Kinesiology 350 Exam 2

who does the iceberg profile apply to?

For runners, wrestlers and rowers, vigor is ranked highest, anger (for wrestlers) is above average while being slightly below average for runners and rowers. Confusion is ranked lowest. Tension, depression and fatigue fall in the middle. These traits tend to be present PRIOR to success. Has not been tested heavily with team sport athletes.

Nociceptive specific neurons

Found mainly in lamina 1 and 2 of the dorsal horn

true or false: Select personality traits and mood states are effective at predicting success in sport and can be used to select team members

false

Zone of Optimal Functioning

the range of arousal levels associated with a person's maximum performance

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

prostaglandin research

o Aspirin (block prostaglandins) was not effective No change between placebo and experimental Blocking prostaglandins is not effective • Suggests prostaglandins not involved

opioid receptor research

o Codeine and naltrexone (opioid agonists) did not affect pain or performance Opioid system not involved o Naloxone (opioid antagonist) helped individuals decrease run time

muscle/core temperature research

o Pre cooling can improve human performance Delay increase in metabolic rate

muscle hydrogen ions research

sodium bicarbonate (block production of H+ ions) can improve anaerobic performance 150-400 mg/kg 27% increase in endurance time

Eysenck's theory of personality (general population)

somewhere in the middle

Describe the elements of the perception of pain as defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP).

"an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage"

What is the relationship between introversion and amygdala activity to emotional stimuli?

Amygdala response to novel faces is correlated with introversion: significant amygdala response/brain activity to novel/unfamiliar faces but no significant response to familiar faces

strengths and weaknesses of thermal use in lab

+ easy to apply, natural stimulus, can stimulate type 4 fiber, may be applied during exercise; -cold pressor reliability, skin can become numb, athletes have a lot of cold exposure

strengths and weaknesses of electricity in lab

+ highly reproducible, easy to control, can be presented easily during exercise; -excites pathways in asynchrony and unnaturally, bypasses the pain receptor, stimulates both nociceptive and non-nociceptive fibers

strengths and weaknesses of pressure in lab

+ natural stimulus, easy to apply; -influenced by rate of increase, carry-over (bruises), hard to apply during exercise

strengths and weakness of chemical use in lab

+can be controlled, -may not represent what actually occurs in muscle

study by lukehart

-186 males 12-13 years old -EPQ before and after involvement in organized football -Compared to those who did not participate in sport (control) -Better design because of manipulation -No change in control or experimental groups -supports extroversion and neuroticism in sports

study by newcomb and boyle

-312 high school students (16-18 years old) -Completed the eyesenck personality questionnaire -Athletes had different personality profiles than non-athletes -Less depression and anxiety in athletes -Small but consistent differences (Significant) -Male athletes had a different personality profile than female athletes -Elite athletes differ from non-elite (Less depressed as well ) -supports extroversion and neuroticism in sports

study by ismail and young

-56 middle aged faculty at Purdue -4 month fitness training course -Personality measured pre and post -Fitness changed but personality stable -4 year follow up had the same results -supports extroversion and neuroticism in sports

explain table about MZ and DZ twins

-Amt of variance than genes or enviro explain in human's behavior (what is shown in the table) -MZ=monozygote (50% of their behavior explained by genetics) -DZ = different zygote (25% of their behavior explained by genetics, so half that of the MZ) -**numbers don't change from together and apart so this shows environment doesn't matter in your personality (some of the first research to prove this)--this was in 1994

What is the relationship between extroversion and amygdala activity to emotional stimuli?

-Amygdala response to happy faces is correlated with extraversion: Personality measures significant for left side amygdala response (significant association between left amygdala and extraversion—more extraverted=more left amygdala stim to happy faces; fearful faces were independent of personality) -Amygdala identifies fearful situations in EVERYONE but this (extra/introvert) was not related to their personality...thus the fear response is not related to being an extravert/introvert

How has brain imaging research been used to test personality theories and does it provide evidence in support of Eysenck's theory of extroversion, introversion and neuroticism?

-Brain imaging research has been used to test personality theories by looking at similarities and differences in neurological response of participants categorized in different personality categories -this testing supports Eysenck's theory of extroversion (amygdala response to happiness), introversion (amygdala response to novel faces), and neuroticism (amygdala response to incongruent or conflicting faces).

traits of a neurotic individual

-Emotionally unstable -Nervous -Irritable -Prone to worry -Anxious

How great of an impact do genetics have over personality earlier and later in life?

-Environment turns genes on and off -There are environment and gene interactions -Influences of genes decrease with age -Influence of environment increases with age -As genetic effects decrease, environmental effects increase -Trait theory thinks its all due to genetics, but upbringing, exposure to each other (together all the time, grew up in same household

Key aspects of personality

-Habitual pattern of behavior, though, and emotion -Stable over time -Differ among individuals -Influence behavior

What is the relationship between neuroticism and amygdala activity to emotional stimuli?

-Neuroticism predicts amygdala activity during emotional stimuli -people with high neuroticism will be emotionally stimulated (amygdala) when incongruent face and word are shown -Left and right amygdala = neuroticism correlation to different between congruent and incongruent brain responses (when u show them an incongruent picture, their amygdala fires a lot compared to non-neurotic person)

Describe the relationship between Extroversion and Neuroticism for both Sport participation and Physical Activity participation. (what studies support)

-Study by Newcombe and Boyle -Those participating in sports show higher levels of extroversion and lower levels of neuroticism than those who don't participate in sport Limited evidence shows that sport does not change one's personality, but that individuals with certain personalities tend to gravitate toward participation in sport. d. Most consistent finding is that people who participate in dangerous or extreme sports on average score higher on scales that measure extroversion and sensation seeking (Effect size is small but consistent) -Study by Lukehart -Study by Ismail and Young

assumptions of trait theory

-There are individual differences in these relatively permanent dispositions -Traits can be measured (questionnaires) -Traits are normally distributed in the population -Traits are determined primarily by genetic and biological factors -Traits and situations interact to produce states (transient conditions) -Traits and states are useful in explaining individual differences in behavior (When incorporated into an appropriate theoretical framework)

Eysenck's theory of personality graph

-X-axis = level of stimulation from nothing to extremely high -OL = optimal level for introverts, population norm, extraverts -A=where 3 pops depart well from each other (where the populations separate for high/low stimulation) -B =where the participants depart well for high and low stimulation -Y=positive or negative hedonic tone (do you feel happy or not)

somatic anxiety

-body awareness scale (BAS) -physical activation i. My heart is pounding ii. My mouth is dry iii. My hands are shaking iv. My vision is blurred v. I feel cold

Describe the psychophysical (pain sensitivity) and brain research that we discussed examining the relationship between physical activity and pain.

-janal et al -ellingson et al -c. Physical activity is positively correlated with activity in pain "control" regions of the brain and negatively associated with pain "sensitivity" regions of the brain i. Laying in magnet ii. Given 20 sec painful stimuli then had to rate 1. Correlate brain image with rating iii. The more PA you are, the less information being sent to the brain 1. Same stimuli but different perception of pain 2. Actively inhibiting incoming painful stimuli d. Summary: i. There is emerging evidence that active people are more pain tolerant than less active people ii. Recent evidence suggests: 1. Vigorous PA is associated with lower pain sensitivity 2. Greater PA is associated with greater brain activity in regions associated with pain regulation and less activity in regions associated with pain sensitivity

Eysenck's theory of personality (extroverts)

-seek peak hedonic tone at higher level of stimulus than general population -reducers = dampen incoming stimuli to brain. -extroverts look for extra sensory stimulation -receive positive hedonic tones from high stimulation compared to introverts (seek out stimulation) -reducers/inhibit incoming stimulation so there tendency is to seek out more stimuli

Eysenck's theory of personality (introverts)

-seek peak hedonic tone at lower level of stimulus than general population -augmenters -- increase incoming stimuli to brain -introverts avoid high levels of stimulation -augmenters...avoid incoming stimulation (reading a book is enough stimulation)

cognitive anxiety

-state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI) -thought component of anxiety i. I feel calm ii. I am tense iii. I feel nervous iv. I am relaxed v. I am presently worrying over possible misfortunes

evidence for inverted u hypothesis

1. Despite the broad acceptance of this idea by sport psychologists....the inverted u hypothesis has not received clear support from a single experiment a. Lots of limitations

define personality

Enduring characteristics that are important to a person's behavior

How is anxiety different from fear?

No external stimulus No immediate danger Oriented towards the future

pain relevant biochemicals on exercise performance

Opioid receptors Prostaglandins Muscle/core temperature Muscle hydrogen ions

define anxiety

Subjective thoughts (cognitions) and feelings (somatic sensations) of apprehension, worry, and tension

what is the iceberg profile?

a profile of mood states where the athletes have lower tension, depression, anger, fatigue and confusion and higher vigor than the general population

Describe the results of the UW rowing study that used self-motivation as a predictor of sport dropout.

a. 84 rowers at beginning i. Down to 22 at the end of 7 months b. Self-motivation inventory (SMI) given c. Both dropouts and adherers were above the normal value but adherers higher d. Adherers had superior rowing performance e. Unsuccessful adherers and successful adherers faster than the dropouts i. Performed more quickly ii. More talented iii. Motivation seemed to matter

Describe the anecdotal evidence indicating that pain limits athletic performance.

a. Bill Koch i. Olympic cross country skier ii. 90% of his success could be attributed to his ability to tolerate pain iii. The ones who could tolerate pain = those who won b. Greg lemond i. Cyclist ii. The best riders are those that can stand the most pain iii. The suffering you felt on the bike is nothing compared to real pain 1. Referencing accident where he was shot x 40 c. Anshel and Russell i. Pain is the most critical differentiator between successful and unsuccessful athletes ii. Pain sets ultimate limits on the performance of athletes during training and competition

Where can the pain signal be modulated and in what ways?

a. Descending circuits selectively and robustly modulate pain b. Cortex, midbrain, medulla, spinal cord. c. In the skin/muscle d. Gate control i. How much makes it through the gate to the transmission neuron ii. Interneurons (inhibitory or excitatory) 1. Lots of inhibition = pain goes down 2. Lots of excitatory = pain goes through iii. Balance between inhibitory and excitatory iv. Occurs everywhere e. Brain has the interpretation i. Most involved in the exercise stimulus f. Modulation occurs at each point g. Dynamic process h. Dampen signal on the way down i. Increased dampening if good at dealing with pain

Based on evidence discussed in class, is personality associated with participation in physical activity?

a. Extroverts seek out physical activity, neurotics avoid physical activity or tend to cancel and conscientious people are likely to adhere to a work out plan. Evidence from a review of 33 studies i. Extraversion: r = 0.23 ii. Neuroticism: r = -0.11 iii. Conscientiousness: r = .20 b. All significant c. Weak correlation but substantial relation

janal et al

a. Janal et al. i. Cold pressor (arm in ice bath) ii. At each point it took runners longer to report pain 1. High pain threshold -psychophysical (pain sensitivity) and brain research that we discussed examining the relationship between physical activity and pain

exercise induced hypoalgesia

a. Less pain following exercise b. Does muscle pain experienced during exercise account for hypoalgesia following exercise? c. Why are some chronic muscle pain conditions characterized by a hyperalgesic response to exercise?

What are some examples of multi-dimensional measures of pain?

a. Location b. Quality c. Dynamic aspects d. Limping e. Avoidance f. Facial Expressions g. Sensory h. Affective

List several of the unique aspects of the Manning and Filingim (2002) study that examined pain sensitivity in athletes vs. non-athletes.

a. Looked at males and females b. Control was required to be physically active for a minimum of 3 hours/week c. Psychologic and cognitive measures d. 4 body sites used for the pain stimuli

Do the pain responses of athletes differ from non-athletes?

a. Manning and Fillingim (athletes and non-athletes) i. Participants 1. 12 male and 12 female athletes a. Soccer, gymnastics, football, tennis, fencing, crew, wrestling 2. 12 male and 12 female non-athletes a. Required to be physically active a minimum of 3 hours/week ii. Measured psychologic and cognitive 1. Locus of control 2. Dissociation 3. Sex role attitudes 4. Coping strategies 5. Mood states 6. Physical activity and injury history 7. Pain related self efficacy iii. Pain stimuli 1. Pressure pain thresholds (4 body sites) 2. Ischemic (20 handgrips at 50% max) 3. Cold pressor (1 degree C) iv. Pain intensity and unpleasantness 1. Visual analogue scales (VAS) 2. Measured at threshold and tolerance for ischemic and cold pressor tasks v. Results: 1. Athletes > non-athletes 2. Male > female 3. No difference with sex or athlete vs non-athlete for ischemic pain threshold 4. Increase in injury history = increase in tolerance of pain 5. No differences in VAS ratings 6. Athletes defined pain as "something to overcome" 7. Non-athletes defined pain as an "unpleasant sensation" vi. Summary: 1. There is some evidence that athletes tolerate pain better than non-athletes a. Contact athletes appear most tolerant 2. Most studies to date have not addressed why athletes may be more pain tolerant a. Speculation b. Injury history and competitive coping strategies are intriguing c. Central nervous system mechanisms? i. Dr. Cook's lab

What can be concluded from the Light et al., study that looked at ATP, lactate, and an acidic environment on nociceptive firing?

a. More factors added = increased response b. Not just acidic environment

Does the evidence support the widely held notion that pain is a critical aspect of sport performance? Why or why not?

a. NO b. most studies evaluate termination of exercise may be due to fatigue and other factors c. don't actually measure pain in the studies

What are some reasons that an exercise psychologist would be interested in studying pain?

a. Naturally occurring muscle pain b. Limitations to athletic performance c. Pain arising from performance d. Different perceptions of pain e. Pain is big in performance i. How much can you tolerate?

Are there other psychological factors that are important for sport performance? If so, what diverse set of psychological skills are necessary?

a. Nerves present b. Relaxed c. Present moment thinking d. Focused on execution e. Focused on self f. Desire to compete g. Clear mind h. Positive thoughts i. Confidence j. Free of expectation k. Enjoyment l. Self-regulation m. Control n. Trust in ability

What is one critical factor that is missing from most studies that have examined biological factors associated with pain and exercise?

a. No measures of pain in these studies b. "are you manipulating pain in any way?"

Based on evidence discussed in class, does participation in sport change personality?

a. No, individuals with certain personalities tend to gravitate to certain sports. b. 1. Results from the study by Lukehart: no difference in their personalities, suggesting that participation in sport does not change your personality, but your personality likely makes your decision to participate in a sport c. 2. Study by Ismail and Young: those who were more fit were less depressed, less neurotic, and more extroverted. As they went through the fitness course, there was no proof that personality changes through fitness changes. Those who had the greatest change in fitness - no personality change d. The weight of the very limited amount of available evidence suggests that sport/regular exercise does not change one's personality, but that individuals with certain personalities tend to gravitate toward participation in sport

what are the 3 classifications of nociceptors?

a. Nociceptive specific (NS) neurons b. Wide dynamic range (WDR) neurons c. Silent nociceptors (SN)

Describe the correlational evidence indicating that pain limits athletic performance.

a. Not a ton out there b. Caldwell and smith i. Pain was reason they stopped c. Cook et al.

Describe the experimental evidence indicating that pain limits athletic performance.

a. Pain related factors that have been manipulated in experiments assessing endurance performance i. Muscle/core temperature ii. Muscle hydrogen ions iii. Prostaglandins iv. Opioid receptors v. Cognition b. Pre cooling can improve human endurance performance i. Up to -1 degrees C looked at ii. Cycling and running studies c. Sodium bicarbonate ingestion (150-400 mg/kg) can improve anaerobic performance i. Block production of prostaglandins ii. Average of 27% increase in endurance time

Imlay et al study about ZOF

a. Purpose was to test the ZOF hypothesis prospectively i. Still not an experiment because no manipulation b. Empirical determination of pre-competition anxiety (PCA) zones c. Compared based on National Association of Intercollegiate Athletes (NAIA) performance qualification standards d. Participants were college track athletes e. State anxiety (STAI) was measured 30 minutes prior to all 8 competitions f. All runners achieved a personal best that season g. The anxiety score before the PB +/- 4 points served as the empirically defined ZOF h. Compared personal best vs. good and worst performances i. There was no significant group differences in PCA scores prior to worst, good, and best i. Lots of variability ii. Average did not differ

Based on evidence discussed in class, does personality dictate the sport a person participates in?

a. Research has shown that people who participate in dangerous or "extreme" sports on average score higher on scales that measure extroversion and "sensation seeking". The effect size is small but consistent. b. The type T personality has been described by various psychologists as a thrill seeking or risk taking personality. One physical outlet for these thrill seeking tendencies is extreme sports, which are a form of deviance (another personality type out there that hasn't been included in the top 5)

Are physically active people more pain tolerant?

a. Ryan and Kovacic (contact, non-contact, and non-athletes) i. Participants: 1. 18 contact athletes (football, boxing, wrestling) 2. 19 non-contact athletes (golf or tennis) 3. 18 non-athletes (no varsity athletics) ii. Three methods of pain induction 1. Heat pain thresholds via radiant heat lamp applied to forehead 2. Muscle ischemia pain tolerance (300 mmHg) a. Motivated by experimenter (told them first trial was low) 3. Gross pressure pain tolerance (cleat to shin) a. Motivated by experimenter (told them first trial was low) iii. Most important pain study in athletes and non-athletes iv. Results: 1. Football cleat: a. Contact > non-contact > non-athlete b. Contact greater change test 1 to test 2 2. Ischemic pain: a. Contact and non-contact > non-athlete b. Contact and non-contact greater increase test 1 to test 2 v. Limitations: 1. Measures of tolerance (pseudotolerance) 2. Measures of personality or mood 3. Measure of pain history 4. Snap-shot a. One day b. Not repeated

What are the three primary ascending pain/nociceptive spinal cord tracts?

a. Spinothalamic Tract: thalamus, sensory cortices b. Spinoreticular Tract: Locus coeruleus c. Spinomesencephalic Tract: PAG, Amygdala, Anterior Cingulate

mental health model of athletic performance

a. Success in sports is inversely correlated with psychopathology b. Positive mental health is directly correlated with success in sport i. Positive mental health needed to be successful c. Small but consistent differences suggest that elites have better mental health d. Athletes are not immune to psychopathology e. Experiments needed to best test the model are unethical i. Don't want to induce psychopathology f. Effective in predicting behavior in sport but the accuracy isn't perfect (70-80%) g. Not acceptable/recommended for selection purposes h. Can be used to monitor athletes (overtraining and staleness) i. Psychobiological approach including both physiological and psychological variables is superior (92%) to either physiological (67%) or psychological (73%) variables alone

For the article "Enhanced pain modulation among triathletes: A possible explanation for their exceptional capabilities", what psychobiological mechanisms were discussed to explain why triathletes were more tolerant of pain than the non-athlete control group?

a. The level of fear of pain in triathletes was significantly lower b. Triathletes had lower levels of pain catastrophizing c. Triathlete's perceived physical stress was significantly stronger than perceived mental stress d. Triathletes appear to exhibit greater ability and/or motivation to endure pain i. May also stem from the lack of fear of the stimulus or its consequences e. Higher pain tolerance may stem from a habituation effect due to the triathletes daily experiences of pain during training and competitions (experience exercise induced injuries) f. Not clear whether inherited or acquired g. The nociceptive input constantly triggers the brain structures responsible for pain inhibition, which, in turn, produce a more powerful pain modulation and tolerance h. Recent concepts of the effects of stress suggest that controllable and predictable pain (like pain during exercise) are unlikely to contribute to pathological alterations and/or maladaptive capacity, and may, on the contrary, enhance adaptive capacity and performance

Describe the influence of naloxone on exercise performance for both trained and untrained individuals.

a. Untrained i. No change even with differing doses b. Trained i. Only one to manipulate performance and pain • Naloxone caused a decrease in time but an increase in psychological pain perception o Unpleasant or bothersome

Based on evidence discussed in class, is personality related to athletic performance?

a. Yes, athletes possessing high self-motivation, emotional stability, extroversion, and positive moods tend to do better than those not characterized by these traits and states. b. UW rowers

Based on evidence discussed in class, does the personality of athletes differ from non-athletes? Provide evidence.

a. Yes, athletes tend to be more extroverted, emotionally stable and in some cases psychotic. Evidence: more mentally tough, more extroverted c. Those participating in sports show higher levels of extroversion and lower levels of neuroticism than those who don't participate in sport -study by newcomb and boyle

ellingson et al

i. "healthy women who meet PA recommendations are less pain sensitive than healthy women who do not meet recommendations" ii. Used accelerometer iii. Large differences in PA iv. High/vigorous PA was strongly negatively correlated v. Increase amount of vigorous PA = decrease sensitivity to pain vi. Vigorous PA is painful and changes sensitivity to pain -psychophysical (pain sensitivity) and brain research that we discussed examining the relationship between physical activity and pain

hit thumb with hammer (gate control theory)

i. A-delta fibers send nociceptive info 1. Inhibiting inhibitory interneurons 2. Transmission neuron activated = send pain info to brain ii. Suck your thumb 1. Sensory information from A-Beta fibers activates inhibitory interneurons a. Partially close gate b. Experience less pain

define pain

i. Always a subjective experience (higher or lower threshold) 1. Has objective components (same temperature or signal) ii. Emotional elements iii. Perception not always directly related to tissue damage 1. Usually in chronic

Define nociception

i. Biological signal that in most cases is responsible for the experience of pain ii. The sum of neurochemical events involved in the identification of and reaction to noxious stimulus iii. Provides information regarding actual or potential tissue damage (signals sent up to brain)

exercising hard and having to keep going (gate control theory)

i. During exercise: inhibitory interneurons partially blocking gate ii. With no relief from pain, the brain releases serotonin and Beta-endorphins

wide dynamic range neurons

i. Found in lamina 1 and 5 ii. Increasing intensity

relaxation theory

i. Increased anxiety = decreased performance ii. Widely used practice (most embraced) iii. Supported by anecdotal evidence iv. Little research supports its effectiveness

drive theory

i. Performance = drive [global arousal] x habit ii. P = D x H 1. P: performance 2. D: drive 3. H: habit strength iii. Over 55 studies conducted to test this hypothesis have failed to provide strong empirical support for it

at rest (gate control theory)

i. The gate is partially open 1. Sometimes you may feel spontaneous pain (back pain from sitting too long) ii. C fibers iii. A-delta fibers

silent nociceptors

i. Thought to become active when in the presence of injured tissue 1. H+ ions 2. Acidity 3. Lactate 4. Tissue inflammation ii. Delayed onset

stung by bee (gate control theory)

i. Triggers A-Delta fibers which send nociceptive information to the transmission neuron ii. Bee venom activates C-fibers which send nociceptive information to the transmission neuron 1. Result = burning sensation at the sight iii. Rub the site of the sting: 1. Activate A-Beta fibers a. Activates inhibitory interneurons b. Partially closes the gate c. Experience less pain

Inverted U Hypothesis

i. Yerkes and Dodson (1908) 1. Studied the relationship between strength of stimulus on the rapidity of avoidance learning in mice 2. Found that strong stimuli: a. Enhanced learning for easy tasks b. Impaired learning for more complex tasks 3. Interpreted their results as supporting the inverted u hypothesis

Imlay et al results and summary

j. Results: i. Personal best: 1. 25% low anxiety 2. 20% high anxiety ii. Worst performance: 1. 56% had moderate levels of anxiety k. Summary: i. Best evidence for ZOF but still little compelling evidence because no true experiments have been conducted (no manipulation) 1. No causal evidence ii. Dynamic aspects of anxiety are missed 1. Anxiety changes as race gets closer

define pain tolerance

length of time an individual is willing to endure a stimulus or the maximum stimulus intensity one will endure

define pain threshold

minimum stimulus that is usually perceived as painful

define pain ratings

range of pain experienced above pain threshold and below pain tolerance