Julies psych 2A

Longitudinal studies on causation in cognitive biases

biases are precursors /vulnerability factor Activated by mood fluctuations Not conclusive evidence

Modelling

the process of observing and imitating also affects attitudes

Forward model monitoring - lexical-syntactic

which is about the sequence of words you're using to communicate the meaning of your sentence

vocabulary explosion

word learning accelerates dramatically between 14 - 18 months Exponential growth of vocabulary

Interactivity of language

word recognition, and language processing in general, emerge from a combination of bottom-up processing of input and top-down processing of prior knowledge, and other context information also contributes.

Structure of impressions - the new challenger + ref

Ref: Goodwin, et al., 2014 Morality as a separate dimension Evidence: 1. Identified three types of adjectives, high morality - high warmth, high morality - low warmth, low morality - high warmth and ability 2. Using these they asked people to rate different people (someone they admired, disrespected, a friend ect). They looked at the predictive power of each category and warmth and morality significantly differed in their correlation with positive attitude -> they are seperate components of impression formation

Study: Impressions from personal spaces

Ref: Gosling et al, 2003 Students' rooms were photographed and they completed the FFM. Others asked to rate occupant of photographed rooms on FFM - correlation was high I.e. we can make impressions from people's personal spaces However, they put too much weight on organisation and niceness as reflecting C and A

What does it mean that intelligence exercises are "drop in the sky"

Ref: Hunt, 2011 Intelligence tests often assess very specific abilities unrelated to real life and often with a time and precision pressure that is unnatural "NO time to evaluate, ponder Artificial, very limited context Inevitably dependent on prior experience with related material (much Of it gleaned in school, culture, social class) Despite many efforts to eliminate this • And claims of success in doing so"

Study: Impressions from body movement

Ref: Thoresen et al, 2012 Made point-light recordings of walking patterns and categorised into two types /components: Component 1: Expanded, stretched, growing Component 2: Delicate, indirect, leisurely, free Each type correlated with different kinds of personality trait judgements i.e. we made impressions from body movement

Study: Impression formation from faces + ref

Ref: Todorov et al. 2008; 2013 Computer generated faces were shown with variation in certain features. Participants asked to rate all kinds of things; trustworthiness, extroversion, threat

Theory of Planned Behavior

Reference: Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980 the idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control

Study: Modelling/social learning theory

Reference: Bandura et al., 1961 What they found: bobo doll experiment. Children assigned to 3 conditions: control, adult peaceful interaction with toys, and adult aggressive interaction with bobo doll. Children in the aggressive condition were significantly more likely to aggressively engage with the bobo doll after seeing the adult do so

Study: Direct experience (Attitudes)

Reference: Bernstein and Webster, 1980 What they found: 3 conditions; ice cream flavour 1, ice cream flavour 2, and control. Both flavours were infused with nauseating drugs. Participants who had got sick preferred the ice cream they had tried significantly less than the control group who had tried none - attitudes comes from experiences of the world

What is Cronbach's two disciplines of scientific psychology

Reference: Cronbach 1957. Correlational (understand patterns in nature) and experimental (manipulate conditions in a lab) psychology

Study: Implicit attitude change through activation change

Reference: Dasgupta and Greenwald, 2001 What they did: Attitude objects are often multifacetted, e.g. we might have a positive bias towards white people, but there are certain white people we know are bad. Likewise, there are celebrated black figures. They utilised this variance in reference point. 3 conditions: 1. Control - nonracial exemplars 2. Pro- white - High status white people 3. Pro-black - high status black people What they found: 1. showed evidence of prejudice - lower reaction time when white+pleasant and black+unpleasant 2. Did not affect the size existing bias shown in control 3. reaction time for white+pleasant and black+unpleasant decreased and reaction time for black + pleasant and white+unpleasant increased

Study: Cognitive dissonance

Reference: Festinger et al., 1959 Participants were given an extremely boring task which induced negative explicit attitude towards it. They were either paid $1 or $20 to tell the next participant it was fun. $1 - condition: reported more positive attitude towards the experiment - this can be seen as resolving cognitive dissonance between behaviour (saying it was fun) and attitude (it was not fun) by changing the attitude $20 - no reported change of attitude. The high amount diminished the person's choice in the matter, e.g. they can see it as forced to do something against their attitude

Study: Classical conditioning, food attitudes

Reference: Garcia et al., 1955 What they found: rats classically conditioned to associate sugar water and nausea, would drink less -> food aversion. This was proportionally dependent on the level of radiation

Study: mere exposure

Reference: Goetzinger, 1968 What he found: Research assistant asked to come to lectures for a semester dressed as a black bag. The novel, non-aversive stimulus first created hostility but soon came to be accepted and even liked. This shows that merely by exposure to this stimulus a positive attitude was formed

Bright and dull rat study

Reference: McClearn & Postman (1963) What they found: Genetically similar rats tested in a maze would be good at it (bright) or bad (dull). Rats were split into two groups and bred separately. This induced growing divergence in mean errors of the maze for each generation

Study: Relationship between implicit and explicit attitudes

Reference: Nosek & Smyth, 2007 Meta-analysis (58 studies) of correlation between implicit and explicit attitudes. Median correlation: r=.48 -> some consistency between implicit and explicit attitudes

Study: changing implicit attitudes through semantic association

Reference: Olson and Fazio, 2001 pairing neutral stimuli with pos or neg words to induce a positive or negative implicit attitudes (e.g. to tables) Through several hundred word pairs this was done at conscious level - i.e. they were aware of the pairs

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Reference: Petty and Cacioppo, 1986 How do we process a message received 1. central route or 2. peripheral route

Optimality in language - colour names (+ref)

Reference: Regier, Kay, & Khetarpal, 2007 We want to be able to communicate precise colour information, but we *don't* want to have to learn too many colour words. We need to partition the colour space in a way that maximizes similarity within colour category, minimizes similarity across colour categories, within the constraints of some acceptable number of colour terms. We can write a computer program to solve this problem in an optimal way and it turns out that this program will come up with solutions that are similar to real languages. The vast majority of languages have the optimal (the most well-formed) solution for their number of colour words. In other words: Colour names optimize communication about colour: maximum within-category similarity and minimum between-category similarity

Study: MODE

Reference: Sanbomatsu & Fazio, 1990 1. participants' implicit attitudes towards 2 made-up stores were manipulated through word-pairings. Store A + pos words and store B + neg words 2. they were given information of the camera department contradicting their implicit attitude - A bad, B good 3A. given either long or little time (15sec) 3B. Motivation was manipulated by evaluation of decision or not they were asked where they would buy a camera What they found: 3A - little time -> implicit attitude: Chose store with general positive attitude. Long time -> explicit attitude override: Chose store with good camera department 3B - little motivation (no evaluation) -> implicit attitude: Chose store with general positive attitude. High motivation (evaluation) -> explicit attitude override: Chose store with good camera department

Explain the model behavioural development:

Reference: Scarr & McCathy, 1983 (Genotype -> environment paper) Starting from the left corner, Gp (parent genotype) directly affect Gc (genotype child) and indirectly affect the Ec (environment child). Gc affects Pc (phenotype child = observable characteristics) and Ec Pc and Ec has a reciprocal relationship (i.e. each affecting the other)

Language is universal (+reference)

Reference: Sengha, 1995 Nicaraguan sign language - even in the absence of a formal language it will develop without instruction over time.

Study - semantic clustering of profanity by valence and physiological arousal

Reilly et al, 2020 The semantic clustering suggests a pattern, which can be captured by noticing that swear words typically combine negative valence and high physiological arousal. This scatterplot is based on a survey of a few hundred people in the US who rated the taboo-ness, arousal, and valence of lots of different words. The taboo words (red) tend to be in the bottom right quadrant, but you can see that's not the whole story lots of non-taboo words also have high arousal and negative valence: cancer, disaster, snake.

Personality trait

Relatively stable tendencies to behave consistently in particular, biologically coherent ways

What are the aims of a diagnostic classification system?

Reliability: to ensure that when we talk about these experiences we are all confidant that we are talking about and studying the same phenomena. Assumption: identification and categorisation will lead to understanding of mechanism and cause, which will lead to treatment

Visual object recognition

Relies on the inferior temporal lobe (the purple "ventral stream" in this diagram) critical for reading

What validity did the LBC 1936 add to the results of the LBC 1921?

Replicability - would the same correlations be found in the second cohort. This will improve the probability of these correlations actually existing

Why is reported information problematic

Reported breastfeeding, job and memories can be false or imprecise. They might be distorted by current events

Attractiveness - symmetry + ref

Rhodes, 2006 (meta-analysis) Symmetric faces are more attractive 0.25 effect size

Attractiveness - averageness

Rhodes, 2006 (meta-analysis) The closer a face is to our mental average of a human face the more physically attractive it is effect size 0.52

infant-directed speech - ref

Roberta Michnick Golinkoff, Dilara Deniz Can, Melanie Soderstrom, and Kathy Hirsh-Pasek (2015) What they find: 1. IDS helps children learn because what matters to language development is not only quantity of language observed but also the quality of language input which is improved by IDS 2. Perceptual-attentional effects: Why do babies pay attention to IDS? Positive emotion, supported by neuro evidence that shows higher activation in temporal lobes from IDS than ADS. IDS also increase event-related potential response signalling attentional processing 3. Linguistic effects: Expanded vowel triangle; When plotted in perceptual space, vowels in IDS are farther apart than the same vowels in ADS simplifying categorising them. The same might the case for consonants. Highlights speech chunks and syntactic boundaries 4. Social context: Social gating; language knowledge is maintained when encountered through social interaction but not when conveyed through e.g. telly. Infants make more linguistically mature vocalisations when their mother respond. Agency; children are more likely to learn when they initiate the conversation

Over-general memory in depression

Rumination Constantly going over why they are like this -> specificity of encoding is reducing

Examples of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Russian Blue - Russian speakers have separate labels for lighter blue (goloboy) and medium-darker blue (cinyi). In a triads task, where participants have to pick which of the bottom colours matches the top one, the Russian speakers were a little faster when the options were on opposite sides of that label boundary. English speakers showed no effect (they don't have that label boundary). The physical colour diff Hebrew vs. English - E: show, H: cause to see. There is a semantic distinction but no overall limitation of one vs. the other's ability to express or understand each other

What evidence is there for a saturation point of the Flynn effect

Scandinavian (Norwegian Army) data seem to imply a flattening or even decrease in IQ after generations of increase while poor countries are experiencing increases - implies that as access to higher education reaches its max the Flynn effect might wear off

Laudan's criterion for science

Science does not have objective rules, but should be agreed upon

Measuring explicit attitudes

Self-report

Three systems of compassion focused therapy - Drive system

Setting unrealistic goals, overworking, perfectionism Helps us to persists

Study: Stereotyping when cognitively taxed

Sherman et al, 1999 Participants asked to remember information about John Smith - Half the participants were told he was a priest - Half were told he was a skinhead The information about him was 1/3 positive (associated with priest) 1/3 negative (associated with skinhead) and 1/3 neutral 24 hours later they were asked if words were in the description, stereotypic fillers were included. Measured: How many stereotypic words were misattributed What they found Participants under high cognitive load were more likely to misattribute stereotypic descriptors

Simulation of concepts

So when you're thinking about a dog, you're imagining what it looks like, what it sounds like, what it's like to take the dog for a walk, etc. This process of activating perceptual and action features is an important part of this theory and is called "simulation" or "re-enactment"

Profanity syntax regularities - Grammatical operations not allowed

Some grammatical operations, like taking the adverb "very", don't work.

What does the correlation between different intelligence tests show?

Spearman's G - maybe the most robust observation in psychology Also suggests hierarchical structure as some correlations are closer than others

source-filter model of speech production

Speech consists of two components The "source" is the air coming from your lungs and vibration of the vocal folds. This is essentially fixed and defined by basic anatomy like body size The "filter" is the configuration of "articulators" - tongue, lips, jaw, soft palate (velum) - which you can control. By changing the configuration of these articulators you can produce different speech sounds

What do we know about the hierarchical model of intelligence?

Statistically the form makes sense (in terms of correlations), but we do not understand the direction of causation - i.e. is bottom up or top down.

Study: Stereotype threat

Steele and Aronson, 1995 Study 1: Half participants told it was an IQ test Half not Black participants and white participants did equally well when they were not told, however, when the IQ test was mentioned this reinforced the negative stereotype of their race which made them perform worse Study 2: Half participants asked to identify their race Half not asked Black participants' performance was lower in the group reminded of their race. Might be due to rumination causing anxiety

Maintaining stereotypes, what stereotypes affect

Stereotypes affect/bias 1. What we see; they change how we learn about the world 2. What we recall; they change how we remember the world 3. What we speak about; they change how we communicate with others

Stereotyping in the social cognitive approach

Stereotyping is a component in prejudice

Why do we stereotype - social cognitive approach

Stereotyping is a way to simplify the world around us and, thus, being able to process it with limited cognitive ressources

What are the backsides of diagnosis?

Stigma - many mental health issues are stigmatised Sense of difference - you become part of the psychologically abnormal /neuroatypical. People might treat you differently Defeat - it can still feel like it is your fault or that you've lost something by getting this diagnosis

Biases in selective attention to threat stimuli

Stimuli threat is focused on quicker and attention lingers after the threat has passed

Study: Stereotypes affect what we remember

Stringor et al (1992) Stereotype consistent information is easier to recall Meta-analysis - superior recall for information that fits their recall

Evidence for Psychological flexibility

Strong evidence that Psychological Flexibility is associated with less distress and 'psychopathology Lab studies: psychological flexibility procedures produce large effects Clinical Trials: combined effects across problems, ACT compared to: - wait list, placebo, TALI or combined = small to moderate - Active treatment (not CBT) = moderate Active treatment CBT = trivial All meta-analytic effects favour ACT Across a very broad range of conditions and outcomes

Attachment and mental health

Strong evidence that attachment insecurity is a general risk factor for poor mental health (depression, anxiety, personality) Some specific relations observed: childhood separation anxiety, pathological grief Personality disorders: — anxious attachment = emotional dysregulation — avoidant attachment = avoidant and inhibited personality Unlikely to be a sufficient cause and require interaction with other factors

Neuroimaging (method in language)

Structural MRI - how much of different kinds of brain tissue is in different places. fMRI - based on metabolic activity: neural activity consumes oxygen and we can track the compensatory flow of oxygenated blood as an indirect measure of which parts of the brain are engaged in a task EEG and MEG - measuring electrical activity in the brain at the scalp. Sometimes when patients are having brain surgery it is also possible to record electrical signals (and to stimulate) directly in their brains

What makes cultural transmission of language possible?

Structure on several levels and iterated learning (Structure) We can decipher phonymes into mophemes into meaningful sentences (IL) We observe language and learn it and pass it on

Concepts - Plato

Suggested that concepts existed separately in the world of forms - i.e. metaphysical concepts outside the human mind

Complementary semantic systems

Taxonomic hub: integrates features and categories, useful for identification. Located in the anterior temporal lobe Thematic hub: Integrates relations and events, useful for prediction. Located in the temporal parietal cortex

Why might intelligence tests not measure intelligence only?

Testing environments cause anxiety which can impede performance. I.e. people who do well on IQ tests might also be the once who have less anxiety when it comes to testing

Embodied cognition

That the mind extends beyond the brain into the body or even into the environment itself e.g. manipulating the environment to accommodate mental processes

Meehl's construct validity

That the operationalised measure measures the intended construct, i.e. the variance observed is caused by variance in the construct

Exemplar (concepts)

The actual objects we encounter and label as a certain concept, e.g. a chair.

Interactivity of language - example

The boxed word is read as "went" in the first sentence and "event" in the second. I.e. we use context to determine uncertain words -> top down process

Terrible changes to the DSM-5: Autism

The changes in the DSM 5 definition of Autism will result in lowered rates — 10 percent according to estimates by the DSM 5 work group, perhaps 50 percent according to outside research groups. This reduction can be seen as beneficial in the sense that the diagnosis of Autism will be more accurate and specific- but advocates understandably fear a disruption in needed school services. Here the DSM 5 problem is not so much a bad decision, but the misleading promises that it will have no impact on rates of disorder or of service delivery. School services should be tied more to educational need, less to a controversial psychiatric diagnosis created for clinical (not educational) purposes and whose rate is so sensitive to small changes in definition and assessment.

Why are the quantification of inventory responses triggy?

The comparability between persons is questionable. Also across questions, is getting scored one twice the same as being scored two once?

Terrible changes to the DSM-5: Mild Cognitive impairment

The everyday forgetting characteristic of old age will now be misdiagnosed as Minor Neurocognitive Disorder, creating a huge false positive population of people who are not at special risk for dementia. Since there is no effective treatment for this 'condition' (or for dementia), the label provides absolutely no benefit (while creating great anxiety) even for those at true risk for later developing dementia. It is a dead loss for the many who will be mislabeled.

Attractiveness - sexual dimorphism

The extent to which a face embodies femininity (for female faces) or masculinity (for male faces) Rhodes, 2006 Effect size for attractiveness of femininity: 0.64 Effect size for attractiveness of masculinity: -0.12

the Chinese room thought experiment

The famous Chinese room thought experiment, for example, illustrates how translation can occur without understanding (thus, execution of function does not amount to consciousness)

Conclusions from Paul

The model contains hypotheses of mechanisms and influences It was usefully applied to Paul 's situation He had a hard time understanding the concept of referred pain, even with time spent on education Personalising it with a metaphor that was familiar helped Despite his evaluation of his beliefs, it didn't feel as though his beliefs completely shifted, they just seemed to get in the way less. Returning to activity and work was the major shift

Why does Mendelian genetics not "work" for humans?

The passing of human genetics is much less controlled (i.e. we cannot do controlled breeding) and we live different lives (i.e. environmental influences differ)

There are 8 middle level abilities of intelligence - why is this wrong?

The pattern of correlations among tests suggests the existence of eight middle-level abilities independent of each other and g — In practice, what factors gets measured depends on what tests you model — Statistical methods can't determine whether factors are independent

How does the questions asked in psychology reflect wider societal norms?

There are some questions that we think are worth asking, and others that we do not. There are some things that we assume are the case, about human nature or certain groups of people, which prompt us to ask some questions, but not others, and which shape how we interpret any answers that we get.

Problems with functionalism - qualia

There is 'something it is like' to, for example, feel pain or taste an apple. There is a quality to experience over and above physical sensations and functional properties, which cannot be reduced to brain events or information-processing. There is, it is argued, more to knowledge by acquaintance (first person knowledge) than what can be described to others (third person knowledge). If this is the case, then materialism and functionalism do not account for our experience of the world.

Language is combinatorial

There is a relatively small inventory of basic elements -- a few dozen speech sounds (or letters or sign elements) - which we can combine to form thousands of words, and those words can be combined into infinite narratives

Why is fluid and crystallised intelligence not a good distinction

There is no test that measures capacity without, also tapping knowledge, and no test that taps available information alone In practice, 'fluid' is measured with figural tests. And 'crystallized' is measured with verbal tests I.e. spatial and verbal intelligence

What can attitudes affect?

They are pervasive They predict behaviour they shape the way we see the world

Are mean patterns of change useful?

They fail to show the variety of ways people change, some get better, some get worse, on average that is not change at all

Profanity syntax regularities - grammatical class

They have flexible (or maybe poorly defined) grammatical class: "shit" can be a verb, adjective, or noun

Why do infants prefer their native langauge?

They listened to the acoustic differences associated with the language spoken around them in the womb

Why is disfluencies interesting

They show that planning of speech production is partial

Do intelligence tests work equally well?

They're all better at predicting some outcomes than others and these differs across tests, but they also do correlate

Why do siblings' IQ correlate less than DZ twins

They're genetic relatedness is the same, but DZ have more shared environment due to their age being the same

Attractiveness - sexual dimorphism; masculine traits

Thicker brows, thin lips, square chin, smaller eyes

The perceptual symbolic system of concepts is a hub and spoke system

This refers to sectioning of concepts in to semantic hubs connected by spokes. This makes accessing concepts easier as it provides you fewer connections

Processes in ACT (hexaflex)

Three main categories with sub: Open - Willingness / acceptance (acknowledging and letting be negative emotion) - Cognitive defusion (Step back from individual thoughts, even the true ones ) Aware - Contact with present moment (What are external and internal influencers of my behaviour. What are my options) - Flexible perspective taking on story (Owning one's story without attachment) Engaged - Clarity and contact with personal values - Committed actions towards value (They know and engage with they care about)

Study: How fast are impressions formed + ref

Todorov et al. 2006 participants presented with pictures of actors and had either 100 ms, 500 ms, 1000 ms or no time constraint to observe them. They had to make judgements about; trustworthiness, competence, likability, aggressiveness, and attractiveness The judgements were similar regardless of time and even more so when controlling for attractiveness

Reference: Humans vs. apes; sharing mental states

Tomasello et al., 1998. Human language is meant to share mental states, this does not appear to be the case for apes, as seen on the graph. Note that the human participants were 2-3 year olds. What they found: Children understand when another human is pointing at something they intend to refer to that object, apes do not understand this. I.e. humans have joint intention and attention seems important to distinguish human language from animal communication

Balanced positive psychology - balance as mid range

Too much positivity can undermine desirable outcome Move away from a more is better approach and look more at affective states in the mid-range i.e. not too depressed or too happy

Kuhn's critique of falsificationism

Too permissive Falsification was not part of science -> when anomalies are observed we do not reject the theory, e.g. the discovery of Neptune

Paths to stereotype-creation

Top-down: Group characteristics projected onto its members (form impression of group, apply to individual members) Bottom-up: Individual's characteristics projected onto their group (form impression, make categorisation, imbue group with impression)

Why might we find averageness, symmetry and dimorphism attractive?

Traditional view: Reflects reproductive fitness Empirical evidence does not support that it is actually the case

Mendelian dominant trait

Trait expressed if gene inherited from one or both parents

Mendelian Recessive Trait

Trait expressed if gene is inherited from both parents

third law of behavioural genetics

Turkheimer (2000): Neither shared environment or genetics account for all variance (non-shared + error)

Psychological flexibility

Underpinning clinical model for Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) ACT is a modern form of CBT Emphasises letting go of ineffective attempts to control thoughts and feelings Establishing personal values and commitment to actions Open, Aware, Engaged response style

Implicit attitude change towards the self

We can change self-esteem through semantic network change -> implicit attitude towards oneself changes

Changing implicit attitudes

We can change the semantic network (consciously or unconsciously - present conditioning stimuli below 50 ms. Long-lasting - the semantic network has changed) Or the activation of the attitude (short-lived)

Why should odour determine attraction?

We can detect MHC (major histocompatibility complex) through odour Biologically beneficial to reproduce with someone whose MCH is different (benefits immune system) (mainly women) Men are attracted to smell indicating ovulation

Turn-taking in speech planning; yes no questions + ref

We can predict very well when other's are done talking; (Stivers et al., 2009) showed that the averages of answer onsets to different questions are are all under ½ second - the average gap between offset of question and onset of answer is < 0.5 sec.

Interaction of indexical and linguistic information

We can use accents to decipher which variant of English to interpret the meanings of their words from e.g. Bonnet in American English = Hat, in British English = Car hood. Accents helps us which interpretation to use

Before we could measure the genome, what was the evidence that genes influence human behaviour?

We could see correlations increase as genetic similarity increased

Upstream downstream hypothesis

We help patients get out of the water rather than walking up stream and repairing/creating mechanism that makes them fall into the water preventive measures rather than symptom treatments

Metaphors in psychological descriptions

We use metaphors to talk about mental phenomenon However, these are limited to the concepts available at the time

Optimality in language - Kinship categories(+ref)

We want to be able to communicate kin relationships precisely, but don't want to have to learn a lot of words. Sibling relationships: in English, we distinguish sibling gender but not birth order (sister: sibling is female, if she is younger or older is not conveyed). We could have separate words for those, but then we'd have to learn twice as many sibling terms Reference: Kemp & Regier, 2012 Languages vary a little in how they balance precision (complexity) how many words are needed to express that relationship (communicative cost), but they're all clustered in the optimal bottom left corner

Study: Women on men's odour and attractiveness

Wedekind et al. 1995 non-contraceptive women rated smell of MHC-dissimilar men more attractive than MHC-similar men + Smell more similar to their current or previous partner's Contraceptive women showed the opposite effect

Problem of Demarcation

What distinguishes scientific theories from pseudo-scientific theories?

What works and what does not when telling apart languages and dialects?

What does not work: 1. Mutual intelligibility (some languages are mutually intelligible) 2. Common writing system (many languages are not written) What we can say: "Language is a dialect with an army and a navy"

Wechsler definition of intelligence

What is intelligence? "A global concept that involves an individual's ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment" Ref: (Wechsler, 1958)

TPB - Subjective norm -> Intention -> behaviour

What other people think and do around you also influences your intentions and subsequent behaviour. Example: Subjective norm: no one smokes intention then becomes: stop smoking Behaviour: not smoke

When does cognitive dissonance change attitudes?

When behaviour is visible to others (you cannot say it didin't happen) When we have freely chosen the action (i.e. it is not being forced upon us) When our behaviour is costly and we have expanded a lot of effort (sunk cost fallacy - motivated to improve attitude to make sacrifice more worthwhile)

What is connection between language and motor control? + ref

When processing an action linguistically, i.e. reading or talking about it, the motor cortex seems to mimic this action Pulvermüller, F. (2005)

How can iterated learning create language structure

When there is pressure to communicate effectively language structure emerges often with compositionality i.e. Meaning of sentence = meaning of each part together

the descriptions we use reflect theoretical assumptions about the nature of mental phenomena

When we describe mental phenomena in a particular way, we use terms with definitions that reflect this way of thinking

lexically guided tuning of speech perception

When we listen to unfamiliar accents we can determine their meaning from context, however, it shifts the internal representation of accented words slightly towards the form presented in the accent. This is why we are more likely to understand accents when we listened to them longer

Intelligence "became" what we tested - how?

When we started measuring intelligence we measured based on our conception of it. The people who did well in education makes more money and are more likely to do well on intelligence tests. These people have the money to perpetuate and cultivate their educational cultures.

MODE: Motivation and Opportunity as DEterminants

Which attitude will dominate behaviour? implicit or explicit? According to this model when we have either time or motivation we will use explicit attitudes (cognitively demanding to engage with). When these are absent we will use implicit attitudes (not cognitively straining)

Learning grammatical categories: Distributional information

While a word like science is clearly a noun it can be used e.g. as a verb in informal contexts. This creates very noisy distributional information about grammatical categories.

The speical case labels/names in perceptual symbol systems

While action and perceptual features of an object are probabilistic, one thing is for sure, a chair is a chair because we call it a chair. Labelling might affect the way we categorise objects and they help us learn. Categorising aliens as friendly or bad with feedback, one group had labels associated with the good and bad aliens (provided no additional information compared to feedback) learned quicker

What are the limitations of answers to inventories?

While behaviour and feelings are referenced in the questionnaire, respondents are not observed having the feeling or enacting the behaviour in question. This can lead to several problems 1. All behaviours feelings are affected by social desirability, and people often lie or even think that they will behave differently 2. I.e. they lack insight 3. It is almost impossible to write neutral questions with no room for interpretation

How can we compare life to an intelligence test?

While formal psychometric intelligence are very specific in terms of the construct measured, as we go through life we make many decisions and one may argue that all else being equal high intelligence might help make better decisions

Why should we not reject Freud?

While his concepts are silly the idea of subconscious is pivotal to today's dual-processing models

Symbolic representations - sufficient and necessary conditions + example

While the external reality might follow these conditions human langauge concepts does not example: Triangles - they must be closed and have 3 sides. But when asked whether a three-sided shape is a triangle error goes up as the shape becomes less equilateral -> the human mind has degrees of triangularness although that is physically true

Study: Stereotypes affect how we learn about the world

Wigboluds et al., 2003 Students presented with stereotype consistent (skinhead hit the man) or inconsistent (girl hit the man) actions. Timed how quickly traits for inconsistent actions were rejected (e.g. aggression) They found more latency for consistent than inconsistent stereotypes -> they bias how we see the world

Interactive Alignment

Within a conversation, we have cognitive processes happening (for example, syntactic priming) that drive convergence between speakers (the speech patterns of two people in a dialogue become more similar to one another), which makes it easier for them to understand one another

Suppression of women through faceism

Women are more likely to pictured with their bodies - This might be women are often perceived as less intelligent and competent

In English, syntax is indicated by

Word order. We cannot understand a sentence meaningfully if the words are in the wrong order, but we can understand sentences we've never heard "Green ideas sleep furiously"

Lexical knowledge aiding speech perception

Word superiority effect: Phonemes are recognised faster in words than in nonwords Ganong effect: Ambiguous speech sounds tend to be heard in a word consistent way (?ift → GIFT, ?iss → KISS) Phoneme restoration: Replacing a phoneme with a noise burst produces perception of noise + phoneme

Quasi-regularity in language - Word meanings

Words are not quite independent blocks of meaning; their meanings can be affected by the context they appear in But, again, not in a completely arbitrary way: the meaning of "hit" changes with context, but it maintains a sense of making contact with something

Modalities of language include:

Writing Speaking Sign language Different constraints for different forms but same core principles

Technology as a driver of language change

Written language is utilising technology to allow time and planning for speech production. Texting re-introduced time pressure because we want to type quick messages

Turn-taking in speech planning; 5 min conversations + ref

Yuan, Liberman, Cieri, 2007 there are actually two different kinds of speech overlaps: turn-taking overlaps are generally very short and are more like timing errors; "backchannel" overlaps are a bit longer and are more like proper interruptions

Stress-Diathesis Model

a psychological theory that attempts to explain a disorder as the result of an interaction between a predispositional vulnerability and a stress caused by life experiences. I.e. cognitive biases are inherent but triggered in stressful situations

cohort sequential design

a research design in which the longitudinal method is replicated with several cohorts

Stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

How does the TPB explain the connection between behaviour and attitude?

it highlights that there can be a disconnect between our attitudes and behaviour, where we also need to intend to behave in a desired way and intentions don't always lead to behaviour. I can have the attitude that smoking is bad for my health but this has to be related to the intention to give up smoking. And this intention still has to be translated into the behaviour of not smoking a cigarette again.

Semantic clustering of profanity

most swear words fall into a small set of clusters 1. sex-related words 2. scatological terms (which can be expanded to include other bodily functions - puke, douche) 3. some animal names 4. Blasphemy: damn (these are perhaps not as profane as they used to be, but they have a rich history) 5. Racial, ethnic, psychological, or other social class slurs

Sentence parsing is competitive and parallel

multiple parses (sentence interpretations) are considered in parallel and it takes time and cognitive resources to resolve these ambiguities

Common ground - social language

mutual knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions that simplify communication particularly facilitates making inferences and resolving ambiguous referents

Implicit attitudes

not subject to social desirability concerns since we are unaware of them -> no need to lie

Aim of psychology

provide reliable and valid knowledge of mind and behaviour

Method of induction

reasoning from specific instances to general principles

Taxonomic relations

shared features, affected by semantic dementia and associated with ATL

infant-directed speech

slower rate and shorter utterances, higher pitch, greater pitch variations, repetitive intonation (rhythmic), longer pauses Infants (3-15 months old) attend more to infant-directed speech than matched adult-directed speech. This also fosters social interaction between infants and caregivers IDS also has exaggerated language-relevant distinctions, which makes it easier for infants to learn e.g. the differences between the vowels /i/, /u/, and /a/ It also helps word learning, but only at early stage (21 months old) -- helps get the word-learning ball rolling, but once kids catch on, it doesn't matter much.

Study: Men on women's odour and attractiveness

smaller effect of MCH-dissimilarity. Miller and Maner, 2009 Men had increased levels of testosterone after smelling shirts from women near who were near ovulation

Three systems of compassion focused therapy - threat system

social threat Thoughts like: I am inadequate, i will fail. When activated: We tend to be fearful, Make oneself small, Highly self-critical and shame prone individuals - over-activated system, Very attentive to others

Neuroscientific evidence for implicit racial bias

some Caucasian Americans have increased amygdala activity when looking at the faces of African Americans in a brain scan. The amygdala is associated with perceived threat and negative emotions. This suggests that these Caucasian American participants have a negative implicit attitude towards African Americans

Mutual exclusivity

the new word - "dopaflexinator" - probably refers to the new object, not the hammer, because that already has a name

epigenetics

the study of influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

How are implicit attitudes formed?

they are built from long-term associations within a semantic network i.e. from your exposure to certain associations: repeatedly paired together over time, resulting in them forming a close association in your semantic network. depending on the semantic association the implicit attitude can be positive or negative

syntactic ambiguity

when the structure or grammar of a sentence renders the meaning of a word or phrase uncertain

Feature of perceptual symbol systems; top-down and bottom-up flows

when you are engaged in conceptual processing, there is bottom-up information flow from the perceptual and motor systems into "convergence zones" that integrate this modality-specific information into more holistic representations. There is also top-down information flow from the convergence zones out to the perceptual and motor systems that activates information that is not present in the environment.

Prototype (concepts)

your general concept of objects - equivalent to what we'd find in Plato's world of forms

Are traits stable?

•Generate descriptions of behavioural generalities, but motivations vary — And people don't behave consistently in any particular way Behaviour varies with present situation And with prior and anticipated circumstances

Wendy's definition of personality

"A person's ongoing adaptations Of temperament, emotional, information-processing, motivational, and interest tendencies and capacities to the social and physical demands and opportunities of the surrounding environment"

Gottfredson definition of intelligence

"A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings — 'catching on', 'making sense' of things, or 'figuring out what to do.'" Ref: (Gottfredson, 1994 consensus statement)

Profanity syntax regularities - "give"

"Give" is typically a relationship between three things: an agent who does the giving, an object that is given, and a recipient who is given the object But "Give a [profanity]" can be used without a recipient, though it has an (implied) reference

Flynn definition of intelligence

"Mental acuity [ability to provide on-the-spot solutions to new problems]; habits of mind [patterned ways of thinking]; attitudes [foundations for acquiring habits of mind]; knowledge" Ref: (Flynn, 2007)

Questions answered through therapy with the PTM framework and what they mean

"What happened to you?" - how is power operating in your life "How did it affect you?" - What kinds of threats does this pose "What sense did you make of it?" - What is the meaning of these situations and experiences to you "What did you have to do to survive?" - What kind of threat responses are you using "What are your strengths?" - What access to power resources do you have? "What is your story?" - How does it all fit together

Boring Definition of Intelligence

"What the intelligence tests test" Ref: (Boring, 1923) Intuitively: Our tests gives people an idea of intelligence which they can then strive towards and so it becomes the intelligence

Two-step interactive model of word production

(1) semantics to words: What is the thing you want to say (semantics) and what is it called (word) (2) planning out the sequence of phonemes and articulatory movements needed to produce it (output phonology)

What is the common form of swear words

- swear words tend to be short. In English, the most common is 4 letters. Compound swear words (8-12) - Swear words also tend to have hard stop consonants like /k/ and /t/, and to form closed syllables: a consonant-vowel-consonant structure. This pattern also shows up if we ask people to rate whether a made-up word is would make a good swear word

what is the most common heritability ratio of psychological traits

.3-.6

Typical method for odour studies

1. A person sleeps in t-shirt for two nights. 2. Put in a bag a bag and taken to lab 3. Participants sniff and rate how attracted they are to the smell

How psychology tried to become a science

1. Adopting methodological approaches more widely associated with science (such as quantification, measurement and experimentation) and more specific methodological techniques (such as operationalism and statistical analyses), along with the various theoretical assumptions that underlie such methods. 2. by framing psychological questions in ways that are compatible with other sciences - especially biology

Social factors of language change

1. Conscious awareness ("meta-commentary"): explicit decisions, policies, etc. about language use vs. subconscious stylistic drift 2. Overt prestige: known associations with standardness or aesthetic/moral evaluations like being "nicer" or "better'' 3. Planning: whether the language change was planned or unplanned

What are the steps to scientific study of individual differences

1. Define the construct (e.g. what is creativity?) 2. Operationalise it (i.e. how will you measure the construct)

'Grounds' for accepting the FFM

1. Factor analysis supports that five is the 'right' number of factors —But specific factor content varies with samples and items — And factor analysis can't determine this 2. Get similar statistics whoever rates, even strangers — But correlations among rating methods at best moderate 3. Get similar statistics in samples with wide ranges of ages, cultures, and languages — But Content and interpretations among them vary — And measurement invariance often doesn't hold

Mechanisms by which early adversity create psychological problems

1. Intrusive (unprocessed) Memories: Traumatic events might lead to avoidant behaviour, which in turn can lead to a feeling of meaninglessness - the body will try to resurface memories to create coherence in self-narrative 2. Formation of negative expectancies and self-identity: The feeling that nothing good will ever happen to them. Can be internalised directly by messages of control from abuse. One way to make sense - why it happened - must be something to do with you 3. Disruption of developmental pathways 4. Disruption of social bonds: Trust issues Can lead to more serious disorders

According to longitudinal evidence which NFEC factors predicts mental health problems the most

1. Parenting practices 2. Parental verbal conflict and mood problems 3. Parental anti-social and disturbed behaviour 4. Adverse life events and instability 5. Family structure and SES - SES might be sample specific

Evidence for neuro location of thematic relations (Stroke)

1. Patterns of naming errors in stroke patients. Semantic dementia patients only make "taxonomic" errors (COW → "horse") and they have ATL damage. Stroke survivors with ATL damage also tend to make these taxonomic errors. But stroke survivors with Temporal-parietal damage make more "thematic" errors like COW → "milk".

Why is language a reliable social marker?

1. Salient and readily discriminable: can tell if someone's dialect differs from your own very quickly and reliably 2. Individual + group properties: everyone has their own speech style that shares properties of their dialect. Compare to a uniform or something, which is the same for all group members 3. Difficult to fake, easy to inherit, develops early: so pretty much anyone who grows up in a particular social group will have (some version of) their dialect, but outsiders will not easily fake it 4. Universal: pretty much all humans have it, so it will work to socially mark pretty much everyone

Problems with verifiability as a criterion for science

1. We accepted non-observable phenomenon as scientific e.g. gravity - we cannot see it 2. this criterion would allow for "non-science" such as astrology to be considered science

Why is mental health problems not abnormal

1/5 people experience mental health difficulties so it is not unusual it is a continuum on which normal goes to abnormal, categorically distinguishing between them excludes the intermediate cases NOT qualitatively abnormal

Meta analysis results - positive psychology interventions

39 studies, evaluating 6139 participants Mostly healthy populations but some aimed at depression or anxiety problems Small to moderate effects for wellbeing, and depression (large range d = 2.4) Small effects at 3 to 6 month follow up Larger effects for individual delivery, face to face, healthcare settings, longer duration of intervention. Smaller effects observed in better quality interventions HMC l.

genetic relatedness and correlation of IQ - DZ twins

50 % gr, IQ correlates with 60 %

Native vs. non-native contrasts (Janet Werker)

6-8-month old English-speaking infants can distinguish Hindi and Salish contrasts that don't exist in English, but this ability gradually disappears by 12-months.

Psychology through time - psychology of advertising

A demand for psychological knowledge that could increase profits. the aim was to attract new customers and increase sales.

What is a stereotype?

A generalisation about thoughts, feelings motives, and/or behaviours generalisation about group characteristics a knowledge structures

Ethical critiques of DSM-5

A number of DSM 5 taskforces (over 50 %) gets benefits from pharma companies Allen Frances - downplays the importance of financial links to pharma Disorganisation of DSM task forces - Frances described there was no field testing due to delays

Why do we stereotype - personality

Adorno et al, 1950's and 60's Authorotarian personality - stereotyping reflects deficiencies in these personalitieds Largely discredited, studies are still done on right wing authoritanism and social dominance1

Why should we consider psychopathology in differential psychology?

All forms of psychopathology show the same kinds of genetic and environmental influences as do intelligence and personality - i.e. it behaves like other constructs we study — Abuse, trauma, exposure to violence increase risk of psychopathology (environment) — Large individual differences in vulnerability and resilience (genetic + environment) Some claim psychopathology is 'just' extreme personality - but there must be something categorically different about rather than just extremity

Language as a social marker study

American geographic stereotypes: Northern/Midwestern accents are considered "Standard" American English and are stereotypically associated with intelligence; Southern accents are stereotyped as rural, less intelligent, and nicer/friendlier. 1. Even young kids were aware of what the "standard" accent is: Northern (standard) accent is preferred for friendship, even among 5-6 year olds For kids in the South, the Southern accent is also reasonably standard, so the preference is weaker 2. Young (5-6yo) kids show minimal effect of the stereotypes that Northerners are smarter, Southerners are nicer; but 9-10 year olds show a clear stereotype pattern. Both Northern and Southern kids show stereotype response - this isn't just an ingroup/outgroup effect, it's an effect of standardness, status, and privilege 3. Relative to Northern kids, Southern kids think Southern accent is even "nicer" and smaller effect on "smarter": that's an ingroup-outgroup effect

Psychological formulation

An attempt to use psychological knowledge to understand the origins, mechanisms and maintenance of a person's problems. Hypothesis on "Why this person, with this problem, at this time?" Can be paired with a diagnosis or type of therapy or be used on its own

What is an attitude?

An attitude is a positive or negative feeling towards an "object".

Meta-attitudes

An attitude towards an attitude

Evidence for neuro location of thematic relations (word classes)

An fMRI study in neurologically healthy adults found that the temporal parietal cortex responds more strongly for verbs (which are inherently events) than for object nouns (like "crocodile" and "strawberry"), but it also responds strongly to event nouns like "hurricane".

What is missing from the five factor model?

Antisocial behaviours (Alienation, aggression, manipulation, cruelty, greed) Social dominance, competitiveness, ambition (Risk-taking, thrill-seeking, assertiveness; Especially those involving exertion of self-control) Morality, spirituality, religiosity, modesty Enjoyment Of solitude Distinction between positive emotion, sociality Distinction between reactivity, negative emotion Openness to ideas outside the 'mainstream' Psychopathology

Faceism

Archer et al, 1983 When face and body are pictured together - competence and intelligence are rated lower Opposite when face was pictured alone

Method of psychology

Ask questions about objects via methods Test hypotheses from existing theories

5 sessions in Beaches trials

Assessment and workability Openess Awareness Engagement Follow up

How did the 5 factor model come to be?

At a 1980 symposium where models were reviewed. Subjective af

Interpersonal influences on mental health

Attachment Family function / parenting Peer group influences Social support / connectedness

Why might we tend to towards a dual-process model for attitudes?

Attitudes are constantly conflicting

Study: Importance of impression formation from faces

Ballew and Todorov, 2008 People shown pictures of candidates for an upcoming election with no knowledge of them. Asked to rate their competence - this was predictive of election results

Forward model in articulatory action control

Before speech is produced the action plan (moving muscles in the vocal tract, tongue, lips etc) is simulated in the forward/internal model to catch and correct speech errors happens on multiple levels

Psychology before vs. after WWII

Before: Humanistic focus on happiness and giftedness After: Very disorder based More funding available

What are the sources of attitudes?

Behaviour (direct experience and mere exposure) Modelling (Society and social environment) Cognition (through consciously changing our thinking)

Multiple discrimination - resilience hypothesis

Being in a marginalised group/ experiencing multiple forms of discrimination leads to better coping strategies and thus more resilience

Outcome of Beaches Trial

Better quality of life for completing patients individual case data not ideal but qualitative comments were better

mental representation of syntactic structures - evidence from syntactic priming + ref

Bock, 1986 Paradigm: the participant hears and repeats a sentence, then they get a totally different picture and have to describe it. E.g. hear/repeat: "One of the fans punched the referee" or "The referee was punched by one of the fans" - syntactically different (active vs. passive) Then sees a picture to describe e.g. "Lightning hit the church" or "The church was hit by lightning" - syntactic choice will often reflect the syntax of the hear/repeat sentence This suggests that multiple syntactic structures are activated in parallel when we're thinking about how to describe an event, and priming can adjust which one is selected for production

Other cases of mere exposure

Both faces and words have been shown to be subject to the effect. i.e. we like them more the more familiar /exposed to them we've been Likewise, popularity of anti immigrant party UKIP is the largest in areas with the fewest immigrants

Evidence of simulation in neuro (motor cortex)

Brain regions that are involved in perception and action on objects are also involved in representing concepts: Actions involve motor cortex, and the motor cortex has a particular structure - leg representations are in the superior portion, arm representations are in the middle, and mouth representations are in the inferior portion. If you compare motor activation when participants read words like "kick" (leg-related), "pick" (arm-related), and "lick" (mouth-related), you see a consistent pattern with that specific part of motor cortex being most activated.

Syntactic priming in interactive alignment + ref

Branigan et al, 2007 Experiment setup: speaker, addressee (listener), sideparticipant; these roles rotated across trials The syntactic priming effect was larger when the participant was on the receiving end of the prime (the addressee) than when they were just overhearing it (sideparticipant). So it's not just a matter of hearing the prime structure, having the social role of that prime being directed at you increases the effect

Study: Differences in men's and women's preferences in a partner

Buss, 1989 Men tend to look more for attractive partners Women tend to look more for financially resourceful partners Leads to age preference difference (Men - younger women, women - older men) Context: Might be dependent on inequality!

How is the DSM-5 developed?

By task forces psychiatrists and psychologists Field testing was skipped for economic reasons Definitions are research and consensus based

CBT and positive psychology

CBT could become less focused on reducing symptoms and more on encouraging adaptive behaviour

Rethinking avoidance

CBT says: they must rid themselves of avoidance But limited forms of safety behaviour are acceptable and improve success rate Greater sense of coping and control - they are able to stay in the expsoure situation So we are moving away from this idea that all avoidance/safety behaviour is bad

What are the benefits of diagnosis

Can make sense - explain why the person has experiences the difficulties they have Reduce self blame - knowing that they're not stupid but have issues hindering them Can access services - having a diagnosis can help people access services more efficiently and is sometimes necessary to receive certain treatments

Early life stressors and mental health outcomes

Carr, Martins, Stingel, Lemgruber, and Juruena (2013) - physical abuse, sexual abuse, and unspecified neglect with mood disorders and anxiety disorders - emotional abuse with personality disorders and schizophrenia - physical neglect with personality disorders.

Early life stressors - predictive power

Carr, Martins, Stingel, Lemgruber, and Juruena (2013) The subtypes of ELS (sexual, physical and emotional abuse and physical neglect) are associated with several psychiatric disorders Strong associations between early life adversity and all forms of psychological disorder, in development, persistence and severity ELS subtypes in childhood and adolescence can predict the development of psychopathology in adults. Scientific evidence shows that ELS triggers, aggravates, maintains, and increases the recurrence of psychiatric disorders. Physical neglect had the weakest association between the subtypes.

fluid intelligence (misconception)

Cattell (1971) the ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences. The biologically limited capacity for processing information and we have tests that measure it

fourth law of behavioural genetics

Chabris et al. (2015): Most of human behavioural traits are associated with very many distinct allels and each accounts for a miniscule part of the variance (we cannot pinpoint traits genetically they are an interaction of several genes and environment = multifaceted)

Keys to psychological flourishing

Character and virtue - values, moral behaviour (pro-social behaviour) Stable resources - stable financial situation (back to macro features)

Thematic relations

Co-occurence in events, does not tend share features

Measuring implicit attitudes

Cognitive approach: Reaction time, matching tests, memory tests neuroscientific approach: brain scans of the limbic system (associated with affective response (=attitudes))

Cognitive biases through personality

Cognitive biases leading to psychological problems might be caused by underlying factors such as neuroticism

cognitive consistency (attitudes)

Cognitive dissonance - people get discomfort from mismatching attitudes or behaviour and attitudes. We can cognitively decide to change our attitude or behaviour to accommodate need for consistency

The buffering hypothesis

Cohen and Wilks 1985 a theory that social support produces its stress-busting effects indirectly by helping the individual cope more effectively Dependent on quality of social support rather than amount

Compassion based interventions

Compassion based interventions (to actiavte the self-soothing system) has a strong effect on reduction of psychopathology and lack of compassion It also reduces feelings of distress Superior to non-active but not active therapy Lack of compassion might be a consequence rather than causal

Concepts as a perceptual symbol system

Concepts are defined by perception and action features. So your concept of a "chair" is built from your actual experiences - looking at chairs, sitting on chairs, moving chairs, and so on. AKA "grounded" or "embodied" representation of concepts ( perceptual and action information connects the concepts in your mind with the real world)

Categorisation (how to stereotype)

Core process behind stereotyping By having categories for different groups and descriptions for people within each group, the cognitive effort can be largely reduced - like Pokemon; we remember types and what they can do but not necessarily individual ones

NIMH's Research Domain Criteria (RDoC)

Create new dimensions that emphasize neurobiological aspects of mental illness. Cutting across disorders as traditionally defined', with the intent of increasing innovation for the treatment of mental disorders

Why is not necessary for intelligence tests to test other aspects of intelligence?

Creativity, emotional intelligence, body awareness etc. all correlate with the traditional measures of intelligence

Contradiction of formulation and diagnosis

D - you have an illness based on bio causes F - you are experiencing a normal response to an abnormal situation

Terrible changes to the DSM-5: ADD

DSM 5 will likely trigger a fad of Adult Attention Deficit Disorder leading to widespread misuse of stimulant drugs for performance enhancement and recreation and contributing to the already large illegal secondary market in diverted prescription drugs.

Reference: Scottish Mental surveys 1939 and 1947

Deary, Whiteman, Starr, Whalley and Fox (2004)

sensory-functional distinction - example

Deficits can be category specific - some patients might struggle naming animals but name tools well and vice versa. This shows that concepts are simulated and that depending on the properties simulated deficits can target certain categories

Three systems of compassion focused therapy - Soothing system

Developed in mammals, develops through attachment Consistent and available caregiver leads to an internalisation through developing the soothing system North Europe culture - self-soothing has been downplayed and is not really seen as normal This can scare people off

What does it mean that intelligence has a reaction range?

Development of intelligence within the genetic potential is determined by how enriching the environment for the child will be.

Mendelian Genetics works best with

Dichotomous traits (either one or the other) in plants (stationary -> does not need to make decisions so genetically they are more simple)

What is the link between differential and developmental psychology?

Differences "develop". While traits such as personality and intelligence is believed to be relatively stable over time, a lot of these traits develop and is affected during childhood. Reference: Scarr & McCathy, 1983 (Genotype -> environment paper)

What is the statistical difference between differential psychology and other branches?

Differential psychology are interested in the variance of results rather than the mean. Other branches focus on the mean and treat variance as noise

Measurement issues - flourishing

Difficult to isolate specific elements to determine causality with mental wellbeing Measurement issue - operationalisation Not good mental health or physical health = you cannot be flourishing That seems contradictory

Token Identity Theory

Each instance (token) of a mental state is identical to a specific brain state. For example, my desire for a burger today is a specific brain state, your desire for a fish supper last week is another, and so on. However, this would mean that there are countless specific brain states, with no general laws to connect mental and physical events.

Multiple discrimination - cumulative risk hypothesis

Each type of discrimination experienced increases risk of poor outcomes

Changing explicit attitudes

Easier than implicit. State attitude is incorrect -> can lead to conflict which must be resolved (=cognitive dissonance)

Language change: The role of emoji

Emoji are gradually replacing slang because so much communication is now happening electronically Emoji also create new forms of expression that do not correspond directly to spoken or written language

What are the assumptions of heritability

Environment and genes act independently Parents breed randomly That environments treats people of different degrees of genetic relationship the same way to the same degree E.g. That identical twins are more likely to be treated similarly than fraternal (Studies does not show this)

The problem of everything

Everything causes everything: Some factors are not linked to specific disorders but rather to increase in risk of general mental health problems - e.g. The child adversity studies or social inequality Everyone has experienced everything: People rarely experience only one factor of increasing risk of mental health. Experienceing one type of adversity highly increase the risk of experiecing more Poverty - the cause of causes Everyone suffers from everything: Comorbidity - most mental health service users across diagnosis have the array of symptoms such as low mood, controlled eating, self harm, anxiety, distrust, low self-confidence and relationship difficulties Everything is a treatment for everything Drugs are not disorder specific Therapeutic relation seems more important than the type of therapy

Terrible changes to the DSM-5: Binge eating

Excessive eating 12 times in 3 months is no longer just a manifestation of gluttony and the easy availability of really great tasting food. DSM 5 has instead turned it into a psychiatric illness called Binge Eating Disorder.

How does the law of large numbers apply to sample representation?

Extreme cases are less likely when the number is large, however, only if each case is equally like to be in the pool. For research participation there is a massive skew in terms of the social status of the people participating and unless increasing the sample size also diversifies it, it is not necessarily an improvement

cognitive dissonance

Festinger, 1957 Favouring consistency between attitudes and between attitude and behaviour. When there is inconsistency we experience tension (=CD) which we then seek to resolve either by changing attitude or behaviour to accommodate consistency

ACT - openness interventions

Focus on accepting and not avoiding feelings Catch cognitive fusion: "I am having the thought that" and take a step back Singing or saying difficulties in a funny voice - a way to step outside themselves Visualisation: Leaves on a stream

Intrapersonal influences on mental health

Focus on psychological processes Personal historical factors Cognitive factors Behavioural factors

Formulation to intervention

Formulations are built collaboratively over time with a person They are not imposed They put meaning and understanding into problems and cycles They point at places to intervene both in therapy but also in teams and other agencies (e.g. police, housing service etc)

projective techniques

Free-form reactions/responses to ambiguous stimuli or situations Intended to reveal hidden emotions and internal conflicts Reactions/responses interpreted by test administrator - can be quantified by looking into what the participants say and how common this is

Critical period of language learning

From 6 - 13 the connections between the temporal lobe (language) and parietal lobe (spatial orientation) multiplies and then stop as the critical window for learning language closes due to cortical pruning and neural plasticity

syntax production deficits are associated with

Frontal temporal-parietal damage

cognitive dissonance and implicit attitudes

Gawaltsky and Strack - CD not good for changing implicit attitudes

Gender differences in variance

Girls are usually less varianced than boys

Arguments for social causation hypothesis

Global recessions lead to increased mental health issues - e.g. Higher suicide risk Marginalised groups suffers disproportionately Areas of high unemployment and social deprivation increases stress factor

Positive psychology interventions

Gratitude expression and writing Doing acts of kindness Positive future thinking Savouring the moment Meditations (loving kindness meditation) Fuller packages of psychotherapy (with positive focus)

Quasi-regularity in language - letter-sound correspondence in English spelling

HAVE and PINT are "exceptions", but they still have a lot of regularity, and even the irregularity is not completely random - it's a sub-regularity; these are quasi-regularities

Psychology through time - Applied psychology and education

Hall; 'Child Study Movement' (c.1891-1910) collected vast amounts of data on children via questionnaires, but it proved to be of little interest to the real world of education, where rapid expansion of the school system created a demand for knowledge that would inform administrative decisions about performance and efficiency. In the early twentieth century, however, the aims of educational psychology shifted to reflect the demands of administrators (i.e. the measurement and comparison of outcomes, and of the conditions in which the best results were obtained).

Theory specific formulation

Harder to integrate different elements Can be more precise Due to research base can be linked more strongly to a certain definition of evidence-based practice Can be limited by syndrome classification Can also be transdiagnostic

Why is correlational psychology helpful to experimental psychology?

Help understand limitations and skew of participant pool e.g for brain scans the most anxious people will not sign up making results about anxiety less useful

How do stereotypes help us

Helps us save cognitve resources Are useful when we are taxed A simplification of the world

How can we see the FFM works

High N and low A predict psychopathology (Existence Of much better than specific kinds) High C and O and low N predict educational achievement and attainment, work performance Low A predicts higher income High C predicts health But correlations are lower than those with intelligence

Objection to induction

Hume - we rely on inferences of causation rather than knowledge of it

Discrimination and mental health

Hypothesis - discrimination is associated with review of 12 studies from 2007 — 2013, Primarily cross sectional, with over 55 participants Discrimination associated with a range of diagnosed disorders (depression, anxiety, PTSD, eating disorders) Statistical controls for poverty, gender, ethnicity, etc Discrimination is associated with disorders

allophonic unimodal variation

If /ba/ and /pa/ is the same phoneme, i.e. if these sounds are not distinguished in a language, then the allophonic distribution is said to be unimodal

Evidence for the two-step interactive model of word production

If errors were just random phoneme substitutions, most errors would be nonwords, but there are actually very rare among real speech errors Semantic errors (cat → "DOG", which is semantically similar to cat) are much more common than would be expected by chance. That's evidence for the first step - an error in the semantic→lexical mapping would produce a different word that is semantically related to the target Mixed errors (cat → "RAT", which is both semantically and phonologically similar to cat) are even more common than would be expected from independent rates of semantic and phonological (formal) errors. These happen when a little semantic similarity (in the first step) is combined with a little phonological similarity (feedback in the second step)

allophonic bimodal variation

If two sounds are distinguished in a language speakers will produce two clusters of sounds - the allophonic variation is distributed bimodally

How can Mőbius strip be analogous to psychopathology?

If we assume that psychopathology is something categorically different from normality, i.e. not just extremely far from normal, the strip shows that once something meant to be 2-d is forced into 3-d it is bent and cannot go back. It is something forced out of it's natural dimensioned but twisted in the process

TPB - perceived behavioural control -> Intention -> behaviour

If you perceive that behaviour is controllable it will affect your intentions to control the behaviour or not If you perceive that you can stop smoking this will influence your intentions not to smoke.

Critiques of pathways of flourishing

Ignores research that gender differences in experience of marriage can attribute to different levels of wellbeing Equally it also ignores the well established research around the consequences of staying in an unhappy marriage Family function is more important than family structure - if divorce leads to better communication etc. This might be a better environment for the family to flourish

What is an inspection time test?

Image 1 - only showed briefly Image 2 - not timed You then have to say if the shorter line is on the left or right If they cannot guess it then they haven't processed it Not very reliable - scores over time are not related to a large extent

Dual-process model for attitudes

Implicit attitudes map onto Type 1 as they can be accessed quickly and easily, they are automatic, and unconscious. Explicit attitudes map onto Type 2 as they are slow and more difficult to access, are deliberate and conscious.

health anxiety

In DSM V "Illness anxiety disorder' — Preoccupation with having an illness — Excessive or disproportionate estimation of risk or severity — High level of anxiety — Excessive checking or reassurance seeking, or maladaptive avoidance (e.g. missing a routine check due to fear) — For at least six months (though focus of preoccupation may change over time)

Syntactic priming in structural alignment

In a conversation the use of a syntactic structure makes this structure more likely to reappear

MODE: motivation

In order to engage with explicit attitudes it must be worth the effort

MODE: Time

In order to engage with explicit attitudes we need enough time

Critiques of diagnostic systems

In other branches of medicine careful study of symptoms led to the identification of diseases and causes Our understanding of biological causes in psychiatric disorders is limited, so we don't know if the recurring patterns we see are actually discrete 'things'. E.g. comorbidity rates for anxiety and depression is very high, are these really separate? Unlike other branches of medicine there is no test to confirm

Taboo spoonerisms

In two studies, people were less likely to make the taboo spoonerism error (like COOL TITS) than a neutral one (like KIN TABLE) To avoid these speech errors, you have to know that you were about to make them. But that's not what you were intending to say anyway - errors are (by definition) unintended. This shows that there is some specific regulation involved

Pidgin language

Inconsistent language environment leads to merging of different languages into one

Infants prefer attractiveness

Infants can detect and prefer to look at attractive compared to unattractive faces

Relative stability of intelligence

Intelligence does have quite a bit of relative stability; At least as measured. In LBC21, correlation between ages Il and 90 was .67 But average scores at age 79 were 13 higher than at age 11, 2 points by age 90

How does personality and intelligence interact?

Intelligence help shape our personality, and personality might shape how we use intelligence

What is the main difference between definitions of intelligence and of personality?

Intelligence is seen as inherent and unitary whereas personality multifactored and affected by development

How does stress affect the validity of intelligence tests?

Intelligence is tested in situations many find intimidating Questions and problems posed by trained assessors to individuals Paper-and-pencil presentations to individuals or large groups of people Computer presentations to individuals or large groups Those with less confidence in ability more likely to be intimidated — In general, some stress is motivating and improves performance, but too much hinders it

What is the difference between the level of performance measured by personality and intelligence tests?

Intelligence test -> maximum performance Personality test -> average/typical performance

ICD-11

International Classification of Diseases (WHO) covers both medical and psychological disorders

Why is the extraversion trait problematic?

Introversion is put a the (negative) opposite but this is not the case. Likewise, being introverted is measured by things like liking people and absence of extraversion. This is not the case, introversion simply imply an ability to enjoy solitude.

Intrusive repetitive thinking: worry and rumination

Intrusive repetitive thinking is cross-diagnostic Rumination - more linked to depressive disorders

How does the bobo doll help explain genetics in psychological traits?

It has a weighted bottom, i.e. when there is no environmental influence it will stand up right. But if continuously pushed it might start to lean (i.e. we have a genetically induced preferences but powerful environmental influences can affect this)

Difference between mood fluctuations and depression

It is a spectrum of more or less severity, the diagnostic distinction is drawn at functioning but the actual difference between mood changes and sustained mood change is arbitrary

Why was DSM-5 rushed?

It is a stream of income and due to delays from disorganisation it was rushed as money was running low

Why is the openness trait problematic?

It is conceptually a snob scale. I.e. Specified to highly educated, intellectually engaged and cultured higher economic layers

Profanity syntax regularities - Number words

It's also possible to replace the "a" with "one" to get "I don't give one f*ck" without changing the meaning The number words in these sentences are not meant literally, but also not exactly idiomatically or metaphorically: you can replace one number with another without really changing the meaning, but only some numbers work.

Why do intelligence tests "work"?

Jobs are increasingly intellectually complex (We're automating away many simpler ones) Society rewards educational achievement (Both financially and socially, Starting from young childhood - At least in higher-SES groups) Parents pass both genes and 'educational culture' to children Financial resources buy healthy lifestyles and cultural access (piano lessons, test preps, etc. Reinforced by SES-related access to health and cultural knowledge and social support (peers, 'special ed'))

When does joint intention and attention develop?

Joint intention and attention, i.e. the ability to share mental states intentionally, develops right before language at around 14 months

Study: How we convey information (stereotypes)

Kashima, 2000 Broken telephone on individual description Results: At first stereotype inconsistent information was more likely to be passed on (presumably because it was surprising. But along the chain the stereotype consistent information survived the best

Friendship preference study + ref - language + race

Kinzler et al, 2009 In this experiment, 5-year-old monolingual (American) English-speaking children (predominantly White) saw two faces and heard a recording for each one, then had to answer "which do you want to be friends with?" Experiment 3: no recording (silent), native accent, or foreign accent Finding: If no recording (silent), children prefer same-race (white). But once the kids open their mouths, the native accent preference overwhelms the race preference - the kids prefer to be friends with someone different-race as long as they have a native accent

Friendship preference study + ref - language only

Kinzler et al, 2009 In this experiment, 5-year-old monolingual (American) English-speaking children (predominantly White) saw two faces and heard a recording for each one, then had to answer "which do you want to be friends with?" Experiment 1: recordings were native language (English), foreign language (French), or native language with native or foreign (French) accent Finding: Children prefer speakers of their native language, and native accent

Optimality in language

Language is balance between maximising precision and minimising abstraction i.e. a trade off between iconicity (easier to learn) and abstraction (conveys more information)

linguistic symbols are abstracted

Language is not iconic but also not arbitrary This is clear from two examples 1. Sign language has varying degree of iconicity, the more iconic signs are easier to learn than the arbitrary ones 2. Some basic vocabulary have above change commonalities across languages e.g. red starts with an r in 35 % of languages (twice the probability of r occurring in a random word by chance), or nose starting with n.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Languages has different labels for concepts which might affect perception of concepts

Lingua Franca - complexity

Languages that are far below the diagonal - that is, they have particularly low complexity - tend to be "lingua francas", like English, which is spoken by many people as a second (or nonnative) language.

Role of trauma in mental health problems

Large body of research agrees that trauma play a large role in mental health disorders

Norms affecting psychology - race

Late nineteenth century: Francis Galton argued that the human species could be improved via selective breeding (eugenics). This might be achieved through encouraging the most able people to marry ('positive eugenics'), or by discouraging (or preventing) the least able from reproducing ('negative eugenics'). Created early mental tests, and statistical techniques for assessing correlations between different groups. In the United States, many prominent psychologists expressed eugenicist views, and regarded non-white people as less evolved, in a state of 'arrested development', and naturally inferior in intellect. From the 1920's, a growing number of American psychologists began to take an interest in racial prejudice, as a way to explain social differences, rather than biological ones.

Moderating effect of social support for perceived stigma of mental health

Less stigmatised view on mental health -> better mental health Social support mediates the relationship Negative association with mental health problems - withdraw from social groups -> reduce social support and its positive effect

Language as a social marker study + ref - adults

Lev-Ari & Keysar, 2010 adult participants made truth ratings about trivia statements (like "ants don't sleep") The ratings were lower when speaker had accent, equally for "mild" accents and "heavy" accents If participants were instructed that the experiment is about difficulty understanding accented speakers, then mild accent becomes discounted (now equally credible to native accent), but heavy accent still has effect Trivia statements *sound less true* when spoken with a foreign accent

Critics of the 5 factor model

Lexical hypothesis is more about socialisation than biology — Can derive five factors in many other cultures, but specifics differ Model — Derived without underlying theory — Derived using subjective methods — Saturated with social desirability — Has 'cloudy', very broad trait definitions masking lack Of consensus

Traits people seek in a partner

Like any other relation - kindness, friendliness, etc. + ATTRACTIVENESS

How taboo errors are regulated

Like normal error the forward model regulates errors related to profanity. The studies are good evidence of its existence

Regional variation in profanity

Like other aspects of language, swearing exhibits regional variation. Can use these patterns to make a regional dialect map based on just swear words. This map is actually pretty similar to regional dialect maps *not* based on swear words. That is to say that regional variation in swearing seems to pattern with other aspects of regional dialect variation.

4 pathways flourishing

Longitudinal, cross sectional and experimental research support each of the four Each of these areas contributes to satisfaction, wellbeing, quality of life, good health, life meaning

Lesion method

Look at patterns deficits following brain damage, often focusing on how the location of brain damage determines what kind of deficit will occur TSM - "virtual lesion"

Study: Faceism and humanity

Loughnan et al., 2010 Picture of either face, body or face+body They perceived someone to be less human when body was included or only shown

learnability vs expressive power in real life + ref

Lupyan and Dale, 2010 If learners fail to learn the hardest and least useful aspects of a language, then languages should get simpler as the number of learners gets bigger What they found: Languages spoken by more people had simpler inflectional morphology (that's things like suffixes for past tense and plurals, and case marking to distinguish subjects and objects in a sentence) Similar pattern if you group languages by continent

Study: Language and visual awareness

Lupyan and Ward, 2013 The study had three experiments with interocular rivalry ( showing different stimuli to each eye) where one stimulus was continuous flash suppression (CFS) i.e. flashing light, and the other was an object. The other stimulus was an object. The experimenters provided labels which either matched or didn't match the object stimulus. Results: Under all experiments providing labels increased accuracy without increasing false alarms The las experiment showed that shapes closer to the prototype of the label benefitted from the correct label and intermediate shapes benefited from both

Study: Saving cognitive energy through stereotyping

Macrea et al, 1994 Two tasks: 1. Listen to personality descriptions 2. Listen to information about Indonesia Half the participants were provided category labels What they found: Participants had freed cognitive resources when labels were provided, they performed better when recalling traits and also on information about Indonesia

Study: Stereotyping helps process information quickly

Macrea, Bodenhaus, and Milne, 1995 Lexical decision task (word or non-word) Participants were either primed to think about Chinese or women and watched a video of a Chinese woman to reinforce. What they found: Participants were faster at identifying words within their prime - i.e. it is faster to think within category boundaries

Distributional learning + ref

Maye et al (2002;2008) 6-8 month-old infants were exposed to either bimodal or unimodal distributions of different sounds. Then the infants did a preferential looking habituation task: they heard the same sound over and over, which gets boring so they look at it less and less. At a critical moment, the sound changes. For the unimodal infants, it came from the other side of the one cluster; for the bimodal infants, it came from the other cluster. Only these bimodal infants showed dishabituation - they found that new sound interesting and looked back at it. This shows that infants use the fine-grained distribution of sounds to figure out the phoneme categories in their language.

Lack of memory bias in anxiety disorders

Memory is unbiased in anxiety disorders

Problems with functionalism - intentionality

Mental phenomena, unlike physical phenomena, are always about something. We have thoughts, beliefs and memories about things. Physical phenomena merely are what they are: they are not about anything. Even a book, which one might think is about something, is itself nothing more than some squiggles on paper. It is only about something via human involvement, who created the language that gives meaning to these squiggles, and who use them to express thoughts about things. Thus, so far as a book (or a birthday card, or a road sign) has intentionality, it is derived from the intentionality of people. Physical phenomena have no intentionality themselves. In short, intentionality is the 'mark of the mental'

Definitions of personality that sees it as developing/actively shaped

Mischel et al, 2004 "A set of individual differences that are affected by the development of an individual: values, attitudes, personal memories, social relationships, habits, and skills"

Why is masculinity not clearly correlated with attractiveness?

Most attractive - masculinity with a bit femininity Some research suggests this is bc feminine traits are associated with positive traits such as subjugation

Why do we need swear words when there are non-profane equivalent?

Most swear words have non-profane equivalents, so the literal meaning is not the critical issue Some words are not socially acceptable, they evoke a stronger emotional/physiological response (pupil dilation) The difference is the pragmatic meaning: Swear words are much more deeply emotional than their non-profane equivalents, so they allow us to express emotion and elicit emotion in the listener in ways that non-swear words do not

The effect of multiple discrimination

Multiple discrimination / intersectionality — Systematic review, 40 studies — Depression and anxiety most common outcome but others studied too — Strong evidence for cumulative risk and weak evidence for resilience — Methodololical flaws outlined, but even in the stronger studies racism and heterosexism particularly associated with outcomes (Vargas and Miranda, 2020)

Structure of impressions - traditional view

Negative impression would indicate low scores on each subcomponent

Evidence for semantic hubs: Semantic dementia

Neurologically, the anterior temporal lobes are most strongly affected, and also a modality invariant semantic hub. Patients with semantic dementia have pronounced semantic deficits across all modalities (visual, auditory, action; verbal and non-verbal) and categories (animals, tools, etc). Given the sensory functional distinction we could not explain this without the presence of semantic hubs

Qualitative change

No common measuring rod new capacities emerging or disappering (new kinds of representations)

Is language = communication? Which examples are given?

No, there is an overlap between language and communication, but both concepts have unique components as well. Bees use waggles of their hind bodies to indicate where there is nectar to the hive. Mosquitoes use heat detection to find blood vessels. Monkeys have different alarm calls for different types of threats - we would not consider this equivalent to human language although it is communication

Are impressions accurate?

No, they are unstable, while political conservatism has been shown to be judged from faces this might be due to other cues such as gender or skin colour. Todorov et al 2014 - our impression reverses when one person smiles and the other does not I.e. our impressions are inaccurate and unstable and they tend to change as we acquire more information

Are the five factor traits really independent?

Nope, they correlate with .3 - .5 percent

Terrible changes to the DSM-5: Depression

Normal grief will become Major Depressive Disorder, thus medicalizing and trivializing our expectable and necessary emotional reactions to the loss of a loved one and substituting pills and superficial medical rituals for the deep consolations of family, friends, religion, and the resiliency that comes with time and the acceptance of the limitations of life. (A clause was removed that depression following the loss of loved one could not be clinically diagnosed)

Biases in explicit memory for negative self related information in depression

Not often focused on threat stimuli (though depression and anxiety usually are comorbid) Negative self-related information is remembered better Mood acts as memory cue to other times you felt similar -> self-perpetuating They will have a harder remembering good memories

What is an attitude object?

Nouns, verbs, sensory qualities, concrete and abstract objects, actions and attitudes

Basic level

Novel labels tend to be applied to "basic" level concept (as opposed to subordinate or superordinate) Notion of a "basic" level is a bit vague; at best, it has to do with "coherent covariation" - features that tend to go together, but that takes time and experience to learn Category calibration (is "dog" my Labrador, or all dogs, or all 4-legged animals?) is a key part of conceptual development

Is intelligence inherent and stable?

Obviously not literally true; Babies can't reason or 'figure thirngs out' as adults do. That is, intelligence develops — we need to understand how. It is (relatively) stable in relative terms, but that this is due to an inherent capacity is a large assumption

Bullying and mental health

Overt bullying strongly linked to later mental health, but so too is frequent teasing (no physical harm) Teasing and bullying is also more likely to children of lower SES

what are the practical limitations of representative sampling

Participation is voluntary - certain types are more likely to participate (female, educated, healthy etc.) Eligibility criteria to participate - e.g. if you need to be above 80 then the people are did not make it might systematically differ which is not accounted for.

Compassionate mind training

Paul Gilbert Found that group of depression clients reacted badly to CBT approaches - very shame prone and self-critcal Development of shame and self-critism Draws on the evolutionary psychology of social mentalities or social rank theory Human beings have evolved in highly organised social groups. Makes us very concerned about our place in group -> social mentalities Uses this to train a more self soothing and self-kindly stance by Buddhist principles

Study: Harmful stereotyping (weapon identification task)

Payne and colleagues Task: They would see the following series of images 1. a picture of a white or African American man 2. a picture of a gun or a tool 3. a masking image They then had to decide if they'd seen a gun or tool. What they found: Black faces were much more likely to induce a weapon response when they had to be fast -> misidentification effect Smaller but still present effect when decisions were slow

Cognitve model of panic disorders

People experience internal or external trigger Misinterpret physiological and cognitive symptoms -> I'll have a panic attack, I'll die etc Results in safety behaviour - By avoiding the outcome they maintain the misbelief and catastrophise normal physiological responses

Cheerleader effect

People look individually more attractive when in group Why? When looking at a group we take a cognitive short cur and average the faces of the group. By assimilation each person becomes more attractive - they're closer to the average

social drift hypothesis

People with mental health problems have a hard time functioning in normal society (e.g. Keeping employment) -> drift into a state of poverty i.e. mental health problems cause poverty

TPB - perceived behavioural control -> behaviour

Perceived behavioural control also influences your behaviour directly. If there are no cigarettes in the house, then you can't smoke regardless of your intentions.

Social exclusion and poverty stigma

Perceptions of people in poverty are extremely negative Stereotypes abound and are harmful (Lazy, self-centered, lack of warmth, impulsive/impatient) Stigma can be internalised Childhood poverty is particularly damaging - Associated with other sources of influences on mental health

Why does the FFM works in terms of prediction?

Personality does influence Our life choices and behaviours — And behaviour matters Very broad factors, cloudy definitions that do still tap into psychologically relevant areas Saturation with social desirability (People who behave in socially desirable ways tend to 'succeed' and experience 'easier' lives) Content overlap between items and outcomes e.g. Low C predicts obesity simply because of items relating to impulsive eating

Personality definitions that sees personality as inherent

Pervin and John, 1999

Study: ELM

Petty and Cacioppo, 1983 males attitudes towards razor manipulations: 1. involvement - sold in their hometown (high involvement) or sold outside their hometown (low involvement) 2. Argument - strong argument vs weak argument for razor's quality (central route) 3. endorsed by either famous or non-famous person (peripheral cue) Results: When involvement was low, the choice was dominated by implicit attitude (i.e. more positive when a person was famous vs. non famous) When we considered the strength of message and involvement, the central route was activated (i.e. they always preferred the stronger argument regardless of involvement)

Phoneme

Phonemes are abstract units of speech: they are defined in terms of "minimal pairs" -- the smallest unit that will change one word into a different word

Broaden and Build Theory (Fredrickson)

Positive emotion -> attention broaden -> more likely to engage in exploratory behaviour -> more positive emotion Positive spiral Negative emotions makes us more likely to shut off from new experiences making us less likely to effectively solve problems

Balanced positive psychology - Balance between conscious and unconscious phenomena

Positive psychology is overly based on self report - neglects unconscious phenomena - and cognitive phenomena are very influential on our mental states

syntax comprehension deficits are associated with

Posterior temporal-parietal damage

Precedent - common ground

Precedent for the common ground is created when a referent is first referred to it can then be maintained or broken when precedent has been made it is expected to be maintained by the person who introduced it but not by other speakers (Kronmuller and Barr, 2015

Five P's formulation

Predisposing factor - things that made the person vulnerable Historical, contextual Macro: culture, society, economic situation Micro: Family, upbring Precipitating factors: triggers, the things that led to the immediate onset of the particular problem Perpetuating factors - maintenance cycles; housing situation, environment features leading to perpetuating factors (harrassment, feeling unsafe) Can be internal - withdrawing from conflict, not leaving the house Protective factors - strength and ressources Things that can help solve the problems already avaliable to the patient Social netowrk etc

CBT formulation

Predisposing factors: Early life events -> core beliefs(might be distorted) -> conditional assumptions Precipitating factors: critical incident triggering a reaction based on predisposing factors. Reaction: Negative automatic thought; emotions, behaviours, physiological symptoms Advantages - specifies where intervention could be made

Stereotypes are independent of

Prejudice, valence, accuracy, and discrimination

Does the Flynn effect show actual improvement in intelligence?

Probably, there are several reasons why IQ tests scores might gone up: 1. Education and test familiarity (education is more wide spread and more closely related to the way we measure IQ) 2. Cultural saturation in abstract thinking? (Our environment today is much more cognitively stimulating with computes games and technology, and more challenging jobs) 3. Better nutrition (Height has a Flynn Effect too, but so does (excess) weight) 4. Better health care, especially neonatal (So chances of intellectual disability lower and lower scores rarer ) 5. Tighter connection between test scores and Opportunity?

Balanced positive psychology - balance as complementary

Psych should move away from focus on single processes and recognise that they're overlapping That balance is not only between 2 ends of the spectrum but also balance between variables Combinations of positive and negative emotions improves outcomes of therapy

Lucy Johnstone: Psychological vs psychiatric formulation

Psychiatric formulation = addition to diagnosis Psychological formulation = alternative to diagnosis Psychiatrists practicing formulation risks neglecting actual trauma and still focusing on diagnosis Good formulations are not based on diagnosis - When we have a good formulation diagnosis becomes redundant

Psychology through time - Propaganda

Psychological knowledge about how to persuade others, or how to identify those suitable for particular tasks, obviously had a larger audience. The same techniques that worked in advertising were also used for the purposes of propaganda during the First World War

How can we talk about continuous traits in terms of genetic

Psychological traits are continuous; they are multi facetted and consists of genes with several alleles Affected by the interaction of genes and environment

Balanced positive psychology - Balance as a tempered view of constructs

Psychology should acknowledge that negative emotion is not bad and positive emotion is not good - Too much positive affect = more stereotyping, gullibility, selfishness, proneness to cog biases, critical thinking - Small amounts of negative affect - less bias, increased politeness and greater fairness Study of positive psych should be more nuanced and focus less on only positive affect

Common quasi-regularities

Quasi-regular polyhedron has exactly two kinds of faces: it's not perfectly regular, but it's not completely unstructured either Scatterplot is similarity patterns among different kinds of trees

indeterminacy of reference + ref

Quine, 1960 When hearing an unknown the problems lies not only in processing the word but understanding what the word is referring to

Define 'rank order'. What does it say about correlation and 'relative stability'?

Rather than looking at changes within an individual we can see whether the rank order of the ability changes - i.e. Is the smartest boy in 6th grade still the smartest in 9th grade. Relative stability means exactly that even though traits might vary over the lifespan the rank order stays intact.

Evidence of iterated learning creating language structure

Recreating language evolution in the lab 1. Partcipants learn a miniture artificial language 2. Test them 3. Use their output at test as training for the next participants 4. Creating a chain of transmission of language Start with unstructured language Does structure evolve on its own? An example A langauge made of up 3 shapes, 3 colours, 3 movements -> 27 combinaitons First generations did terrible - never a single word right on the test after training After 10 generations they would get words right without being tested -> they could predict the answer To create pressure of communication a filter must be fitted to get rid of ambiguous terms between generations

Study: Importance of warmth in impression formation

Ref: Asch, 1946 List are the same aside from cold vs. warm List 1 person was more liked, which implies that our impression are based on warmth

Structure of impressions - Stereotype Content model + ref

Ref: Fiske et al., 2002 Warmth and competence are central, but warmth is most important Morality is a subcomponent of warmth

Content of impression

Valence (positive or negative impressions) Judgement of intention (Good or bad person = morality) Judgement of ability (competent or incompetent person = competence) Judgement of sociability (friendly or unfriendly person = warmth)

What is the best distinction of factors of intelligence?

Verbal and spatial intelligence

The Beaches Trials

Brief engagement and acceptance coaching in community and hospice settings

Study: Top 3 most desirable characteristics in a partner

Buss, 1989 Collected from 37 countries, mostly people under 30 1. Warmth kindness (reflects impression content; warmth and morality) 2. Intelligence (competence) 3. Interesting personlity

Development

something growing/shrinking in size or becoming more or less advanced or mature; emergence of something new

Psychological description

Any description we use to refer to a mental phenomenon is a representation. It represents a specific aspect of the mind in a particular way

Which impairment has the most negative impact on reported quality of life? (Aphasia, cancer, Alzheimer's disease)

Aphasia (langauge deficits due to brain damage)

The Flynn Effect

IQs have increased steadily from one generation to the next averaging at 3 IQ points per decade

ELM central route

Mindful processing of message qualities Leads to long-lasting change Takes motivation and time

ACT - awareness interventions

Mindfulness meditation Raisin exercise (savour and focus on eating one single raisin) Daily dairy tracking psychological flexibility Paying attention while doing three tasks

Frequent frames + ref

Mintz, 2003 Syntactic frames where distributional information is very consistent. Used to learn grammatical categories Categorisation accuracy for a word in a frequent frame is over 90 %

CBT approach to Trauma

Simplified cognitive behavioural model of PTSD Visicous cycle - unprocessed memories -> continued appraisal of extreme threat

Attractiveness - sexual dimorphism; Feminine traits

Smaller chin, higher cheekbones, fuller lips (on average of course)

Freud looked into psychopathologies relevant to the constraints of victorian times, how does this relate to mental health issues today?

Societal norms definitely have a role to play in the medicalisation of mental health and the rise of depression and anxiety. We have become more entitled to well-being and a massive responsibility has been put on our own efforts in terms of success

Why do we stereotype - meaning making

Tajfel and Turner, 1970's - 90's Psychological process by which we make meaning of the world Part of social identity approach- social identity theory and self-categorisation theory We use stereotyping to understand ourselves in the context of groups

Power Threat Meaning Framework

Takes the macrolevel influences on mental health into a workable framework

Do chimps have theory of mind?

Yes, if they know occluded food has not been seen by a dominant chimp subordinates will go for it, but not if they know the dominant chimp has seen

What are the problems with TPB?

i.e. we will use explicit attitudes

Why must linguistic symbols be abstracted

iconicity provides a bridge from experience to language, it makes the symbols easier to learn; but an iconic inventory would be too limited, so language needs to abstract away from pure iconicity, though the symbols retain some of that iconicity

Sentence parsing

identification of a sentence's component elements and their grammatical relation to one another

Hemispherical location of profanity /emotional response

language processing tends to be left-lateralized. The emotional, pragmatic, and social functions of profanity might be the right hemisphere is more involved. Evidence: 1. Left hemisphere damage - aphasia - can severely impair most language, but swearing is sometimes preserved after brain damage. 2. TMS inhibition right frontal region; eliminated the pupil response for taboo words (analogous left hemisphere stimulation did not have this effect)

Individual differences in profanity use are related to

personality factors like hostility/agreebleness, sexual anxiety, and religiosity

Higher-level planning like sequencing and control (brain regions)

primarily involve the frontal lobe

Parallelism (substance dualism)

the mind and brain are independent (they do not interact), but are merely in synch with each other (i.e. parallel) Problem: how can we explain the correlation?

Epiphenomenalism (Substance Dualism)

the mind and brain do interact, but only in one direction. The mind is an epiphenomenon of the brain, much like steam from a kettle; the brain causes the mind Problem: Meta-cognition how can we think and talk about thoughts?

Norms affecting psychology - gender

1880:Women were viewed as physiologically weaker, less intelligent, more emotional etc. and psychological research reflected this: Women were claimed to have smaller brains, weaker nervous systems and less developed frontal lobes 1914: Hollingsworth - claimed no such thing could be found in the data and de-biasing towards women of psychology began

genetic relatedness and correlation of IQ - third-degree

12.5 % gr, IQ correlates with 15 %

social causation hypothesis

Distress associated with poverty causes mental health problems (i.e. poverty cause mental health issues)

Todorov study - trustworthy faces

Faces are perceived as more trustworthy when thye look more feminine, looks younger, lighter skin, positive emotion

Todorov study - threatening faces

Faces are perceived to be more threatening when they are more mature, masculine, darker skin, and displaying negative emotion

five conditions that should be met to believe we've measured something well

1. Repeated measure should give the same result (intelligence and aggression is context dependent, the latter more so) 2. Measurement invariance - the same measuring method will mean the same for different people (racial differences in IQ - might be due to differences in social opportunity; aggression across sexes - women are more socially aggressive, men more physically aggressive) 3. standard procedure. We assess what we mean to 4. Different types of measuring methods for the same construct should agree (e.g. intelligence tests tend to correlate. Measures of aggression also correlates but less) 5. Free from bias (e.g. testing immigrants' intelligence on language or culture specific subjects= bias)

What makes a face attractive?

1. Symmetry 2. Averageness 3. Sexual dimorphism

Why does phonetic/phonological variation contribute most to social marking in language?

1. it is more frequent - it's present on most words, not just specific lexical items or syntactic structures 2. it is slower to acquire and more difficult to fake, so it is a more reliable marker of strength/duration of association. We can acquire words from different dialects but easily fake the phonology 3. if the lexicon and grammar become too different, then communication will just break down; but phonology can vary quite a bit (in the context of a shared lexicon and grammar) before communication breaks down

genetic relatedness and correlation of IQ - MZ twins

100 % gr, Iq correlates with 85 %

genetic relatedness and correlation of IQ - second-degree

25 % gr, IQ correlates with 30 %

genetic relatedness and correlation of IQ -1st degree (siblings)

50 % gr, IQ correlates with 45 %

MHC (major histocompatibility complex)

A collection of cell surface markers that identify the cells as self; no two people, except identical twins, have the same of these kind of markers

mental health problem

A collection of experiences (emotions, perceptions, judgements, thoughts, physiological sensations, urges motivations and behaviours) that cause distress or difficulties in daily living

Swearing in sign language

A lot of swearing in sign language is based on modification: adding an angry (or joking) expression, signing more aggressively, or changing the hand-shape to middle finger

lol - Pragmatic Particle

A marker of sympathy rather than an actual expression of laughing

Kuhn's criterion for science

A method/paradigm

Semantic hub

A semantic hub is a central convergence zone where features are integrated.

Spoonerism

An accidental but humorous distortion of words in a phrase formed by interchanging the initial sounds

Dualism

Both the reality of the mind and matter exist

Quantitative change

Can be measured with a common measuring rod Implies difference in magnitude (number of representations)

Crystallised intelligence (misconception)

Cattell (1971) Crystallized intelligence is accuracy and amount of information available for processing perceptions and we have tests that measure it

Reference - five factor model

Costa & McCrae, 1985

What happens when a construct is operationalised?

Error is introduced. This happens to a larger extent for more abstract concepts

What is the biggest issue with the DSM-5

Experts fear diagnostic hyperinflation medicalisation of normal human experience - "ascribing a process as one of medicalisation immediately casts it as 'suspect'"

Impression formation from faces

Faces are central to processing people and our attention are naturally drawn to them. We use them to form impressions

syntactical development - Roger Brown

Five stages from around 15 months to about 2.5 years old kids mostly just produce content words and start combining them into little 2-word phrases, though there is not much syntactic structure From 2.5 to 4 years old they gradually start using markings like plural -s and past tense -ed, kids also start using prepositions like in and on, various forms of "to be", and make little sentences

Macrolevel influences on mental health

Focus on justice; Poverty Social Exclusion Discrimination Multiply discriminated identities

Profanity syntax regularities - negation

Negation somehow doesn't change the meaning of some swears

What did the SMS show in terms of development of intelligence?

One of the first findings of the Flynn effect -> that the average intelligence increases slightly for each generation

Materialism (monism)

Only matter

Idealism (Monism)

Only mind

Monistic views of the mind

Only mind or matter. I.e. we either have a mind or a brain

Profanity syntax regularities - Grammatical operations allowed

Other grammatical operations, which are usually not allowed, are somehow allowed for profanities: English generally doesn't allow in-fixing (we have pre-fixes and suffixes, but no in-fixes), but in-fixing certain swear words is grammatical

TPB - Intention -> behaviour

Our intentions predict our behaviour

What does heritability apply to

Populations - not individuals!

Study: Theory of Planned behaviour

Reference: Armitage & Conner, 2001

personality inventory

Self-reports of how well presented statements or adjectives apply to respondents (Statements/adjectives selected to cluster around theoretically defined fundamental characteristics, with scores sums of clustered responses) Reports of close others about relevance of statements/adjectives to specific people of interest

Cortical organisation of sentence processing

Sentence planning: frontal lobe Phonological/articulatory planning: Inferior parietal lobe, "dorsal stream" Syntax (linear-to-hierarchical transformation): posterior temporal / inferior parietal Lexical-semantics: Anterior temporal lobe

sensory-functional distinction

Some concepts like animals are defined by sensory features (what they look/smell/sound like) and other concepts like tools are defined by their functional properties (what we use them for)

Categorical perception

The ability to perceive sounds as belonging to different phoneme categories (e.g. that ability to differentiate between /p/ and /b/) Sound is continuous but we perceive it categorically. When in steps going for the transition from a very clear /p/ to a very clear /b/ there is a lot of intermediate states where we cannot hear the difference until the boundary is crossed and we clearly hear the difference

Why is the Lothian Birth Cohort studies a good differential study?

The childhood intelligence test were very close to population representative They were able to access 99 % of the people still alive They had access to several cohorts to verify findings

How can we show genes are not deterministic?

The first cloned cat look nothing like its sire

What is Five-Factor 'Theory'?

The five factors reflect five independent traits The biological (genetic) contributions to these traits are fixed and stable after about age 30 These traits exert directly causal influences on behaviour that maintain stability; environment produces short-term variance Biological 'seeds' Of these traits present from birth The model can incorporate all aspects of personality if we construct a hierarchy of measurement detail

lexical hypothesis

The idea that, if people find something is important, they will develop a word for it, and therefore the major personality traits will have synonymous terms in many different languages. (Allport, Odbert, 1936)

Cognitive processes and mental health disorders

The information processing is biased somehow which can lead to mental health issues such as anxiety

Cartesian Dualism (Substance Dualism)

The mind and matter are distinct substances that interact with each other. Problem: How dos material and immaterial substances interact?

Functionalism

The mind is what the brain does Became common definition of the mind with the computer metaphor

Norm of reaction

The range of phenotypes produced by a single genotype, due to environmental influences. I.e. while certain phenotypes are more common to a genotype it produces a normal distribution across a trait

Balanced positive psychology - Balance as contextual sensitivity

The right thing to do is always affected by context- i.e. More contextual sensitivity Cultural differences in how negative and positive phenomenon operate

Social drift vs. social causation

The social causation hypothesis have the strongest evidence

Action and motor control (brain regions relevant to language)

There's a frontal-parietal system for making coordinated movements with the limbs, and for language actions

How can we show intelligence tests work despite their limitations

They predict (very well by psychological standards): — Educational achievement and attainment — Job performance (Especially for complex jobs requiring autonomous decision-making) — Attained social class and socioeconomic status — Income and financial resources — Health — Longevity — Unemployment, divorce, out-of-wedlock birth, incarceration, receipt of public benefits, school dropout (lower intelligence)

Why do we study speech errors?

They reveal the way speech planning works: you can only make an anticipatory (or exchange) error if you've planned a few words ahead articulatory planning occurs at multiple levels (scales) simultaneously and these levels mutually constrain one another (top-down + bottom-up) Scales: General concept <--> syntactic frame <--> phrase and word selection <--> syllabic and phonological planning <--> articulation -> when an error occur on one scale the others persist

Property dualism

Treats one as substance but not the other. e.g. the Brain is a substance with physical and mental properties (=the mind) Substance monists but dualists

Misconception: DZ twins share 50 % of their genes

Truth: All humans share 99.5 % of their genes - DZ share 50 % of those variance inducing 0.5 %

first law of behavioural genetics

Turkheimer (2000): All human behavioural traits are heritable

second law of behavioural genetics

Turkheimer (2000): Genetic influences are stronger than shared environmental influences

ACT - engagement interventions

Two sided coin metaphor - hurt is necessary for care Sweet spot exercise - imagine/remember where they were really happy full of joy - to reconnect them with what they care about, how can we get more of it rather than worrying about losing it Qualities of our heroes/heroines exercise Generating actions - Things to help you do the things you care about, small things or big things Making public commitment SMART goals (Specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time limited)

Competence (stereotype content model)

Typical traits: Competent, intelligent, able Measures: ability Reflects: A person's ability to enact those intentions (reflected in warmth)

Warmth (stereotype content model)

Typical traits: Warm, friendly, helpful Measures: Pro-sociality Reflects: the intentions someone has towards us

Five common ways to measure intelligence

Vocabulary (Relations among words — Similarities, analogies, opposites) Identifying sequence progressions — Of numbers, letters, figural configurations Short-term and working memory — Lists of digits, unrelated words; keeping track of one thing while doing another Speed of very simple processing — Identifying or coding symbols; reaction, inspection times Ability to visualise transformation of shapes and figures The two last ones have low correlations with other intelligence measures and over time

What 'sorts' of people tend to be more difficult to recruit into scientific studies? Why might that be?

Vulnerable groups of people, less privileged, more physically immobile, due to age or disabilities etc

Negative family emotional climate (NFEC)

Well-established link to depression and anxiety disorders Also indirect links through suppression of emotions: NEFC teaches children to suppress emotions and thoughts

Stereotype threat - it can be harmful

When women reminded of being stereotyped as bad drivers they were more likely to hit a pedestrian in a simulation Suggested that ruminating about not being bad drivers takes away from their cognitive resource to focus on driving i.e. Negative stereotypes can have dire consequences both for people themselves (gun misidentification study) and others

Interruptions across gender

Women interrupted more than men did, and women were interrupted more than men were, by both women and men

Is swearing harmful?

Yes: Discrimination, harassment No: Fleeting expletives, conversational swearing (when you're informally chatting with friends), or cathartic swearing (like if you bump into something and say "f*ck!") While we know that talking about and exposing children to topics in education help them develop healthy attitudes and responsible behaviour, this implicitly assumed not to be the case for swearing - No evidence

superior temporal gyrus

a fold on the superior portion of the temporal lobe

Team formualtion

a group/team works together to set the formulation

ELM Peripheral Route

ability and motivation to process a message is low; receiver focuses more on peripheral cues than on message content takes no motivation and time (for less important decisions)

Whole object bias (Markman)

an assumption made by language learners that a word describes an entire object rather than just some portion of it

Forward model monitoring - articulatory-phonological

articulating the actual sounds coming out of your mouth

TPB - attitude -> Intention -> behaviour

attitudes affect our intention and in turn then behaviour Example: Attitude: Eating animals is bad Intention then becomes: I should stop eating animals Behaviour: Becomes vegetarian

Evidence of simulation in neuro (auditory processing)

auditory cortex is activated when reading sound-related words (like "thunder") compared to manipulation words (e.g., scissors) or visual/sight words (e.g., pyramid). And patients with neurodegeneration in auditory cortex perform more poorly on sound words than manipulation or visual/sight words.

Stereotype lift

awareness of positive expectations can actually improve performance on tasks i.e. when reminded of a non-negative stereotype towards oneself

Symptoms of aphasic speech

dysfluencies, reduced speech rate and short sentences, Word order difficulty, Omission or substitution of grammatical morphemes (dropping third person s or past tense ed), Verbs more impaired than nouns

Identity Theory (Reductive Materialism)

each type of mental state (e.g. a feeling of pain, a desire to eat) is identical to a specific brain state. Problem: Multiple realisability

shared environment

environmental factors actually acting to make household members more similar what it isn't: environmental factors that are experienced by all relevant members of a household

non-shared environment

environmental factors that act to make household members different (e.g. children might be treated differently to make up for differences in skill -> make them more similar = shared environment) What it isn't: unique aspects of a person's environment and experience that are not shared with family members

heritability ratio

estimate of the proportion of trait variability in a population that is determined by variations in genetic inheritance. Situational - applies to populations not to traits (i.e. there is no heritability of intelligence)

Speech error in multi-word utterance - types

exchange (which is the conventional "Spoonerism"), perseveration, and anticipation

Why both of Cronbach's disciplines helpful

experimental psychologist look into treatments and their effects, but through correlational psychology we can then find not only the average best treatment, but the actual best treatment for the individual. This is especially important in applied psychology. They focus on different areas of the data which are each necessary for the prosperity of psychology. Furthermore, the experimentalist is unable to sytsematically analyse differences across tasks. Correlational psychology can do this

mere exposure effect

exposure to a neutral stimuli makes you more likely to have a positive attitude towards it

Evidence for neuro location of thematic relations (representational similarity analysis)

fMRI study used "representational similarity analysis" - the idea here is to look at the similarity of fine-grained pattern of activation within a brain region and see if they match up with semantic similarity. The researchers constructed sets of people, objects, and locations (taxonomic categories) that are found in school, medicine, and sport *themes*. For taxonomically related concepts (e.g., teacher - doctor): neural activity was more similar in ATL than in TPC. For thematically related concepts (e.g., student - schoolbag; doctor - stethoscope): neural activity was more similar in TPC than in ATL

Logical positivism

facts were observed, general theories could be inferred, and these could be checked by ongoing empirical enquiry verifiability by observation made a knowledge claim science

Safety behaviours

failure to understand that stimuli are not actually dangerous

sensory-functional distinction - impairment of non-living vs. living (and gemstones, music instruments and body parts)

gemstones and musical instruments are not living things, but they tend to be impaired along with living things. Presumably because these concepts also rely strongly on sensory features. Body parts, which are parts of living things, tend to be impaired with non-living things, presumably because these concepts rely strongly on function/action features.

co-speech gestures

gestures that get meaning from accompanying speech Often have an iconic component

Behaviourism (reductive materialism)

ignored mental life in favour of observable physical behaviour. In the process, mental concepts were regarded as no more than dispositions to behave Problem: Can mental phenomenon be reduced to behaviour

IAT

implicit-association test- designed to detect the strength of a person's automatic association between mental representations of objects/concepts in memory i.e. implicit attitude/bis The measurement outcome is the time difference between pairings - being quicker at a paring shows implicit bias

Divergence in phsychological growth

in the early years many psychological and physiological traits are at a similar level but they quickly diverge and create rank order (e.g. big babies become bigger than small babies)

Indexical information of language

information about the speaker, such as age, gender, cultural or geographic background, and so on

Sentence parsing is

interactive and incremental: constraints are integrated as soon as they become available and used to predict (anticipate) upcoming words Incremental: as soon as words come in, listener/reader is starting to build a representation of the sentence and to guess what is coming next Interactive: constraints from different levels are all used

The Sylvian fissure (aka Lateral fissure)

is an important landmark - it's an especially big sulcus that separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes

sulcus

is the crevice or inner part of the fold

Gyrus

is the outer part of fold

Language is is usually ___-lateralised

left for most people (esp. right-handed people) the left hemisphere is particularly important for language processing

Inhibitory control processes

less well-developed inhibition or over-used leading to back fire The more suppressed a thought is the more likely it is to return Backfires leads to intrusive thoughts Judgement about inhibition abilities -> more anxiety

Auditory processing (brain regions)

processing of meaningful sounds engages the posterior part of the superior temporal lobe, particularly an area called Heschl's gyrus, which is kind of inside the Sylvian fissure

Concept (language)

representing and communicating meaningful information

Definitions of science - seventeenth century

science was based on the observation of pure facts However, this was not possible in practice

Avoidance and escape behaviours

stimulus presented that is aversive, they want to leave. They then never habituate it and with extinct the response (think learning)

TSM

temporarily disrupt processing in a particular brain area, which gives us precise control over lesion location and the opportunity to test multiple lesion locations within a participant, including a control or "sham" condition (which we can't do with permanent brain damage cases)

multiple realizability

that similar mental events can be realized in different brains

DSM-5

the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.

Psychology through time - industrial psychology

the aim of industrial psychology was to increase productivity by improving worker efficiency, reducing fatigue, adapting the work environment, and so on. Tests and questionnaires designed to assess non-intellectual traits, such as character, attitude, and personality, were used in personnel selection and vocational guidance

Popper's criterion for science

the criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability, or refutability, or testability.

Feature of perceptual symbol systems; probabilistic features

the features are probabilistic, neither necessary nor sufficient, and they can be different across people.

psychometrics

the science of measuring mental capacities and processes.

syntactic bootstrapping

the strategy of using the grammatical structure of whole sentences to figure out meaning Doppy is a name fep is some action (verb) that requires an agent to do the action and something to be the recipient of that action modi is a thing (noun) doxy is a property (adjective) of it nazzer is an object or place (noun)

phoneme restoration effect

the tendency to hear phonemes that make sense in the speech context even if no such phonemes were spoken This restoration happens during speech perception - the neural patterns matches the corrected phoneme, i.e. once they reach processing they are already restored

Quasi-regularity of language

there is a "Main" regularity that covers most cases and sub-regularities that also follow patterns and are not totally random exceptions. This is common in nature

Predicate Dualism

there is only one substance (the brain), but we need distinct descriptions for mind and brain, i.e. we cannot fully translate mind into brain Substance monists but dualists

Visual context aiding speech perception

there's a very strong correlation between the mouth movements we see and the sounds we hear from the speaker's mouth. Over time, we learn these correlations and that knowledge influences how we perceive ambiguous speech sounds. E.g. the McGurk effect

Why is language change a good thing?

times change and the thoughts we want to express change with them. Language *should* change to make it easier to express those new thoughts and to fit our new communication media

allophonic variants

variations that do not change meaning, which are language-specific For example: in English, "tam" and the longer-vowel "taam" are the same, the shorter and longer vowels are allophonic variants of the same phoneme. In Dutch, that same acoustic difference produces a different word, so the shorter and longer vowels are different phonemes.

Avoiding cognitive dissonance

we can avoid information that invokes this feeling of cognitive dissonance or deny its truthfulness

Cognitive Fusion

when people are guided by the literal content of their thoughts rather than by their direct experience with the world