Japanese Expansion
"Twenty-One Demands" 1915
During WWI, with the Allies distracted, Japan could pounce on its goals of expansion. It issued China the "Twenty One Demands", the most important requiring China to recognize Japan's recent seizure of the formerly German controlled Shandong Peninsula and allow Japan to remain in the region as well as grant Japan extra commercial privileges. (Japan was eager to take this territory from Germany since Germany had taken the Shandong Peninsula in the Triple Intervention from Japan when Japan had won it as a spoil of war in the first Sino-Japanese war as part of the treaty of Shimoneseki.) The importance of these demands was that it extended Japanese control of Manchuria and the Chinese economy and increased tensions between Japan, America, and Britain who opposed Japan's moves, eroding relations between the nations.
Emperor Hirohito
Emperor who succeeds Taisho. Hirohito's rule is known as the Showa period. With Hirohito, the emperor as a living God idea was revived along with nationalism and the belief that Japan has a special destiny.
How was Japan limited in its gains post WWI?
It failed to get racial equality clauses into the League of Nations because the USA and Britain feared doing so would encourage "the yellow peril" -an increase in Japanese immigration.
1904 Russo-Japanese War
Japan and Russia clashed over their interests in Korea (considered part of the Manchuria region), igniting a war between the two when Japan attacked Russia. The sea battle was decisive in Japan's victory. The Treaty of Portsmouth ended the war. The war's victory for Japan was very important, earning the respect of the West and other Asian countries. It also affirmed Japan's belief in itself that it was the destiny of Japan to rule Asia. Roosevelt's role in negotiating the peace between Russia and America is also important as it set up Japanese resentment of America since the population rioted and protested the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth.
How did Japan benefit from WWI?
Japan's ambitions in the 19th century were focused on gaining territory from China. WWI presented a prime opportunity to move on that ambition. With Germany occupied, Japan declared war on Germany in 1914 and seized its colonies in the Shandong Peninsula in the north of China (ahh! A chance to get revenge for the Triple Intervention, when Germany, Russia, and France stepped in after the first Sino-Japanese war and tool Germany took Japan's spoil of war- the Shandong Province- for itself). With the Allies distracted as well, Japan then issued the "Twenty One Demands" to China, forcing them to recognize Japanese control of the Shandong Peninsula and grant Japan extra commerce privileges in Manchuria, defying America's "Open Door" policy. Japan gained economically by selling goods to the Allies during WWI. The Japanese thought WWI had brought another opportunity with the Bolshevik revolution, creating a distraction so Japan could grab land in Vladivostok, an Eastern port and tried to create further Russian chaos by supporting the Whites in the civil war. Japanese gains were solidified at Versailles Conference in 1919 when the delegates confirmed that Japan gained the former German Pacific islands as a mandate and Germany's economic privileges in the Shandong Peninsula.
What were the origins of Japan's nationalism and militarism?
Nationalism emerged in the 1800s with its first contact with the West. In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry arrived on the shores of Japan determined to open it to US demands for trade. Seeing how China was unable to resist the US, Japanese nationalism grew in the 1800s from several factors: The determination to transform Japan into a Western style power, which was linked to the desire for equality with Western powers Japan's belief in its destiny as the leader of Asia The need to obtain raw materials and to secure markers in EAst Asia, adn to stop other countries from doing this The need for strategic security The actions of the Western powers Growing popular support for militarism and expansionism within Japan These factors not only promoted nationalism but with imperialism and militarism.
Peace Preservation Law 1925
The 1920s, maybe known as a liberal era with many reforms moving Japan towards greater democracy, but it also saw lots of unrest and protests to the problems of the economy, the government, and Japanese society. Labor unions, left-wing parties formed, and movies and journals promoted Western- style individualism. Officials in the government became worried and fearful, especially of left-wing radicalism (just like every other country in the world after the communist Russian revolution). The government instituted the Peace Preservation Law to clamp down on anyone who opposed capitalism, democracy, or another government change. This law was important because it would be used as a form of thought control and oppression more and more over the next 15 years.
Opium wars
(1839-42 and 1856-60) China's defeat by the British, forcing China to become a semi-colonial country. European powers gained huge economic, military, and legal privileges in China. China may have been independent on paper, but it was at the mercy of "gunboat diplomacy" where armed British ships force their treaties upon China at will . As a result, missionaries flooded China. The aftermath of the wars is important because it served as a cautionary tale for Japan when deciding how to deal with the West.
1871 Treaty of Tientsin
A "friendship trade treaty" signed by China and Japan to fix tariffs and encourage trade. It was in effect until the first Sino-Japanese war 1894-95 and when trade was renegotiated as part of the Treaty of Shimonoseki to end the war, establishing Japan as a world power and exacting huge indemnities, more ports, and greater trade benefits for Japan from China.
League of Nations
A Peacekeeping body formed by the Treaty of Versailles in 1920. Japan was not initially a member of the League and was extremely offended when equality clauses were not included in the League's charter. Japan became a full member of the League in 1920 under Prime Minister Hara during the "Taisho Democracy" era of liberal reforms. Japan's membership in the League is important because it confirms that Japan's expansion and militarism spirit were interrupted for a time by its genuine and repeated actions at international cooperation. The League is also important because the it failed to punish any of Japan's expansions (as well as those of Italy and Germany), which encouraged Japan's expansion desires. Japan left the League in 1931 over the Manchurian incident.
1854 Treaty of Kanagawa
Also called the "Perry Convention." Japan was intimidated by Commodore Perry's "black ships," believing that its military was no match with Perry's warships. Japan also knew that China had previously been unable to resist the West (China was forced to sign several humiliating treaties with Perry). The ruling Shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, signed the Treaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854, opening ports to the US. The treaty is important because it was Japan's first treaty with a Western nation and marked the end of Japan's period of seclusion (1639-1854). It also impacted Japan tremendously internally when in protest of the perceived Shogun's shame and failure, political power was returned to the emperor (known as the Meiji Restoration). Outrage against the Shogunate for signing the treaty with foreigners resulted in the overthrow of the Shogun. The Meiji or "enlightened" emperor initiated major reforms in all areas of life, including dismantling the feudal system and modernizing the army. Finally, the treaty is important because although, like China, Japan was forced to sign the treaty and open its borders, Japan managed to turn the situation to its advantage, borrowing Western ideas and becoming a strong country after 1868 with the Meiji Restoration.
Treaty of Portsmouth 1905
Ending the Russo-Japanese war, the Treaty gained control of Korea for Japan and much of south Manchuria, including Port Arthur. Japan also gained the railways in Manchuria and the southern half of Sakhalin Island. Roosevelt played a role in the peace talks when they stalled. American opinion largely sided with Japan, believing that Japan was fighting Russian aggression, and thus were "justified" , and that Japan was committed to the "open door" policy (1899 US statement of principles that all countries trading with China should have equal privileges). The treaty was important because it ended Russian interests in the Manchuria region. The treaty was also important however, not entirely for what it gained for Japan, but because the Japanese people expected so much more and were frustrated and angered that Japan was not honored with a large indemnity from Russia, further fueling Japan's expansionist foreign policy. (This frustration was aimed at America because Roosevelt acted as the "good office" mediator.) Finally, the Treaty is also important because it marked the last real event of US-Japanese corporation that began in 1868 with the Meiji Restoration. After the Treaty of Portsmouth, US and Japan increasingly competed rather than cooperated with each other.
1894 Sino-Japanese War and the Triple Intervention
In 1994, Japan defeated China as a result of the modernizations ordered by the Meiji after Japan signed its first treaty with a Western power, the Treaty of Kanagawa. With adopted German military tactics and a new navy established for Japan with the help of the British, Japan was able to defeat China and establish itself as a world power. In the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Japan was given by China the Pescadores Islands, Formosa and Liaodong Peninsula. In addition, China had to recognize Korean independence and obliged China to pay a large indemnity as well as well as open ports to Japan. Germany, Russia, France stepped in and forced Japan to give up Liaodong Peninsula due to their concerns of Japan's growing power. Russia took Liaodong for itself and Germany took over Shandong Province. France and Great Britain then took advantage of China's weakened state to grab territories for themselves. Thus, Japan's nationalism and militarism grew stronger out of frustration and a desire to be treated as an equal by the West.
Washington Conference 1921:
Not part of the League of Nations, the Washington Naval Conference, or Washington Arms Conference, or Washington Disarmament Conference, was called by US president Harding in Washington DC in 1921 to establish arms control. It was attended by 9 countries (USA, Japan, China, France, Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugal). It successfully ended the building of NEW battleship fleets and those that were already built were limited in size and armament. It created a 10 year agreement that avoided arguing over the technically capabilities of ships, and rather set a size measurement, 35,000 tons, for the dominant weapons system of the era- battleships. Pacts and treaties resulting from the conference remained in effect for 14 years, until Japan ended participation in 1936. The conference and its agreements are significant because it was the world's first arms control conference and is often studied as a model for successful disarmament. The conference met the outcry by many for world peace and help many governments avoid an expensive arms race. The conference is also significant for Japan as it solidified Japan's position as a world power because it was allowed to maintain a naval force in the Pacific that was the same size as America and Britain and was allowed a larger force than France or Italy.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance 1902
On the heels of the First Sino-Japanese (1894-95) war and following 7 years of telling the Japanese people to "enduire through hardship" in order to strengthen Japan in all respects, especially in Industrial growth, Japan signed an alliance with Britain. The alliance makes sense in two regards. 1) Britain had aided Japan in building Japan's first navy. Japan had proven its naval competence by defeating China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95. 2) Both Japan and Britain were focused on stopping Russian expansionism in the far East, which was a second reason their interests aligned in forming this treaty. The alliance was extremely important because it further strengthen Japan's position, was the first time a military alliance had been signed between a Western and non-Western power, and ended Japan's diplomatic isolation since it's war spoils from the Sino-Japanese war were taken by the Western Powers in the Triple Intervention.
What was the impact on Japanese foreign policy of international cooperation when the US passed a bill, the 1924 Immigration Act, that limited immigration from all countries to 150,000 a year, but specifically excluded "Asiatics" from the quota (meaning NO ONE from Asia was welcomed)?
Shidehara Kijuro, the prime minister, had moved Japan's foreign policy toward international cooperation and pacifism, working in tandem with Western countries to recognize Chinese independence, return Chinese land seized by Japan, and limit Japan's navy size. These moves were not popular, and when the West greatly offended Japan with the immigration act of 1924, it played into the militarist in Japan who were able to gain momentum to return Japan towards expansionism, militarism, and ultimately, a military dictatorship under Emperor Hirohito.
The Shogun
Since 1192, Japan had been ruled by a feudal military dictatorship called the bakufu. Although the emperor was still officially the ruler, in practice the power lay in the hands of the Shogun who was a military dictator. Beneath the shogun were the daimyo or feudal lords, and under the daimyo were the samurai or warriors. Up until the 1800s, Japan's policy to remain isolated as a way to protect itself from the threat of Christianity was the policy of Japan's rulers, the Shogun.
1854 Commodore Perry and the Treaty of Kanagawa
US naval officer who in 1853 arrived on the shores of Japan, determined to open Japan to the US demands for trade and end the Japan's law that forbade commerce with foreigners. This contact is important because it gave rise to Japanese nationalism when Japan realized that its previous policy set by its military dictator, the Shogun, to keep Japan isolated as a means to protect it from the perceived threat of Christianity, had ended and the Shogun at the time chose to open Japanese ports to foreigners, failing to protect Japan in many people's eyes.
What were the internal effects of the Treaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854 on Japan?
When Japan opened its ports to the US in the treaty of Kanagawa, it marked the end of Japan's period of seclusion (1639-1854). It also impacted Japan tremendously internally, returning political power to the emperor (known as the Meiji Restoration) when outrage against the Shogunate for signing the treaty with foreigners resulted in the overthrow of the Shogun. The Meiji or "enlightened" emperor initiated major reforms in all areas of life, including dismantling the feudal system and modernizing the army. The modernization of the army enabled Japan to adopt German military tactics and establish a navy, enabling Japan to defeat China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95, positioning itself as a world power and fueling Japanese nationalism and militarism.
Shidehara Kijuro
foreign minister in Japan 1924-27 and 1929-31, ambassador to Washington Naval Conference in 1921, and signatory of the Washington Treaty System (Four, Five, and Nine-Power Treaty, Shidehara ushered in a shift in Japanese foreign policy to one of peaceful, international cooperation, pacifism in the pacific, and non-intervention in China. Shidehara was a member of the Kazaku, a hereditary aristocratic class that was reformed into 5 classes (Duke, Marquees, Count, Viscount, Baron) based on the British nobility ranks as part of the Meiji Restoration reforms. Shidehara was important because he was the last prime minister who was part of the Kazaku, shifted foreign policy towards pacifism to better match the liberal era of the "Taisho democracy". Under Shidehara as prime minister, Japan respected the political independence of China, returned the Shandong Peninsula to China that was seized in 1914, restricted its naval size, and cooperated with many other Western countries in several treaties. These moves were also significant in increasing opposition as many saw Shidehara's policies and acts as a betrayal of Japan's interests, growing the desire to return to nationalism and militarism.