart rate and blood pressure, and increase levels of oxytocin. Unfortunately, some individuals, such as elderly nursing home residents, often feel lonely and ostracized, and their unsatisfied desire for social touch can lead to "touch hunger". Even something as simple as a hand massage can reduce disruptive behaviors in patients with dementia. Hugs appear to be a particularly effective way of touching. In fact, one study found that people who get more frequent hugs are less susceptible to infection and experience less severe illness symptoms. However, keep in mind that while hugs and other forms of loving touch can reduce stress and promote emotional well-being, uninvited touch from a stranger generally makes us uncomfortable or even angry. Even a friendly pat on the back or "high five" may be too personal among strangers. When contemplating hugging or touching other people, it's wise to carefully monitor their physical reactions. Ask yourself questions such as "Do they relax and lean in when I try to hug them, or do they stiffen and move backward?" and "Do they initiate similar touching, or is it only one-sided?" It's always safer to ask, "Would you like (or mind) a hug?" Moreover, touch of any kind is a particularly "touchy" situation in the workplace and with young children. The most loving and best-intentioned touch can be seen as as a power play, as intimidating or aggressive, or as sexual harassment. The general rule is "Hands off!" And parents and caregivers are advised to teach children about "good touch" versus "bad touch"

What are some hazards to prenatal development?

As we've just seen, human development begins with the genes we inherit from our biological parents, and epigenetic factors, like age, lifestyle, and diseases, can dramatically affect how (and if) these inherited genes are expressed. During pregnancy, for example, the placenta connects the fetus to the mother's uterus and serves as the link for delivery of food and excretion of wastes. Moreover, it screens out some, but not all, harmful substances. As you can see in Table 9.2, environmental hazards such as X-rays and toxic waste, drugs, and diseases can still cross the placental barrier and have an epigenetic effect—meaning they leave a chemical mark on the DNA that abnormally switches the fetus's genes on or off. These influences generally have the most devastating effects during the first three months of pregnancy, making this a critical period in development

Describe the sensory and perceptual development of infancy?

At birth, and during the final trimester of pregnancy, the developing child's senses are quite advanced. Research shows that a newborn infant prefers his or her mother's voice, providing evidence that the developing fetus can hear sounds outside the mother's body. This raises the intriguing possibility of fetal learning, and some have advocated special stimulation for the fetus as a way of increasing intelligence, creativity, and general alertness. Interestingly, a newborn can smell most odors and distinguish between sweet, salty, and bitter tastes. Breast-fed newborns also recognize the odor of their mother's milk compared to other mothers' milk, formula, and other substances. Similarly, newborns' sense of touch and pain is highly developed, as evidenced by reactions to circumcision and to heel pricks for blood testing, and by the fact that their pain reactions are lessened by the smell of their own mother's milk. The newborn's sense of vision, however, is poorly developed. At birth, an infant is estimated to have vision between 20/200 and 20/600. Imagine what the infant's visual life is like: The level of detail you see at 200 or 600 feet (if you have 20/20 vision) is what an infant sees at 20 feet. Within the first few months, vision quickly improves, and by 6 months it is 20/100 or better. At 2 years, visual acuity is nearly at the adult level of 20/20.

Describe the Embryonic Period: From Implantation to eight weeks?

At eight weeks, the major organ systems have become well differentiated; the head grows at a faster rate than other parts of the body

Describe motor development?

Compared to the hidden, internal changes in brain development, the orderly emergence of active movement skills, known as motor development, is easily observed and measured. A newborn's first motor abilities are limited to reflexes, or involuntary responses to stimulation. For example, the rooting reflex occurs when something touches a baby's cheek—the infant will automatically turn its head, open its mouth, and root for a nipple. Along with these innate simple reflexes, the infant also soon begins to show voluntary control over the movement of various body parts. Thus, a helpless newborn, who cannot even lift her head, is soon transformed into an active toddler capable of crawling, walking, and climbing. In fact, babies are highly motivated to begin walking because they can move faster than when crawling, and they get better with practice. Keep in mind that motor development is largely due to natural maturation, but, like brain development, it can be affected by environmental influences, such as disease and neglect.

Describe the secondary sex characteristics?

Complex physical changes in puberty primarily result from hormones secreted from the ovaries and testes, the pituitary gland in the brain, and the adrenal glands near the kidneys. Puberty has another physical effect that is far less dramatic than changes in secondary sex characteristics and the growth spurt but is still very interesting. Have you ever wondered why teenagers seem to sleep so much? Researchers have found that puberty is triggered by changes in the brain, including the release of certain hormones, which occurs only during periods of deep sleep. This finding suggests that getting adequate, deep (slow-wave) sleep during adolescence is an essential part of activating the reproductive system. Can you see why the increasing number of sleep problems in adolescents is a cause for concern and why parents should actually be encouraging "oversleeping" in their teenagers?

______ studies are the most time-efficient method, whereas ______ studies provide the most in-depth information per participant. Latitudinal; longitudinal Neo-gerontology; longitudinal Cross-sectional; longitudinal Class-racial; longitudinal

Cross-sectional; longitudinal

What were the criticisms of Piaget's accounts of cognitive development?

First, research shows that Piaget may have underestimated young children's cognitive development. As we discussed earlier, infants seem to develop concepts like object permanence much earlier than Piaget suggested. As you recall, Piaget also believed that infancy and early childhood were a time of extreme egocentrism, in which children have little or no understanding of the perspective of others. However, research finds that empathy develops at a relatively young age. Even newborn babies tend to cry in response to the cry of another baby. And, preschoolers will adapt their speech by using shorter, simpler expressions when talking to 2-year-olds than when talking with adults.

What research was found on infant attachment?

For most children, parents are the earliest and most important factor in social development, and the attachment between parent and child is of particular interest to developmental psychologists. Researchers have found that the temperament of the child also affects levels of attachment. An infant who is highly anxious and avoidant might not accept or respond to a caregiver's attempts to comfort and soothe. Furthermore, children and their parents share genetic tendencies, and attachment patterns may reflect these shared genes. Finally, critics have suggested that Ainsworth's research does not account for cultural variations, such as cultures that encourage infants to develop attachments to multiple caregivers

What are some attachment styles in adulthood?

In addition to finding varying levels of infant attachment to parents, researchers have examined adult attachment patterns independent of their earlier infant patterns, with several interesting—and sometimes troublesome—results. For example, a secure attachment pattern is associated with higher subjective well-being (SWB), whereas adolescents and young adults with avoidant and anxious attachment patterns show more depressive symptoms. Another study found an association between pathological jealousy and the anxious/ambivalent style of attachment. Researchers also looked at how varying types of attachment as infants might shape our later adult styles of romantic love. If we developed a secure, anxious/ambivalent, anxious/avoidant, or disorganized/disoriented style as infants, we tend to follow these same patterns in our adult approach to intimacy and affection. Young adults who experienced either unresponsive or overintrusive parenting during childhood are more likely to avoid committed romantic relationships as adults. However, keep in mind that it's always risky to infer causation from correlation. Even if early attachment experiences are correlated with our later relationships, they do not determine them. Throughout life, we can learn new social skills and different approaches to all our relationships.

What is egocentric?

In cognitive development, the inability to take the perspective of another person; a hallmark of Piaget's preoperational stage; not the same as selfishness *Egocentric preoperational children fail to understand that the phone caller cannot see their nodding heads. Charming as this is, preoperational children's egocentrism also sometimes leads them to believe their "bad thoughts" caused their sibling or parent to get sick or that their misbehavior caused their parents' marital problems. Because they think the world centers on them, they often cannot separate reality from what goes on inside their own heads.

Describe adulthood?

In most Western cultures, children are typically considered adults once they graduate from high school or college or get their first stable job and become self- sufficient. For greater precision and research purposes, scientists commonly divide adulthood into at least three periods: emerging/young adulthood (ages 20-45), middle adulthood (ages 45-60), and late adulthood (ages 60 to death).

Why do we sometimes have an imaginary audience?

In sum, the imaginary audience apparently results from an inability to differentiate the self from others, whereas the personal fable may be a product of differentiating too much. Thankfully, these two forms of adolescent egocentrism tend to decrease during later stages of the formal operational period

Why is combination valuable?

It offers a more accurate and positive view of well-being in old age than what was indicated in either the cross-sectional design or the longitudinal design. It also suggests some troubling possibilities for today's young adults who are entering a stagnant workforce with high unemployment. As the study's authors say, this "economic turmoil may impede [their] psychological, as well as financial, growth even decades after times get better"

Describe middle adulthood?

Many physical changes during young adulthood happen so slowly that most people don't notice them until they enter their late 30s or early 40s. For example, around the age of 40, we first experience difficulty in seeing things close up and after dark, thinning and graying of our hair, wrinkling of our skin, and gradual loss in height coupled with weight gain. For women ages 45-55, menopause, the cessation of the menstrual cycle, is the second major life milestone in physical development. The decreased production of estrogen (the dominant female hormone) produces certain physical changes, including decreases in some types of cognitive and memory skills. However, the popular belief that menopause (or "the change of life") causes serious psychological mood swings is not supported by current research. In fact, younger women are more likely to report irritability and mood swings, whereas women at midlife generally report positive reactions to aging and the end of the menstrual cycle. They're also less likely to have negative experiences such as headaches. In contrast to women, men experience a more gradual decline in hormone levels, and most men can father children until their 70s or 80s. Physical changes such as unexpected weight gain, decline in sexual responsiveness, loss of muscle strength, and graying or loss of hair may lead some men to feel depressed and to question their life progress. They often see these alterations as a biological signal of aging and mortality. Such physical and psychological changes in men are generally referred to as the male climacteric (or andropause). However, the popular belief that almost all men go through a deeply disruptive midlife crisis, experiencing serious dissatisfaction with their work and personal relationships, is largely a myth.

______ is governed by automatic, genetically predetermined signals. The cohort effect Secondary aging Thanatology Maturation

Maturation

What is object permanence?

One of the important concepts at the beginning of the sensorimotor stage in which is an understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen , heard, or touched directly; a hallmark of Piaget;s preoperational stage *Piaget believed that infants younger than about 8 months of age lack object permanence. For instance, in the Piagetian view, the child in the first two photos believes the toy no longer exists once it is blocked from sight. This is supposedly shown by the fact that the child does not try to find the hidden object. In contrast, the older child in the third photo knows that the object still exists even if it is hidden—as shown by her attempt to seek out the toy under the sofa. Piaget would have said that this child is demonstrating that she has formed a mental representation (a schema) of the object and has acquired a recognition of object permanence. Note, however, that modern researchers believe that object permanence appears much earlier than 8 months. Infants may fail to look for hidden objects because they don't know how to look for them, not because they believe the objects no longer exist. In other words, Piaget may have mistaken infants' motor incompetence for conceptual incompetence.

How much of our personality comes from the way our parents treat us as we're growing up?

One study found that teenagers whose parents used a controlling style—such as withholding love or creating feelings of guilt—later have more difficulty working out conflicts with friends and romantic partners *Studies by Diana Baumrind found that parenting styles could be reliably divided into four broad patterns—permissive-neglectful, permissive- indulgent, authoritarian, and authoritative—which can be differentiated by their degree of control/demandingness (C) and warmth/responsiveness (W)

Describe infant visual preferences?

Other researchers use newborns' heart rates and certain innate abilities, such as the sucking reflex, to study learning and perceptual development. For example, to study the sense of smell, researchers measure changes in newborns' heart rates when odors are presented. Presumably, if they can smell one odor but not another, their heart rates will change in the presence of the first but not the second. As you may recall from Chapter 4, what all of these researchers are measuring is habituation—decreased responsiveness after repeated stimulation. Brain scans, such as fMRI, MRI, and CTs, also help developmental scientists detect changes in infants' brains.

Describe brain devlopment?

Our brains and other parts of the nervous system grow faster than any other part of the body during both prenatal development and the first two years of life, as illustrated in Concept Organizer 9.1. This brain development and learning occur primarily because neurons grow in size. Also, the number of dendrites, as well as the extent of their connections, increases

______ was one of the first scientists to demonstrate that a child's intellect is fundamentally different from that of an adult. Baumrind Beck Piaget Elkind

Piaget

What is the difference between adolescent egocentrism and narcissism?

Piaget describes most children and adolescents as being egocentric, and egocentrism is a major characteristic of narcissism, which is defined as having an excessive interest in or admiration of oneself. Consider the growing popularity of taking and posting self-portraits ("selfies") on social media. Have you ever wondered if this practice might increase narcissism? Research on this topic has found that narcissistic individuals do in fact take and post more "selfies" and that these actions have a self- reinforcing effect that maintains the narcissist's positive self-views *In addition to believing they are special and unique and that others are always watching and evaluating them (the imaginary audience), adolescents also tend to believe they are invulnerable and that life's normal problems, difficulties, and dangers do not apply to them. Sadly, these feelings of special uniqueness and invulnerability, known as the personal fable, are associated with several forms of risk taking, such as engaging in sexual intercourse without protection, driving dangerously, indoor tanning, and experimenting with drugs (Banerjee et al., 2015; Landicho et al., 2014). Adolescents apparently recognize the dangers of risky activities, but they believe the rules and statistics just don't apply to them. Recall from the discussion earlier that psychologists now believe these effects may be largely due to the teen's less-than-fully-developed frontal lobes

What is the sensorimotor stage?

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development (birth to approximately age 2), in which schemas are developed through sensory and motor activities

What is the preoperational stage?

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development (roughly ages 2 to 7); it is characterized by significant language, but the child lacks operations (reversible mental processes), and thinking is egocentric and animistic; child begins to think symbolically through verbage and words *Inability to perform mental operations. Piaget labeled this period "preoperational" because the child lacks operations, meaning the ability to perform internalized mental actions. Lack of mental operations means, among other things, that preoperational children do not understand the concept of conservation—the principle that certain characteristics (such as volume) stay the same even though appearances may change. For instance, a preoperational child is likely to think that milk poured into a tall, thin glass is "more" than the same amount poured into a short, wide glass. If you'd like to perform your own informal tests of conservation, see the following *Animism. During this stage, children generally believe objects, such as the moon, trees, clouds, and bars of soap, have motives, feelings, and intentions ("the moon follows me when I walk," "dark clouds are angry," and "soap sinks to the bottom of the bathtub because it is tired"). Animism refers to the belief that all things are living (or animated). *Egocentrism. Children at this stage are egocentric, which refers to the preoperational child's limited ability to distinguish between his or her own perspective and someone else's. Egocentrism is not the same as "selfishness." Preschoolers who move in front of you to get a better view of the TV, or repeatedly ask questions while you are talking on the telephone, are not being selfish. They are demonstrating their natural limits and egocentric thought processes. Children in this stage naively assume that others see, hear, feel, and think exactly as they do. Consider the following telephone conversation between a 3-year-old, who is at home, and her mother, who is at work: MOTHER: Emma, is that you? EMMA: (Nods silently.) MOTHER: Emma, is Daddy there? May I speak to him? EMMA: (Twice nods silently.)

What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?

Prenatal exposure to alcohol can result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). The most severe form of FASD, called fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), causes facial abnormalities and stunted growth. But the most disabling features of FAS are brain damage and neurobehavioral problems, ranging from hyperactivity and learning disabilities to intellectual disability, depression, and psychoses *The pregnant mother obviously plays a primary role in prenatal development because her nutrition, her health, and almost everything she ingests can cross the placental barrier (a better term might be placental sieve). However, the father also plays a role. A father's smoking can pollute the air the mother breathes—an epigenetic environmental factor. Genetically, the father can transmit heritable diseases, and alcohol, opiates, cocaine, various gases, lead, pesticides, and industrial chemicals can all damage sperm; Likewise, children of older fathers may be at higher risk of a range of mental difficulties, including attention deficits, bipolar disorder, autism, and schizophrenia

Describe the prenatal growth and years afterwards?

Prenatal growth and growth during the first few years after birth are proximodistal (near to far), which means that the innermost parts of the body develop before the outermost parts. Thus, a fetus's arms develop before its hands and fingers. Development at this stage also proceeds cephalocaudally (head to tail)—a fetus's head is disproportionately large compared with the lower part of its body. Can you see how these two terms—proximodistal and cephalocaudal—help explain why an infant can lift its head before it can lift its arms and lift its arms before lifting its legs?

Which of our traits are stable and present throughout our life span, and what aspects will change?

Psychologists who emphasize stability hold that measurements of personality taken during childhood are major predictors of adult personality; those who emphasize change disagree *Psychologists generally do not take a hard line either way. Rather, they prefer an interactionist perspective and/or the biopsychosocial model. For instance, in the nature- versus-nurture debate, psychologists agree that development emerges from unique genetic predispositions and environmental experiences

What is the conflict over development?

Some developmental psychologists suggest that development generally occurs in stages that are discrete and qualitatively different from one another, whereas others believe it follows a continuous pattern, with gradual but steady and quantitative (measurable) changes *Stage Theorist: discrete, qualitative changes *Continuity Theorists: gradual, quantitative (incremental) changes

Why do children have difficulty in developing their ToM?

Some researchers believe the lack of ToM also helps explain the problems with communication and social interactions typical of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)—two developmental disorders

Are preoperational children always egocentric?

Some toddlers and preschoolers clearly demonstrate empathy for other people. How does this ability to take another's perspective contradict Piaget's beliefs about egocentrism in very young children? Second, Piaget's model, like other stage theories, has been criticized for not sufficiently taking into account genetic and cultural differences. During Piaget's time, the genetic influences on cognitive abilities were poorly understood, but as in the case of epigenetics, there has been a rapid explosion of information in this field in the last few years. In addition, formal education and specific cultural experiences can significantly affect cognitive development. Consider the following example from a researcher attempting to test the formal operational skills of a farmer in Liberia (Scribner, 1977): RESEARCHER: All Kpelle men are rice farmers. Mr. Smith is not a rice farmer. Is he a Kpelle man? KPELLE FARMER: I don't know the man. I have not laid eyes on the man myself. Instead of reasoning in the "logical" way of Piaget's formal operational stage, the Kpelle farmer reasoned according to his specific cultural and educational training, which apparently emphasized personal knowledge. Not knowing Mr. Smith, the Kpelle farmer did not feel qualified to comment on him. Thus, Piaget's theory may have underestimated the effect of culture on a person's cognitive functioning. Before going on, let's consider two prominent alternative views on cognitive development. In contrast to Piaget's focus on internal schemas, Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky emphasized the sociocultural influences on a child's cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1962). According to Vygotsky, children construct knowledge through their culture, language, and collaborative social interactions with more experienced thinkers. Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky also believed that adults play an essential instructor role in development and that this instruction is particularly helpful when it falls within a child's zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Describe the milestones in motor development in infants?

The acquisition and progression of motor skills, from chin up to walking up steps, is generally the same for all children, but the environment and personal experiences also play a role. In short, each child will follow his or her own personal timetable; Certain cultural differences in child-rearing also can explain some accelerated or delayed onset ages of major physical milestones, such as walking and crawling. In some regions of the world, for example, infants begin sitting, standing, and walking at earlier than expected ages due to special baby-swimming activities, or because their caregivers vigorously massage and exercise them as part of daily bathing routines, stretching their limbs, tossing them into the air, and propping them into sitting and walking positions. Interestingly, the relatively recent practice in the United States of putting infants to sleep on their backs rather than their stomachs has resulted in delayed onset of crawling. *Chin Up: 2.2 *Rolls Over: 2.8 *Supported Sit: 2.9 *Sit Alone: 5.5 *Stands holding furniture: 5.8 *Walking holding on: 9.2 *Stands alone: 11.5 *Walks alone: 12.1 *Walks up steps: 17.1

______ is the first stage of prenatal development, which begins with conception and ends with implantation in the uterus (the first two weeks). The embryonic period The germinal period The critical period None of these options

The germinal period

How did Harry Harlow and his colleagues investigate the variables that might affect attachment?

They created two types of wire-framed surrogate (substitute) "mother" monkeys: one covered by soft terry cloth and one left uncovered. The infant monkeys were fed by either the cloth or the wire mother, but they otherwise had access to both mothers. The researchers found that the infant monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the soft, cloth surrogate—even when the wire surrogate was the one providing the food. In addition, monkeys "reared" by a cloth mother clung frequently to the soft material of their surrogate mother and developed greater emotional security and curiosity than did monkeys assigned to a wire mother *Although Harlow's studies of attachment in infant monkeys would be considered unethical today, they did clearly demonstrate that contact comfort, and not feeding, is crucial to attachment

How is the bond and reactions of children raised in impersonal or abusive surroundings;

They seldom cry, coo, or babble; they become rigid when picked up; and they have few language skills. As for their social-emotional development, they tend to form shallow or anxious relationships. Some appear forlorn, withdrawn, and uninterested in their caretakers, whereas others seem insatiable in their need for affection. They also tend to show intellectual, physical, and perceptual deficiencies, along with increased susceptibility to infection and neurotic "rocking" and isolation behaviors. There are even cases where healthy babies who were well-fed and kept in clean diapers—but seldom held or stimulated—died from lack of attachment. Some research suggests that childhood emotional abuse and neglect is as harmful, in terms of long-term mental problems, as physical and sexual abuse

What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can accomplish on their own and what they can accomplish with the help of others who are more competent *Have you heard of "instructional scaffolding"? This term refers to providing support during the learning process that is tailored to the needs of the student. Vygotsky was one of the first to apply the general idea of scaffolding to early cognitive development. He proposed that the most effective teaching focuses on tasks between those a learner can do without help (the lower limit) and those he or she cannot do even with help (the upper limit). In this middle, zone of proximal development (ZPD), tasks and skills can be "stretched" to higher levels with the guidance and encouragement of a more knowledgeable person. In addition to Vgotsky's emphasis on the sociocultural influences in cognitive development, researchers have questioned why children in the preoperational stage cannot take another's point of view and how they eventually learn to do so. In response to these inquiries, an entire area of research has emerged regarding how young children think about their own minds and the minds of others. According to this research, children become less egocentric when they begin to understand that other people don't have the same thoughts and feelings that they do—an achievement called theory of mind (ToM)

Describe the brain in late adulthood?

What about changes in the brain in later years? The public and most researchers long believed aging was inevitably accompanied by declining cognitive abilities and widespread death of neurons in the brain. Although this decline does happen with degenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease (AD), it is no longer believed to be an inevitable part of normal aging. Furthermore, age-related cognitive problems are not on a continuum with AD. That is, normal forgetfulness does not mean that serious dementia is around the corner. Aging does seem to take its toll on the speed of information processing. Decreased speed of processing may reflect problems with encoding (putting information into long-term storage) and retrieval (getting information out of storage). If memory is like a filing system, older people may have more filing cabinets, and it may take them longer to initially file and later retrieve information. Although mental speed declines with age, general mental abilities are largely unaffected. Have you noticed that older returning students often do as well as or better than their younger counterparts in college classes? Their superior performance is likely due to their generally greater academic motivation, but it also reflects the importance of prior knowledge. Cognitive psychologists have clearly demonstrated that the more people know, the easier it is for them to lay down new memories. Older students, for instance, generally find this chapter on development easier to master than younger students. Their interactions with children and greater accumulated knowledge about life changes create a framework on which to hang new information. In short, the more you know, the more you can learn. Furthermore, gaining more education and having an intellectually challenging life may help you stay mentally sharp in your later years—another reason for going to college and engaging in life-long learning.

What is ageism and why is it significant?

a form of prejudice or discrimination based on physical age; similar to racism and sexism in its negative stereotypes; Unfortunately, television, magazines, movies, and advertisements generally portray aging as a time of balding and graying hair, sagging body parts, poor vision, hearing loss, and, of course, no sex life *Ageism is also a big factor in job discrimination. According to the latest data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, almost 20% of Americans over the age of 65 are now working and delaying retirement—some out of desire but most because they need the money. Although age discrimination in employment is illegal in the United States, two-thirds of older job seekers report experiencing it, and those who face such discrimination have significantly lower physical and emotional health, as well as greater declines in health, than those who do not. But the news about ageism and your professional career isn't all bad. *many potential employers assume that older applicants are more likely to be burned out, absent due to illness, and reluctant to travel, as well as less creative and productive? If you're a young millennial (aged 18-34), you may not realize that many people, including potential employers, also criticize your group for "needing to have your hands held," "acting entitled," and having no "work ethic"

What are genes?

a segment of DNA that occupies a specific place on a particular chromosome and carries the code for hereditary transmission *basic building blocks of our entire biological inheritance; Each of our human characteristics and behaviors is related to the presence or absence of particular genes that control the transmission of traits. For some traits, such as blood type, a single pair of genes (one from each parent) determines what characteristics we will possess. When two genes for a given trait conflict, the outcome depends on whether the gene is dominant or recessive. A dominant gene reveals its trait whenever the gene is present. In contrast, the gene for a recessive trait is normally expressed only if the other gene in the pair is also recessive. Unfortunately, there are numerous myths and misconceptions about traits supposedly genetically determined by dominant genes. For example, we once assumed that characteristics such as eye color, hair color, and height were the result of either one dominant gene or two paired recessive genes. But modern geneticists now believe that these characteristics are polygenic, meaning they are controlled by multiple genes

What is a zygote?

a single cell barely 1/175 of an inch in diameter that begins at the moment of conception, which in then begins a process of rapid cell division that results in a multimillion-celled infant some nine months later

What are critical periods?

a specific time during which an organism must experience certain stimuli in order to develop properly in the future *infants who are born with cataracts, a condition in which the eye's lens is cloudy and distorts vision, are able to see much better if they're operated on as infants than if they're operated on after the age of eight. In addition, research has shown that appropriate social interaction with adults in the first few weeks of life is essential for creating normal cognitive and social development

What is attachment?

a strong emotional bond with special others that endures over time, especially with primary caregivers *researchers who advocate the "nature" position suggest that newborn infants are biologically equipped with verbal and nonverbal behaviors (such as crying, clinging, and smiling) and imprinting ("following") behaviors (such as crawling and walking after the caregiver) that elicit instinctive nurturing responses from the caregiver

What are chromosomes?

a threadlike molecule of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that carries genetic info *Born with normally 23 chromosomes

Some employers are reluctant to hire older workers (50 years of age and older) because of a generalized belief that they are sickly and will take too much time off. This is an example of ______. discrimination prejudice ageism all of these options

all of these options

Ainsworth's research suggests that a(n) ______ infant is more likely to become very upset when mother leaves the room and to show mixed emotions when she returns. securely attached anxious/avoidant anxious/ambivalent demanding

anxious/ambivalent

Using Hazan and Shaver's research on adult attachment styles, identify the following adults with their probable type of infant attachment: ______ Mary is nervous around attractive partners and complains that lovers often want her to be more intimate than she finds comfortable. ______ Bob complains that lovers are often reluctant to get as close as he would like. ______ Rashelle finds it relatively easy to get close to others and seldom worries about being abandoned.

anxious/avoidant; anxious/ambivalent; securely attached

What are teratogens?

any factor that causes damage or fetal death during prenatal development *Nicotine and alcohol are major teratogens

Describe the brain growth during the first 14 years of age?

as infants learn and develop, synaptic connections between active neurons strengthen, and dendritic connections become more elaborate; synaptic pruning (reduction of unused synapses) helps support this process; myelination, the accumulation of fatty tissue coating the axons of never cells, continues until early adulthood *There are dramatic changes in our brains and body proportions as we grow older; at birth, our head was one-fourth our total body's size, whereas in adult-hood, our head is one-eight

Describe the prenatal brain development?

at three weeks after conception the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain are one long neural tube, which later becomes the brain and spinal cord

What is the concrete operational stage?

third stage of cognitive development (roughly ages 7-11), in which the child can think logically about concrete, tangible objects and events *Youngsters in this stage are less egocentric in their thinking than preoperational children and become capable of true logical thought. As most parents know, children now stop believing in Santa Claus because they logically conclude that one man can't deliver presents to everyone in one night. Because they are capable of thinking logically, concrete operational children recognize that certain physical attributes remain unchanged although the outward appearance is altered. This understanding of conservation is a hallmark of children in the concrete stage.

In Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, the area between what children can accomplish on their own and what they can accomplish with the help of others who are more competent is called the ______. concrete operational area postoperational zone formal operational limits zone of proximal development

zone of proximal development

A child who believes that trees have feelings is probably in the ______ stage of development. sensorimotor preoperational egocentric concrete operational

preoperational

What did Harlow's research help psychologists discover?

psychologists discovered that contact comfort, the pleasurable tactile sensations provided by a soft and cuddly "parent," is one of the most important variables in attachment. Further support comes from the fact that, as discussed in Chapter 4, hospitals now encourage "kangaroo care" for premature babies, which provides them with skin-to-skin contact with caregivers. For more information on how touch affects us—even as adults *Parents around the world tend to kiss, nuzzle, comfort, and respond to their children with lots of physical contact, which points out its vital role in infant development. It also provides support for the biological, nature argument for attachment