JJ Final Exam

Progressive reformers created a "judicial-welfare hybrid" to divert children from the criminal justice system. Which response best describes juvenile court system during the Progressive Era?

A two-track system of probation and institutional confinement that rejected the trappings of the criminal courts and used informal processes to identify children's needs.

Chronic Offenders

Account for the majority of crime committed

Multisystemic Therapy

Addresses family, peer, and psychological issues by focusing on problem solving skills and communication training

The relationship between unstructured socializing and juvenile delinquency is explained by all of the factors below, according to Siegel and Welsh, except for which response?

Adolescents may be influenced by violent video games without parental controls to monitor their behavior

Siegel and Welsh differentiate between "delinquency control" and "delinquency prevention" programs. Which of the following responses is an example of a delinquency prevention program?

After-school programs

Biological perspectives on crime emphasize neurological deficits that may affect juvenile delinquency. Each of the following factors is associated with delinquency, according to Siegel and Welsh, except for which response?

Aggressive teen behavior may be related to reduced activity in the subcortical region of the brain, a region responsible for processing spatial and temporal information.

Status Offense

Conduct that is illegal only because the individual is under the age of adulthood.

Adjudicatory Hearing

Fact-finding process wherein the juvenile court determines whether there is sufficient evidence to sustain the allegations in a petition

Competence (to stand trial)

Focuses on the youths' capacity to understand their rights and participate in the legal process

Culpability (to stand trial)

Focuses on youths' mental state at the time of the crime and criminal responsibility

Siegel and Welsh identify several viewpoints to explain the issue of why youths join gangs. Which of the following responses is identified as the psychological view?

Gangs serve an outlet for disturbed youths who experience a host of personal trials and tribulations, hence gang members show signs of dissociation and emotional numbing.

Foster Care

State intervenes to place child in temporary care of another family

Parens Patriae

State should intervene to act in the best interests of a child, should a minor engage in illegal behavior.

Problem-Oriented Policing

Strategy that emphasizes addressing underlying problems that promote delinquency rather than the incidents only

Community Policing

Strategy that emphasizes reducing fear, building trust, and organizing the community to maintain order rather than fight crime

Biosocial theorists note that the association between genes and crime can be either direct or indirect. Each of the following responses are aspects associated with the direct view, except for which response?

Genes are related to some personality or physical trait, and that trait is linked to antisocial behavior.

Diversion

Offering rehabilitative programs in lieu of sentencing in a juvenile or criminal court

Each of the following factors were identified as correlates of juvenile delinquency in the text, except for which response?

Religious affiliation

In the adjudication stage of the juvenile court process, juveniles share most of the same rights as adults. Which of the following rights, guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution for adults, is NOT guaranteed for juveniles?

Right to a jury trial

The Supreme Court's In re Gault decision transformed the juvenile court "from a welfare agency into a legal institution" by compelling juvenile courts to "conduct fundamentally fair proceedings." Each of the following changes came into existence due to In re Gault (1967), except for which response?

Right to a jury trial

In re Gault

Ruling that juvenile courts must conduct fundamentally fair proceedings, including an impartial hearing and assistance of counsel, among other rights

Which answer best describes "aggressive law enforcement" in contemporary delinquency prevention?

Saturation patrols targeting gang areas and arresting members for any law violations, both minor and serious

Siegel and Welsh assert that _____________ "is a stronger predictor of delinquency than variables such as economic class membership, racial or ethnic background, or peer group relations."

School failure

In their General Theory of Crime, Gottfredson and Hirschi argue that antisocial behavior is caused by a lack of ____________ , which stems from an impulsive personality.

Self-control

Structural Racism & Delinquency

Slavery and Jim Crow produced economic and social disparities that increase the likelihood of crime among youths today.

Disposition Hearing

Social service agency presents its case plan for child and recommendations for treatment of parents

Differential Susceptibility Model

Some people possess physical or mental traits that make them more likely to respond to environmental influences with antisocial behavior

Monitoring the Future (MTF) is the most important data source for teenage substance use and abuse in the U.S. Each trend on teenage drug use (below) is accurate, according to the MTF, except for which response?

Teenage drug use increased between 2010 and 2015, according to the textbook, and has been rising ever since.

GET TOUGH ERA

The Get Tough Era prompted a cultural shift in the public perspective of adolescent culpability due to indecisive changes including deindustrialization, suburban growth and concentrated blacks in inner cities. As blacks began to move into inner cities and whites moved into suburban areas, it created an inadequate imbalance between the two cultures. Deindustrialization led to concentrated poverty and racially segregated urban areas throughout the country during the 1980s. From deindustrialization, there were limited employment opportunities for low-skilled workers, mostly around black men who could support a family. Also, 60% percent of Black children live in single-parent households and are four times more likely than white children to live in poverty (Felds 80). This would be because whites are more likely to ensure employment opportunities than blacks in their suburban areas, resulting in more scaled poverty for blacks. Whites ran to suburban neighborhoods because of racial fears, affordable housing, and the desire to leave decaying cities prompted many white Americans to flee to suburbs. As people fled to suburbs, cities suffered by growing poor and leaving minority populations, so black individuals are struggling in the inner cities. This then produced a rise in homicide rates, primarily due to the crack cocaine marketplace (Felds 81). Juvenile homicide rates increased about 267% between 1984 and 1994 primarily because of the struggles of black juveniles in their poverty states (Felds 83). These Structural changes directly contributed to racial differences in gun violence in the 80's and 90's. It led to unnecessary deaths and woundings with the urban black male population and made juvenile justice look at youth differently. This would result in acts of future punishment on children instead of rehabilitation and these homicide rates were the main reason public perception of youth has changed. After these events, some consequences against children were that punishment was more favored than child rehabilitation and the system moved away from public safety. Issues started to develop, such as the transferring and sentence laws. On page 109, Felds explains that transfer indicates many sentencing issues among youth. It affects the balance between rehabilitation, incapacitation, deterrence, and retribution and focuses on the offender rather than the offense. In addition, it promotes discretionary or mandatory decisions and redefines the roles of judges and prosecutors acting within the system. In the 1990s, many states adopted strict laws that lowered the age of transfer eligibility, increased the number of excluded offenses, and shifted discretion to prosecutors making charging decisions. More than half the states had mandatory transfer provisions and 45 states had judicial waiver statutes yet prosecutors excluded offense or direct file charging decisions determining the adult status of 85% of youth (Felds 111). An incredible amount of power was held by authority that was not part of the juvenile justice system's functioning or structure before this period. In addition, blended sentences start to permit threats of criminal sanctions if youth do not comply with juvenile disposition. Also, since the 1970's, states have amended their juvenile purpose clauses to endorse punishment, which changed the structure of the law(Felds 136). Laws focused on juvenile accountability and punishment rather than treatment mainly due to the change of public perception of juvenile culpability.

Which answer regarding the FBI's Uniform Crime Report (UCR) is true?

The UCR reports the number of individuals arrested each year for Part I and Part II crimes, with demographic data (i.e., age, race, and gender) that indicates how many minors are arrested each year.

The association between delinquency and drug use has been established in a variety of cultures. What is the direction of the relationship, according to Siegel and Welsh (2018)?

The direction of the relationship is unclear, but as a general rule, drug abuse appears to be a type of delinquent behavior and not a cause of delinquency.

Disposition

The equivalent of sentencing in the juvenile justice system

Bifurcated Process

The procedure of separating adjudicatory and dispositionary hearings in the juvenile court system

Cumulative Disadvantage

The tendency of prior social problems to produce future ones that accumulate and undermine success

Waiver

Transferring a juvenile to the adult criminal justice system for criminal prosecution of the most serious offenses.

Trajectory Theory

View that there is more than one path to crime and more than one class of offender; individuals take different paths into and out of crime.

Institutional Racism & Delinquency

When racial bias influences practices within the juvenile justice system

Parental Efficacy

Children are socialized to assert individuality but also regulate behavior

Procedural Justice

Extent of fairness in how police handle an offenders problem or dispute

Which of the following variables is important in the police discretionary process, according to research identified by Siegel and Welsh?

Attitude of the complainant , Not Selected Type and seriousness of the offense , Not Selected Race, sex, and age of the offender , Not Selected Attitude of the offender and prior contact with police , Not Selected Correct answer: All of the above

Kids Are Different Era

Based on the trilogy cases in the "Kids Are Different era," the Supreme Court decisions transformed how juveniles should be punished differently than adults. Many children including mostly black have been executed for severe crimes by the Supreme Court as 70% of blacks were executed among all juveniles mainly in the South (Fields 196). The Court's decisions abruptly changed based on the cases involving Roper, Graham, and Miller. In Roper vs. Simmons, The Court applied the Eighth Amendment prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment to the treatment of juveniles. They concluded that the youth's connection to negative peer influence, immature judgment, and lack of self-control reduced their culpability. Roper versus Simmons applied a retro sentencing framework proportionally, resulting in juveniles that should not be punished as adults in a crime or not promptly executed under 18. In Graham versus Florida, it extended Roper's responsibilities and prohibited states from imposing life sentences without parole or LWOP for nonhomicide offenses. Graham issued a categorial challenge to a term of years sentence such as a life without parole sentence applied to juveniles. The decision repudiated the Court's "death is different" distinction or that a sentence of death differs in kind from any sentence of imprisonment. Graham's decision-making extended Roper reduced culpability reasoning to time-of-year sentences and declared an entire class of offenders immune from a non-capital sentence. However, unlike Roper, Graham's findings were from the longitudinal study on adolescent development and juvenile justice that directly influenced the supreme court decision in Graham versus Florida. The court then decided to prohibit life-without-parole sentences for juveniles in cases that did not involve Murder. The United States Supreme Court declared that life sentences without the possibility of parole for nonhomicides are off-limits for all juveniles. In Miller versus Alabama, it extended Roper and Graham's responsibilities and prohibited mandatory LWOP sentences for youths convicted of Murder. Miller wanted judges to assess a juvenile's culpability individually, but it did not include an LWOP sentence and prohibited only mandatory capital sentences. This aspect was vital because of the rise of LWOP sentences since the 1980s when judges rarely imposed that sentence, specifically LWOP on black juveniles at higher rates than white as Black children comprised 60% of all youth-serving LWOP (Fields 210). From the circumstance of Roper, Graham, and Miller, the Supreme Court recognized what the "Get Tough" legislators did not, which is that adolescents are different from adults and do not deserve the most extreme sanctions or punishments. This trilogy of decisions altered the juvenile justice system's punishment structure and promoted sensible laws for the youth in the system.

Official data demonstrate that Black youth are arrested and incarcerated for serious criminal behavior at rates that are disproportionate to their number in the population. Each answer below is discussed in the text to explain this relationship, except for which response?

Black activist organizations encourage youths to rebel against the dominant power structure, leading to higher rates of crime over the last several decades.

Protective Factor

Characteristics of an individual's life that decreases the risk of future delinquency

Risk Factor

Characteristics of an individual's life that increases the likelihood of a future delinquent act

Neglect

Child is deprived of food, shelter, health care, and love

Procedural Law

Defines the process for making, administering, and enforcing the rules of society

Sustantive Law

Defines the rights, obligations and duties of members of society

Blended Sentences

Delinquency disposition combined with the threat of criminal sanctions if rehabilitative program is not completed

The concept of juvenile delinquency "occupies a legal status falling somewhere between criminal and civil law." Which answer best describes how the U.S. approaches juvenile delinquency?

Delinquent acts are not considered criminal violations in the juvenile justice system, where young people are viewed as being in need of treatment under the philosophy of parens patriae.

Why do advocates of the community policing model argue that this approach is useful in juvenile justice?

Direct engagement with the community gives police more immediate information about problems unique to a neighborhood and better insight into their solutions. , Not Selected Making police operations more visible increases police accountability to the public. , Not Selected Freeing officers from the emergency response system permits them to engage more directly in proactive crime prevention. , Not Selected Encouraging officers to view citizens as partners improves relations between police and the public. , Not Selected Correct answer: All of the above

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) shows that Black students are more likely to experience _____________ in K-12 public schools?

Disproportionality in suspensions Disproportionality in school demerits Disproportionality in expulsions Verbal criticism from teachers Correct answer: Both A and C

Blended families

Divorce and remarriage combines parents and children in single household

Siegel and Welsh identify ___________________________________ as a police program that is NOT effective in preventing juvenile crime.

Drug market arrests

Juvenile Disposition

Equivalent to the sentencing phase of the adult criminal justice system

Siegel and Welsh identify several developmental differences that help explain why girls engage in delinquency less frequently than boys. Which of the following responses relates to developmental differences in personality?

Girls are more likely to possess traits such as agreeableness and empathy, whereas boys are more likely to introduce new topics and to interrupt conversations; trait differences help explain why males who have trouble dealing with frustration turn to violence and aggression while girls turn to status offending.

Research indicates that "young girls are more likely to be the target of victimization and abuse than any other group." How is abuse related to female delinquency, according to Meda Chesney-Lind and other other scholars?

Girls who are abused withdraw, and unsupervised activities increase the likelihood of delinquency. Girls who are abused run away from home, frequently finding themselves forced into a situation in which they must break the law to survive on the streets. Girls who are abused perform poorly in school, increasing the likelihood of dropping out and subsequent Girls who are abused at a young age may develop a precocious maturity that facilitates a pathway into drug use and offending. Correct answer: Both B and D

Which of the following methods of communication is employed by gangs in the United States today?

Graffiti , Not Selected Secret vocabulary , Not Selected Tattoos , Not Selected Posting and Representing , Not Selected Correct answer: All of the above

Siegel and Welsh discuss each of the following programs as examples of the early prevention of juvenile delinquency, except for which response?

Group counseling sessions

Which answer best describes how the juvenile justice system developed in the United States?

Groups known as child savers began assisting children in need during the late-19th century; their work led to the development of a separate system for juveniles operating under the parens patriae philosophy.

Equal Protection Clause

Guarantees all individuals fair treatment before the law (part of the 14th Amendment)

Siegel and Welsh explain that each of the following factors is a correlate of school failure, except for which answer?

Gun violence

Aggressive Law Enforcement

High visibility police strategy targeting gang areas with arrests for minor and serious infractions

High school dropouts are more likely to encounter negative life consequences than individuals who graduate. Each of the following responses is identified by Siegel and Welsh as a consequence of dropping out of school except for which answer?

Higher rates of psychopathology

Hierarchy Rule

In a multiple offense incident, only the most serious crime is reported by the FBI.

Which form of parental socialization is most likely to produce children with behavioral problems?

Inconsistent monitoring and discipline, in addition to overly harsh punishment

Feld argues that the juvenile justice system became more punitive during the "Get Tough Era." How did the rules of punishment change in the juvenile justice system during the "Get Tough Era"?

Judicial waiver statutes transferred many juveniles to adult criminal court Direct file laws allow prosecutors to select either the juvenile or adult criminal justice system as the venue in which to try the crime Blended sentences permit the threat of criminal sanctions if youths do not comply with their juvenile disposition Proponents of just deserts advocated offense-based determinate and proportional criminal sentences rather than indeterminate penalties Correct answer: All of the above

Which of the following statements about the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) is true?

Law enforcement agencies provide information to the FBI for each criminal incident across 46 different offenses. NIBRS does not use the "hierarchy rule" which structured how data was reported in the UCR. Law enforcement provide additional characteristics on the offense committed in NIBRS, including incident (e.g., location, type of weapon used), victim, and offender information that was not featured in the UCR. NIBRS should bring about greater uniformity in cross-jurisdictional reporting and improve the accuracy of official crime data. Correct answer: All of the above.

Parens Patriae

Legal doctrine referring to the public power of the state to act as super-parent on behalf of a child

Terrie Moffitt finds that _____________ combine family dysfunction with severe neurological problems that predispose them to antisocial behavior patterns.

Life-course persistent offenders

Which of the following statements about Monitoring the Future (MTF) is true?

MTF is a self-report survey administered to high school students nationwide to measure trends in substance abuse

Determinate Sentencing

Mandatory minimum sentences for punishment of specific offenses

Barry Feld argues that macro-structural transformation created a context conducive for the policies enacted during the "Get Tough Era." Each of the following factors are discussed as part of that macro-structural transformation, except for which response?

Manufacturing job growth in urban core

A number of early childhood programs have been shown to be effective in addressing the delinquency risk factors and preventing future criminal behavior. Siegel and Welsh identify all of the following as effective programs in the prevention of delinquency, except for which response?

Military-style boot camps

Transfer

Moving youths from juvenile to criminal court for purposes of standing trial

Law enforcement use a variety of efforts to control gang activity. Which of the following responses best describes "community-policing" strategies?

Multiple agencies, including law enforcement, social service professionals, and youth outreach workers, coordinate efforts to keep the peace in local neighborhoods.

Broken Home

Parent(s) are absent due to divorce or separation

Each of the following were identified as forms of child abuse and neglect in the textbook, except for which answer?

Parental conflict

Siegel and Welsh discuss all of the following programs aimed at preventing delinquency during the teenage years, except for which response?

Parenting skills programs

Rand Conger's "family stress model" identifies family factors associated with the development of juvenile delinquency. Each of the following factors is addressed in the theory, except for which response?

Parents frequently turn to drug abuse as a result of economic stress, which may lead to child neglect and/or maltreatment.

Discretion

Personal decision making by officials in administering operations in the criminal justice system

Research reveals some important associations between substance abuse and juvenile delinquency. Each relationship (below) is discussed in the textbook, except for which response?

Pharmaceutical drugs have increasingly become the new 'gateway drug' for teenage users, replacing marijuana in terms of popularity.

Abuse

Physical, emotional, or sexual trauma committed against a child

Custodial Interrogation

Police question a subject held in the prejudicial stage of the juvenile justice process

Organizational Bias

Policies of a department that result in prejudiced or unfair practices

Harm Reduction

Policy approach that seeks to minimize negative health effects caused by drug use

Which of the following descriptions best fits Laub's and Sampson's concept of turning points in their age-graded theory?

Positive life experiences and relationships that help people become attached to society.

All of the following are status offenses, except for which answer?

Possession of narcotics

Tracking

Practice of placing youth into different academic paths based on demonstrated ability

Siegel and Welsh differentiate between "delinquency control" and "delinquency prevention" programs. Which of the following responses is an example of a delinquency control program?

Probation

What is the most common form of correctional treatment levied in juvenile courts?

Probation

Detention Hearing

Proceedings to determine whether a juvenile will be detained or released while case is pending

Probable Cause

Reasonable grounds to believe than an offense was committed and that the accused committed the offense