Klikus World History Mid Term

Realpolitik

"The politics of reality"-the practice of tough power politics without room for idealism. Used by Bismarck. (pg 695)

Bismarck

A conservative Junker that was chosen in 1862 to be Wilhelm's prime minister. Bismarck was a master of realpolitik. Bismarck would become one of the commanding figures of German history. With king's approval, declared he would rule without the consent of parliament and without a legal budget. Bismarck achieves Prussian dominance over Germany and Europe by "blood and iron." Bismarck was an expert at making incidents to gain his ends. (pg 696)

Patron

A person who supports artists, especially financially. (pg 472)

Descartes

Developed analytical geometry, which provided an important new tool for scientific research. Believed scientists needed to reject old assumptions and teachings. Instead of experimentation, he relied on mathematics and logic. Believed everything should be doubted until proved by reason. "I think, therefore I am." (pg 626)

Columbian exchange

Global transfer of foods, plants, and animals during the colonization of the Americas. Ships from Americas brought back plants such as tomatoes, squash, pineapples, tobacco, and cacao beans. Included animals such as turkey, a new source of food in Eastern Hemisphere. Corn and potatoes most important (inexpensive and nutritious). Europeans introduced livestock animals into Americas including horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs. Bananas, black-eyed peas, and yams migrated west from Africa in Europeans ships. Grains introduced to the Americas included wheat, rice, barley, and oats. Europeans brought diseases like smallpox and measles, that killed millions of Native Americans.(pg 571)

Aurangzeb

Mughal Empire. The third son of Shah Jahan. After his father became ill in 1657, his 4 sons scrambled for the throne. Aurangzeb moved first and most decisively & in a civil war he executed his older brother who was his most serious rival. Then arrested his father and put him in prison. Aurangzeb a master at military strategy and an aggressive empire builder. Ruled from 1658-1707. Expanded Mughal holdings to greatest size. Power of empire weakened during rule becuse he oppressed the people. (pgs 520-521)

Napoleon's accomplishments

Napoleon supported laws that would strengthen the central government and achieve some of the goals of the Revolution. He set up an efficient method of tax collection and established a national banking system. He took steps to end corruption and inefficiency in government. He dismissed corrupt officials and set up lycees, government-run public schools open to male students of all backgrounds. Graduates appointed to office on basis of merit. Responding to the wishes of the clergy and peasants who wanted to restore church in France, Napoleon signed a concordat with Pope Pius VII. Napoleon considered his greatest work to be his comprehensive system of laws known as the Napoleonic Code, which gave the country a uniform set of laws and eliminated many injustices. (pg 664)

Suleyman

Ottoman Empire didn't reach its peak size and grandeur until the reign of Suleyman, Selim's son. Came to the throne in 1520 and ruled for 46 years. His own people called him Suleyman the Lawgiver. He was known in the West as Suleyman the Magnificent. A superb military leader. Conquered Belgrade, the island of Rhodes, Tripoli on the coast of North Africa, people along the North African coastline, and controlled interior of African continent. Advanced into Austria and Hungary in 1526 and Suleyman's armies pushed to the outskirts of Vienna, Austria. Waged war with central Europeans, North Africans, and Central Asians. Most powerful monarch on earth. Most crowning achievement was binding the Ottoman Empire together in a workable social structure. Created a lawcode to handle criminal and civil actions. Simplified and limited taxes, and systematized and reduced government bureaucracy. Granted freedom of worship to other religious communities. Also, Suleyman had broad interests, which contributed to cultural achievements of the empire. Cultural blending took place. (pgs 510-511)

Mehmed II

Ottoman Empire. Murad's son, known as Mehmed the Conqueror. Achieved the most dramatic feat in Ottoman history. Took power in 1451, and shortly after, launched an attack on Constantinople in 1453 and captured the city. Proved to be an able ruler as well as a magnificent warrior. Opened Constantinople to new citizens of many religions and backgrounds. Jews, Christians, Muslims, Turks, and non-Turks all came. They helped rebuild the city, now called Istanbul. (pgs 508-509)

Osman

Ottoman Empire. The most successful ghazi. People in the West called him Othman and named his followers Ottomans. Built a small Muslim state in Anatolia between 1300 and 1326. His successors expanded it by forming alliances with some emirs and conquering others. Military success based on use of gunpowder. Also replaced archers with foot soldiers and used cannons. (pg 507)

Selim the grim

Ottoman empire. Mehmed's grandson. Came to power in 1512. Effective sultan and a great general. In 1514 defeated the Safavids of Persia at the Battle of Chaldiran. Then he swept through Syria and Palestine into and into North Africa. Selim's empire took responsibility for Mecca and Medina. Finally, he took Cairo, the intellectual center of the Muslim world. (pg 509)

Locke

Philosopher John Locke had a different, more positive view of human nature. Believed that people could learn from experience and improve themselves. As reasonable beings, they had the natural ability to govern their own affairs and look after the welfare of their society. Criticized absolute monarchy and favored the idea of self-government. Locke believed all people are born free and equal, with 3 natural rights: life, liberty, and property. Purpose of government is to protect these right, and if the government cannot, citizens can overthrow it. Belief that government's power comes from the consent of the people is the foundation of modern democracy. (pg 630)

Enlightenment (women)

Philosophes took traditional view towards women. Women writers tried to improve status of women. 1694 English writer Marie Astell published book to address lack of educational opportunities for women. In 1700s, most pervasive women writer was Mary Wollstonecraft, who published a Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792. She argued that women need education to become virtuous and useful. Urged women to enter field of medicine and politics. In paris, wealthy women spread Enlightenment ideas in salons. (pg 633)

Anglican Church

Result of Elizabeth I wanting to return her kingdom to Protestantism. In 1559, Parliament followed Elizabeth's wishes and set up the Church of England, or Anglican Church, with Elizabeth at its head. Was to be the only legal church in England. Wanted to establish a state church that moderate catholics and moderate protestants might both accept. (pg 494)

Golden age of Spanish art

Spain's wealth allowed monarchs and nobles to become patrons of artists. Golden age of art in 16th and 17th centuries. El Greco chose brilliant, clashing colors, distorted the human figure, and expressed emotion symbolically in paintings. Techniques showed the deep Catholic faith of Spain. Painted saints and martyrs as huge supernatural figures. Diego Velazquez reflected the pride of the Spanish monarchy. Painted 50 years after El Greco and was the court painter for Philip IV of Spain. Known for portraits of the royal family and scenes of court life. (pg 591)

Korea post Manchu invasion

The Manchu invasion, combined with a Japanese attack in the 1590s, provoked strong feelings of nationalism in the Korean people. This sentiment was most evident in their art. Instead of traditional Chinese subjects, many artists chose to show popular Korean scenes. (pg 540)

Machiavelli

The Prince (1513) by Niccolo Machiavelli examined the imperfect conduct of human beings. It took the form of a political guidebook. Examined how a ruler can gain power and keep it in spite of enemies. Began with the idea that most people are selfish, fickle, and corrupt. To succeed in the wicked world, said a prince might have to trick his enemies and even his own people for the good of the state. Was not concerned with what was morally right, but with what was politically effective. Argued that in the real world of power an politics a prince must sometimes mislead the people and lie to his opponents. A historian and political thinker, Machiavelli said that a prince must be crafty to overcome suspicions and gain the trust of others. (pg 476)

Encomienda

The Spanish conquerors oppressed the native Americans. In their effort to exploit the land for its resources, the Spanish forced Native Americans to work within a system known as encomienda. The natives farmed, ranched, or mined for Spanish landlords. Landlords had rights to natives' labor from Spanish authorities. They promised they would act fairly and respect the workers. Many abused the natives and worked many laborers to death. (pg 557)

Closed country policy

The Tokugawa shoguns realized that they could safely exclude both the missionaries and the merchants. By 1639, they had sealed Japan's borders and instituted a "closed country policy." Most commercial contacts with Europeans ended. Nagasaki, remained open to foreign traders. Only Dutch and Chinese merchants allowed into the port. Earlier, the English had left Japan voluntarily; the Spanish and the Portuguese had been expelled. Since the Tokugawa shoguns controlled Nagasaki, they now had a monopoly on foreign trade, which continued to be profitable. For more than 200 years, Japan remained mostly closed to Europeans. Japanese forbidden to leave to not bring back ideas. Continued to develop as self-sufficient country. (pg 547)

Reign of terror

The period from mid-1793 to mid-1974, when Maximilien Robespierre ruled France nearly as dictator and thousands of political figures and ordinary citizens were executed. (pg 660)

Restoration

The period of Charles II's rule over England, after the collapse of Oliver Cromwell's government. (pg 616)

Old Regime Estates

The political and social system that existed in France before the French Revolution. In this system, people of France divided into 3 large social classes, or estates. The 1st and 2nd estates were privileged estates, had access to high offices and exemptions from taxes. Made up of clergy and nobility. The 3rd made up 97% of the population and consisted of bourgeoisie, workers of France's cities, and peasant. Paid high taxes and resented clergy and nobles for their privileges and special treatment. (pgs 651-652)

Social structure (Japan)

Tokugawa society was very structured. The emperor had the top rank, but was just a figurehead. The actual ruler was the shogun, who was the supreme military commander. Below him were the daimyo, the powerful landholding samurai. Samurai warriors came next. The peasants and artisans followed them. Peasants made up about four-fifths of the population. Merchants were at the bottom, but gradually became more important as the Japanese economy expanded. (pg 544)

African slaves

Used to perform laborous tasks after the Native Americans began to die off. Several advantages for using them. 1-Many had been exposed to European diseases and had built up some immunity. 2-Many had experience in farming and could be taught plantation work. 3-Africans were less likely to escape because they did not know their way around the new land. 4-Their skin color made them easier to catch if they escaped. (pg 566)

African slave trade

the buying, transporting, and selling of Africans for work in the Americas. It became a massive enterprise. (pg 567)

African slave trade (effects)

-Numerous cultures lost generations of their fittest members to European traders and plantation owners. Countless African families were torn apart, many never reunited. Devastated African societies by introducing guns into the continent. -African slaves contributed to economic and cultural development of the Americas. Greatest contribution was labor. Without their work, colonies like Haiti & Barbados would not have survived. Enslaved Africans brought expertise (agriculture). Brought culture (art, music, religion, and food) which continue to influence American societies. -Left mark on population. From U.S. to Brazil, nations have large African populations. Latin American countries have mixed-race population. (pg 570)

Napoleon's failures

1. The Continental System. In November 1806, Napoleon set up a blockade to prevent all trade and communication between Great Britain and other European nations. Supposed to make Europe more self-sufficient and Napoleon intended to destroy Great Britain's commercial and industrial economy. Not tight enough, people disregard it, Britain retaliates with their own blockade on France. 2. Peninsular War. In 1808, Napoleon removed the Spanish king and put his brother, Joseph, on the throne. Spanish had nationalistic feelings and worried Napoleon would attack church. For 6 years, guerillas struck at French armies in Spain and Britain sent troops to aid Spanish. 3. Invasion of Russia. In June 1812, Napoleon and his Grand Army of 420,000 soldiers marched into Russia, but Alexander pulled back his troops and perform a scorched earth policy and burned Moscow. On their retreat, Napoleon's troops died from hunger and cold, in addition to merciless Russian raiders. Only 10,000 troops remained. (pg 670)

Glorious revolution

1685, Charles II died and James II became king. Offended subjects by displaying catholicism. Violated English law by appointing catholics to high office. James dissolved Parliament when it protested. 1688, James wife gives birth and Protestants terrified at possibility of catholic kings. James's older daughter, Mary, was Protestant & was the wife of William of Orange. Members of Parliament invited William and Mary to overthrow James for Protestantism. William led his army to London in 1688 and James fled to France. Bloodless overthrow of King James II. (pg 616)

Guillotine

A beheading machine invented by Dr. Joseph Ignace Guillotin in 1792. (pg 659)

Oda Nobunaga

A brutal and ambitious daimyo who defeated his rivals and seized the imperial capital Kyoto in 1568. Had motto "Rule the empire by force" and sought to eliminate remaining enemies. In 1575, Nobunaga's 3,000 armed soldiers crushed an enemy force of samurai cavalry. 1st time firearms used effectively in Japan. But he could not unify Japan and committed seppuku, ritual suicide of a samurai, in 1582 when one of his own generals turned on him. (pgs 542-543)

Pizarro

A conquistador who, in 1532, marched a small force into South America. He conquered the Incan Empire. Pizarro and his army met the Incan ruler, Atahualpa, near the city of Cajamarca, who commanded a force of about 30,000 and brought several thousand to the meeting. The Spaniards waited in ambush, crushed the Incan force, and kidnapped Atahualpa. The Spanish killed the Incan king and the remaining Incan forces retreated. (pg 556)

Puritans

A group of people who sought freedom from religious persecution in England by founding a colony at Massachusetts Bay in the early 1600s. Wanted to build a model community that would set an example for other Christians to follow. Experienced early difficulties, but gradually took hold. Due to the fact that they had numerous families in the colony, unlike the mostly single population in Jamestown. (pgs 562-563)

Pilgrims

A group of people who, in 1620, founded the colony of Plymouth Massachusetts to escape religious persecution in England. (pg 562)

Renaissance

A movement in Italy that caused an explosion of creativity in art, writing, and thought that lasted approximately from 1300 to 1600. The term means rebirth, and it refers to a revival of art and learning. Educated men and women of Italy hoped to bring back to life the culture of classical Greece and Rome. Yet in striving to revive the past, the people of the Renaissance created something new. Contributions made during this period led to innovative styles of art and literature. They also led to new values, including the importance of the individual. Italy had three advantages that made it the birthplace of the Renaissance: thriving cities, a wealthy merchant class, and the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. (pg 471)

Salons

A social gathering of intellectuals and artists, like those held in the homes of wealthy women in Paris and other European cities during the Enlightenment. Philosophers, writers, artists, scientists, and other great intellects discussed ideas. In 1700s, Paris was the cultural and intellectual capital of Europe. (pg 636)

Perspective

An artistic technique that created the appearance of three dimensions on a flat surface. (pg 474)

Mercantilism

An economic policy that held that a country's power depended mainly on its wealth. Wealth allowed nations to build strong navies and purchase vital goods. The goal of every nation became the attainment of as much wealth as possible. According to the theory of mercantilism, a nation could increase its wealth and power in two ways. 1. It could obtain as much gold and silver as possible. 2. It could establish a favorable balance of trade, in which it sold more items than it bought. Nation's ultimate goal was to become self-sufficient. Mercantilism went hand in hand with colonization, as colonies played a vital role in this economic process. Provided raw materials and were a market. (pgs 574-575)

Indulgences

An indulgence was a pardon. It released a sinner from performing the penalty that a priest imposed for sins. They were not supposed to affect God's right to judge. But Johann Tetzel gave people the impression that by buying indulgences, people could buy their way to heaven. (pg 489)

Ghazi

Anatolian Turks saw themselves as ghazis, or warriors for Islam. They formed military societies under the leadership of an emir, a chief commander, and followed strict Islamic code of conduct. Raided territories of people who lived on the frontiers of Byzantine Empire. (pg 507)

Gutenberg

Around 1440, Johanne Gutenberg, a craftsman from Mainz, Germany, developed a printing press that incorporated a number of technologies in a new way. It made it possible to produce books quickly and cheaply.Gutenberg printed a comlete bible, the Gutenberg bible, around 1455. it was the first full-sized book printed with movable type. Enabled a printer to produce hundreds of copies of a single work. Books were cheap enough so people could buy them. Produced religious works, travel guides and medicine manuals. Spread ideas quickly. (pg 484)

Northern renaissance

As renaissance ideas spread out of Italy, they mingled with northern traditions, and the northern renaissance developed with its own character. Artists were especially interested in realism. Renaissance ideal of human dignity inspired some northern humanists to develop plans for social reform based on Judeo-Christian values. (pg 480)

Romanticism

At the end of the 18th century, Enlightenment idea of reason gave way to romanticism, another major movement in art and ideas. This movement reflected deep interest in nature and in the thoughts and feelings of the individual. Romantic thinkers and writers reacted against the ideals of the Enlightenment. They turned from reason to emotion, from society to nature. Romantics rejected rigidly ordered world of the middle class. Nationalism also fired the romantic imagination. (pg 698)

Martin Luther

Became a monk and a teacher. From 1512 until his death, he taught scripture at University of Wittenberg in German state of Saxony. In 1517, took public stand against Tetzel who was raising money to rebuild St. Peter's Cathedral by selling indulgences. Luther was troubled, and wrote the 95 Theses attacking the "pardon merchants," and posted them on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. Luther's name became known all over Germany and his actions began the reformation, which led to the founding of new churches that did not accept the pope's authority. Luther taught that: 1.people could win salvation only by faith in God's gift of forgiveness. 2. All Church teachings should be clearly based on the words of the Bible. 3 All people with faith were equal. People saw Luther's protests as a way to challenge the church. Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V summoned Luther to the town of Worms in 1521 to stand trial, but Luther refused. Charles issued Edict of Worms declaring Luther an outlaw and heretic, but Luther stayed with Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony. He returned to Wittenberg in 1522 and he and his followers became a separate group called Lutherans. (pgs. 489-490)

King Henry VIII

Became king in 1509, a devout Catholic. Wrote stinging attack against Martin Luther in 1521 and pope gave him title "Defender of the Faith." Needed a male heir. Feared a civil war would start if he died without a son as his heir. Wanted to divorced Catherine of Aragon but church law did not allow divorce. In 1529, called Parliament into session and asked it to pass laws that ended the pope's powers in England. Known as reformation parliament. 1533, Secretly marries Anne Boleyn and Parliament legalized Henry's divorce. 1534, Henry's break from pope completed when Parliament voted to approve Act of Supremacy. People recognized Henry as head of England's church. Thomas More remained devout Catholic and would not accept terms and was executed. Beheaded Boelyn. 3rd wife, Jane Seymour, gave him a son named Edward in 1537. She died 2 weeks later. Married 3 more times but none produced children. Died in 1547, and each of his three children ruled England in turn, which created religious turmoil. Edward too young, and Protestant advisers introduced Protestant reforms. Mary was catholic and returned English church to rule of the pope and had many protestants executed. 1558, Elizabeth inherited throne. (pgs 492-493)

Garibaldi

Bold and visionary. Captured Sicily in May 1860, with a small army of italian nationalists. Became known as Red Shirts. Garibaldi agreed to unite the southern areas he had conquered with kingdom of piedmont-sardinia. Stepped aside and let Sardinian king rule. (pg 694)

Bolivar

Brilliant Venezuelan creole general. Called Libertador. Bolivar's volunteer army of revolutionaries suffered numerous defeats. Twice he goes into exile. Turning point in August 1819 when he led 2,000 soldiers on a march through Andes into Colombia. Took Spanish army in Bogota by surprise and won decisive victory. 1821, won Venezuela's independence and marched into Ecuador to meet San Martin. San Martin leaves army for Bolivar to command. Bolivar's army defeats Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho (peru) on december 9 1824. Spanish colonies in Latin America win freedom. (pg 683)

Ivan IV

Called Ivan the Terrible, came to throne in 1533 when he was 3. Young life disrupted by struggles for power among Russia's landowning nobles, boyars, who fought to control him. At 16, seized control and had himself crowned czar. Married Anastasia, related to old boyar family, the Romanovs. 1547-1560 are "good period." Wins great victories, added land to Russia, gave Russia a code of laws, and ruled justly. "Bad period" after 1560 when Anastasia died. Organized police force to hunt down and murder people considered traitors. Executed many boyars and their families and peasants who worked for them. 1000s died. Seized boyars' estates and gave them to new class of nobles. In 1581, killed oldest son and heir in fight. Ivan died 3 years later leaving his weak second son to rule. (pg 608)

John Calvin

Calvin grew up to have as much influence in the spread of Protestantism as Luther & give order to faith Luther began. In 1536, published Institutes of Christian Religion, which expressed ideas about God, salvation, and human nature. Calvin wrote that men and women are sinful by nature. Said that God chooses a very few people to save, called the "elect." Believed God has known since the beginning of time who will be saved. This doctrine is called predestination, and the religion based off of Calvin's teachings is Calvinism. Believed ideal government was theocracy, government controlled by religious leaders. Protestants in Geneva asked Calvin to lead city, and ran the city under strict rules. To many protestants, Geneva was a model city of highly moral people. (pgs 495-496)

Secular

Concerned with worldly rather than spiritual matters. The basic spirit of the Renaissance society was secular. Even church leaders became more worldly. Some lived in mansions, threw banquets, and wore expensive clothes. (pg 472)

Cultural blending

Each time a culture interacts with another, it is exposed to ideas, technologies, foods, and ways of life not like its own. Begin at continental crossroads, trade routes, ports, and borders of countries. Societies that benefit from cultural blending are open to new ways and are willing to change and adapt. Produce new patterns of behavior. Caused by: Migration, pursuit of religious freedom or conversion, trade, conquest. Contributed to culture of the Ottomans.

Enlightenment (effects)

Enlightenment writers challenged long-held ideas about society & examined divine right, union of state and church, and existence of unequal social classes. Philosophes' theories inspired American and French revolutions and other revolutionary movements of 1800s. -Belief in progress: Galileo & Newton discovered key to unlocking mysteries of nature. Scientists made new discoveries in chemistry, physics, biology, and mechanics. Gave people confidence that human reason solves social problems. Philosophes urge end to slavery, more social equality, and democratic style of government. -More Secular outlook: people began to openly question religious beliefs and teaching of the church. Scientists discover mysteries of nature could be explained mathematically. Voltaire attacked beliefs and practices of organized Christianity. -Importance of the Individual: People turned away from the church and royalty for guidance and looked to themselves. Philosophes encourage people to use their ability to reason to judge right from wrong. Emphasized importance of individual in society. (pgs 633-634)

Baroque

European art of the 1600s and early 1700s dominated by this style. Characterized by a grand, ornate design. Baroque styles seen in elaborate palaces such as Versailles and in numerous paintings. (pg 637)

Japan (trade)

Europeans began coming to Japan in 16th century, durring Warring States time. Despite disorder, Japanese welcome traders and missionaries. Newcomers introduced fascinating new technologies and ideas. Within a century, though, aggressive Europeans wear out welcome. Portuguese brought clocks, eyeglasses, tobacco, firearms, and japanese who were eager to expand markets were happy to receive the newcomers and their goods. Daimyo interested in muskets and cannons because they sought an advantage over rivals. Japanese purchased weapons from Portuguese and soon began own production. Firearms forever changed Japanese warriors traditional sword. In 1549, Christian missionaries began to arrive, but religious orders of Jesuits, Franciscans, and Dominicans came to convert Japanese. Success of missionaries upset Ieyasu, and in 1612, feared religious uprisings and banned Christianity. Uprising in 1637 by 30,000 peasants led Shoguns to persecute Christians. European missionaries killed or driven out and Japanese forced to practice Buddhism. Policies eliminated Christianity and led to formation of exclusion policy. (pgs 545-546)

Hobbes

Experienced political turmoil of England early in the century. Expressed his views in a work called Leviathan (1651). The horrors of the English Civil War convinced him that all humans were naturally selfish and wicked. Without governments to keep order, he said there would be war and life would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short. Argued people must hand over their rights to a strong ruler to gain law and order. Called this agreement where people created a government the social contract. Said ruler needed total control because people act in self-interest. An absolute monarchy would impose order and demand obedience. (pg 629)

Dutch in North America

Followed the English and French. In 1609, Henry Hudson sailed west searching for northwest sea routes to Asia. Discovered 3 waterways and Dutch claimed region along these waterways. Established fur trade with Iroquois Indian and built trading posts along the Hudson River at Fort Orange and on Manhattan Island. Formed Dutch West India Company. In 1621, Dutch government grants company permission to colonize the region and expand fur trade. Dutch holdings become known as New Netherlands. Slow to attract Dutch colonists. Opened doors to variety of people to attract settlers. (pg 563)

Oliver Cromwell

General of the Puritans, or roundheads. In 1645, his New Model Army began defeating Cavaliers and the tide turned towards the Puritans. In 1647, they held the king prisoner. After Charles is executed, Cromwell becomes ruler in 1649, but becomes a military dictator. Cromwell and the Puritans reformed society and promoted Puritan morality while abolishing activities they thought sinful. Strictly Puritan, but favored religious toleration for all Christians except Catholics (pgs 615-616)

Bacon

Helped develop scientific method in 1600s. Had interest in science. Believed that by better understanding the world, scientists would generate practical knowledge that would improve people's lives. Attacked medical scholars for relying to heavily on conclusions of Aristotle & ancient thinkers. Urged scientists to experiment and then draw conclusions. Empiricism, or experimental method. (pg 626)

Geocentric

Idea of the Middle Ages. Believed earth was at the center of the universe. Came from Aristotle and was expanded by Greek astronomer Ptolemy in 2nd century A.D. Christianity taught God had placed Earth at the center of the universe. (pg 623)

Ignatius of Loyola

Important leader in the Catholic Reformation, a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself. Loyola founded new religious orders and took actions to reform and renew the Church from within. Loyola injured in war in 1521, and thought about past sins and about the life of Jesus while recovering. Believed his daily devotions cleansed his soul. In 1522, he began writing a book called Spiritual Exercises that laid out a day-by-day plan of meditation, prayer, and study. He compared spiritual and physical exercise. In next 18 years, got folowers. 1540, pope created religious order for followers called Society of Jesus and members were Jesuits. Jesuits founded schools in Europe, converted non-Christians to Catholicism, and tried to stop the spread of Protestantism. (pgs 498-499)

Caravel

In 1400s, shipbuilders designed the caravel & it is sturdier than earlier vessels. The triangular sails adopted from Arabs allowed it to sail effectively against the wind. (pg 530)

English Civil War (causes)

In 1625, James I died, and Charles I, his son, took the throne. Always needed money but Parliament refused. He imposed fees and fines on English people. Ignored Petition of Right he signed in 1628. Charles offended Puritans by upholding the rituals of the Anglican Church. In 1637, he tried to force the Presbyterian Scots to accept a version of the Anglican prayer book & wanted both kingdoms to follow 1 religion. Scots rebel, assemble army, and threaten to invade England. Charles needed money, which gave Parliament a chance to oppose him. In autumn of 1641, Parliament passed laws to limit royal power. Charles tries to arrest leaders in January 1642 but they escape. A mob of Londoners cause Charles to flee and raise an army in northern England where people are loyal to him. 1642-1649, supporters (royalists or cavaliers) and opposers (Roundheads) fought English Civil War. (pg 615)

Maria Theresa

In 1740, succeeded her father 5 months after Frederick II became King of Prussia. Frederick wanted Austrian Silesia, which bordered Prussia, and underestimated Maria Theresa's strengths. In 1740, he sent his army to Silesia beginning the war of Austrian Succession. Maria Theresa journeyed to Hungary and asked Hungarian nobles for aid. Great Britain also joined Austria to fight Prussia's ally, France. She stopped Prussia's aggression, but lost Silesia in the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. She decreased power of the nobility and limited the amount of labor that nobles could force peasants to do. (pg 607)

Cavour

In 1852, Sardinia's king, Victor Emmanuel II named Count Camilio di Cavour as his prime minister. A cunning statesman who worked tirelessly to expand Piedmont-Sardinia's power. Used skillful diplomacy and well-chosen alliances to gain control of northern Italy for Sardinia. Provoked a war with the Austrians to take northern Italy. Arranged for King Emmanuel II to meet Garibaldi in Naples. (pg 694)

Social structure (South America)

In Latin American society, class dictated people's place in society and jobs. Peninsulares, people born in Spain, could hold high office in Spanish colonial government. Then creoles, Spaniards born in Latin America, who could rise as officers in Spanish colonial armies. Many were well-educated. Then mestizos, persons of mixed European and Indian ancestry. Then mulattos, person of mixed European and African ancestry. Then enslaved Africans. Then Indians. (pgs 681-682)

Impressionism

In the 1860s, a group of painters in Paris reacted against the realist style. They tried to show their impressions of a subject or a moment in time. The style of art became known as impressionism. Fascinated by light and used pure, shimmering colors to capture a moment seen at a glance.Showed a more positive view of the new urban society in Western Europe. Glorified the delights of the life of the rising middle class.Composers created impressions of mood and atmosphere. (pg 701)

Realism

In the middle of the 19th century, industrialization affected everyday life in Europe and the growing class of Industrial workers lived grim lives in dirty, crowded cities. Dreams of romantics seemed pointless. In literature and the visual arts, realism showed life the way it was, not the way it should be. Realist paintings reflected the increasing political importance of the working class in the 1850s. Novels proved especially suitable for describing workers' sufferings. (pg 700)

Phillip II

Inherited Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, and the American colonies from his father, Charles V, who retired to a monastery. Hardworking and very suspicious. He could be aggressive for the sake of his empire. Seized the Portuguese kingdom in 1580 when the king of Portugal died, Had an empire circling the globe counting the Portuguese territory. His empire provided him with great wealth, and used it to support a large standing army of 50,000 soldiers. Believed it was his duty to defend Catholicism against the Muslims of the Ottoman Empire and the Protestants of Europe. Launched the Spanish Armada in 1588 to punish Protestant England and its queen, Elizabeth I. (pgs 589-591)

Declaration of Independence

Issued by Second Continental Congress in July 1776 and written by Thomas jefferson. Firmly based on ideas of Locke and the Enlightenment. Reflected these ideas in its argument for natural rights. (pgs 641-642)

Conflicts in France 1500s

King Henry II dies in 1559 leaving 4 young sons. 3 ruled one after another, but all were incompetent. Real power behind the throne was their mother Catherine de Medicis. Growing conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants) rocked country. 1562-1598, Huguenots and Catholics fought eight religious wars and chaos spread. (pg 596)

Frederick II (Frederick the Great)

King of Prussia from 1740-1786, committed to reforming Prussia. Granted religious freedoms, reduced censorship, and improved education. Reformed justice system and abolished use of torture. Never tried to change social order. Goal was to serve and strengthen his country. (pg 638)

Absolute monarchy

King or queens who held all of the power with their states' boundaries. Their goal was to control every aspect of society. Absolute monarchs believed in the divine right. Rulers: -regulated religious worship and social gatherings to control spread of ideas -increased size of their courts to appear more powerful -created bureaucracies to control a country's economy (pg 594)

Cortes

Landed on shores of Mexico in 1519. Looked to claim new land for Spain. Conquered the Aztecs in 1521. (pgs 554-556)

Montaigne

Lived during the worst years of the French religious wars. After the death of a friend, Montaigne thought deeply about life's meaning. Developed a new form of literature, the essay, a brief work that expresses a person's thoughts or opinions. Pointed out that whenever a new belief arose, it replaced an old belief that people once accepted as a truth. he went that the new belief would probably be replaced by some different idea in the future. Believed that humans could never have absolute knowledge of what is true. (pg 597)

Shakespeare

Most famous writer of the Elizabethan age. Regarded by many as the greatest playwright of all time. By 1952 he was living in London and writing poems and plays, and would soon perform at Globe Theater. He revered classics and drew on them for inspiration and plots. His works display a masterful command of the English language and a deep understanding of human beings. Revealed the souls of men and women through scenes of dramatic conflict. Examines human flaws. Had one of his characters deliver a speech to express the Renaissance's high view of human nature. Famous plays include Macbeth, Hamlet, Othello, Romeo and Juliet, King Lear. (pg 483)

Akbar

Mughal Empire. Babur's grandson was called Akbar, which means "Great." Lived up to his name and ruled India with wisdom and tolerance from 1556 to 1605. Golden age takes place under his rule. Military conqueror, liberal ruler, blended cultures, and arts, literature, and architecture flourish under his rule. Appointed rajputs as officers in army, turning potential enemies into allies. Unified land of at least 100 million people. (pgs 517-518).

Babur

Mughal Empire. In 1494, at 11, inherited a kingdom in the area that is now Uzbekistan and Tajikstan. Elders take it away and drive him south. Babur builds up an army and swept down into India and laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire. Brilliant general. 1526 led an army of 12,000 troops to victory against an army of 100,000 commanded by sultan of Delhi and defeated massive rajput army following year. (pg. 516)

Metacom

One of the bloodiest battles between colonists and Native Americans was known as King Philip's War. Began in 1675 when the Native American ruler Metacom (king Philip) led an attack on colonial villages throughout MA. In following months, both sides massacred hundreds of victims. After a year of fighting, colonists defeated the natives. (pg 565)

Peter the great

Over time, the Romanovs restored order to Russia after Ivan the Terrible's rule. They paved the way for the absolute rule of Czar Peter I. At first he shared the throne with his half-brother but in 1696, he became the sole ruler of Russia. Known as Peter the Great because he was one of Russia's greatest reformers. He continued the trend of increasing the czar's power. Peter often visited the West, fascinated by the modern tools and machines, and believed Russia's future depended on having a warm-water port. Embarked on "Grand Embassy" in 1697, a long visit to western Europe to learn about European customs and manufacturing techniques. He resolved that Russia would compete with Europe on both military and commercial terms. Saw westernization as a way to make Russia stronger. Introduced reforms, westernized Russia, and established St. Petersburg, a seaport that made travel to the west easier. (pgs 609-611)

Copernicus

Polish curic and astronomer. Became interested in early 1500s in old Greek idea that the sun stood at the center of the universe. Studied planetary movement for more than 25 years. Reasoned that the stars, earth, and other planets revolved around the sun. Created heliocentric theory (sun centered theory). Did not publish findings until he was on his death bed. (pg 624)

Prince Henry

Portugal took the lead in overseas exploration. Their most enthusiastic supporter of exploration was Prince Henry, the son of Portugal's king. Began to dream of overseas exploration after helping conquer the Muslim city of Ceuta in 1415, where he saw the wealth that lay beyond Europe. Henry wanted to reach the source of these treasures and spread the Christian faith. Founded a navigational school in 1419 on the southwestern coast of Portugal. Within a few years, Portuguese ship began to sail down the western coast of Africa. (pgs 531-532)

Neoclassical

Relating to a simple, elegant style (based on ideas and themes from ancient Greece and Rome) that characterized the arts in Europe during the late 1700s. Forms under influence of the Enlightenment. (pg 637)

Elizabethan age

Renaissance spread to England in the mid 1500s. Period named after Queen Elizabeth I who reigned from 1558-1603. She did much to support the development of English art and literature. (pg 483)

Isma'il

Safavid Empire. The Safavid military became a force to reckon with. In 1499, 12-year-old Isma'il began to seize most of present Iran, and it only took 2 years. He took the ancient Persian title of Shah, or king, and established Shi'a Islam as the state religion. Became a religious tyrant. Any citizen who did not convert to Shi'ism was put to death. Destroyed Sunni population of Baghdad in confrontation with Ottomans. (pgs 513-514)

John Knox

Scottish preacher who visited Geneva. Upon returning to Scotland in 1559, Knox put Calvin's ideas to work. Each community church was governed by a group of laymen called elders or presbyters. Followers of Knox became known as Presbyterians. In 1560s, Protestant nobles led by Knox made Calvinism Scotland's official religion. They deposed their Catholic ruler, Mary Queen of Scots, in favor of her infant son, James. (pg 496)

Taj Mahal

Shah Jahan's memorial for his wife Mumtaz Mahal. One of the most beautiful buildings in the world. But while constructing Taj Mahal and other monuments, his country was suffering. Famine in the land, and farmers needed tools, roads, and ways of irrigating their crops. Got more taxes to support the building of monuments, their ruler's extravagant living, and war. (pg 519)

Ottoman Empire (decline)

Suleyman killed his ablest son and drove another into exile. His 3rd son, the incompetent Selim II, inherited the throne. Suleyman set a pattern for later sultans to gain and hold power. Became customary for each new sultan to have his brothers strangled, and keep his sons prisoner in the harem, cutting them off from education or contact with the outside world. Produced long line of weak sultans who eventually brought ruin on empire. (pg 511)

Heliocentric

Sun-centered theory created by Nicolaus Copernicus. Reasoned that the stars, earth, and other planets revolved around the sun. Contradicted religious views of the time. (pg 624)

Government of Netherlands

The United Provinces of the Netherlands was different from other European states of the time. The people there practiced religious toleration. The United Provinces was not a kingdom but a republic. Each province had an elected governor, whose power depended on the support of merchants and landholders. (pg 593)

Nationalism

The belief that people should be loyal mainly to their nation-that is, to the people with whom they share a culture and history-rather than to a king or empire. Built empires (Latin American countries, Germany, Italy) and broke apart others (Austrian, Russian, and Ottoman Empires). (pg 687)

Columbus

The competition for wealth in Asia among European nations prompted a Genoese sea captain named Christopher Columbus to make a daring voyage for Spain in 1492. Instead of sailing south around Africa and then east, Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic in search of an alternate trade route to Asia and its riches. Columbus never reached Asia. Instead, he stepped onto an island in the Caribbean. Interested in gold. Explored other islands, and returned on a second voyage as an empire builder. (pg 553-554)

Inflation

The gold and silver coming from the Americas made Spain temporarily wealthy, but led to long-term economic problems. Severe inflation took place, the decline in value of money, accompanied by a rise in the prices of goods and services. Spain's population had been growing and more people needed food and other goods, so merchants raised prices. Also, Spain's silver bullion flooded the market and its value dropped. People needed more silver to buy things. (pg 592)

Divine right

The idea that God created the monarchy and that the monarch acted as God's representative on Earth. An absolute monarch answered only to God, not to his or her subjects. (pg 595)

Louis XIV

The most powerful ruler in French history. In Louis's view, he and the state were one and the same. Became king in 1643 after his father, Louis XIII died. True ruler of France at the time was Cardinal Mazarin, whose greatest triumph came in 1648, with the ending of the Thirty Years' War. When Mazarin died, Louis took control at 22 years-old in 1661. He weakened the nobles' authority, created economic growth, controlled the nobility, and was a patron of the arts. He attempted to expand France's borders and fought the war of Spanish Succession. Louis's last years more sad than glorious, His wars had ruined France and he regretted the suffering he brought to his people. News of his death prompted rejoicing. (pg 602)

Humanism

The study of classical texts led to humanism, an intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements. Instead of trying to make texts agree with Christian teachings as medieval scholars had, humanists studied them to understand ancient Greek values. Influenced artists and architects to carry on classical traditions. Popularized the study of subjects common to classical education, such as history, literature, and philosophy. Subjects are called the humanities. (pg 472)

Middle Passage

The voyage that brought captured Africans to the West Indies and later to North and South America. Considered the middle leg of the transatlantic trade triangle. Sickening cruelty. In African ports, European traders packed Africans into dark holds of large ships. On board, Africans suffered whipping and beating, and disease. Many committed suicide. (pg 569)

L'Ouverture

While the French Revolution was taking place, oppressed people in the French colony of Haiti rose up against their French masters. In August, 1791, enslaved Africans rose in revolt. The formerly enslaved L'Ouverture emerged as the leader. Unfamiliar with military and diplomatic matters, but rose to become a skilled general and diplomat. By 1801, took control of the entire island and freed all of the African slaves. (pg 682)

Indian Ocean trade

With da Gama's voyage, Europeans finally opened direct sea trade with Asia. Europeans tried to obtain profitable trading outposts along the shores of South and Southeast Asia. Following da Gama's voyage, Portugal built a trading empire throughout the Indian Ocean in early 1500s. They took control of the spice trade from Muslim merchants. They broke the old Muslim-Italian domination on trade from the East and Portuguese merchants brought back goods from Asia at one-fifth of what they cost purchased from Arabs and Italians. Beginning around 1600, the English and Dutch began to challenge Portugal's dominance over the Indian Ocean trade. Pressure from Dutch and English eroded Portuguese control, then they battled each other for dominance of the area. They both formed a Dutch East India Company to establish and direct trade throughout Asia. The companies could mint money, make treaties, and raise their own armies.The Dutch East India company was richer and more powerful than England's and they drove out the English and established their dominance. Throughout the 1600s, the Netherlands increased its control over the Indian Ocean trade. In 1700, the Dutch ruled most of Indonesia and had trading posts in several Asian countries, and the Cape of Good Hope. By 1700, Britain and France gained a foothold in the region. English East India Company focused on establishing outposts in India. In 1664, France entered Asian trade with an East India Company and established an outpost in India in 1720, but made little profit. (pgs 533-535)

Castiglione

Wrote a book called the Courtier (1528) that taught how to become such a person. A young man should be charming, witty, and well educated in the classics. He should dance, sing, play music, and write poetry. He should be a skilled rider, wrestler, and swordsman.(pg 473)

Anabaptists

in the Reformation, a member of a Protestant group that believed in baptizing only those persons who were old enough to decide to be Christian and believed in the separation of church and state. Refused to fight in wars. They shared their possessions. Persecuted by Catholics and Protestant because they were viewed as radicals. Became Mennonites and the Amish. (pg 496)

Enlightened despots

one of the 18th century European monarchs who was inspired by Enlightenment ideas to rule justly and respect the rights of subjects. Supported philosophes' ideas but had no intention to give up power. Wanted to make their countries stronger and their own rule more effective. Ex) Frederick II of Prussia, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria, Catherine the Great of Russia. (pg 638)