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Biography: William Tyndale Reading can be pleasurable and informative. Through reading, you can experience an exciting moment in history or a meaningful experience in a person's life. Your experience need not be limited to a certain country or a particular time. You may read about factual events and actual people. Biography is the literary form dealing with real people in real situations. As you read the biography of William Tyndale, be especially aware of the contribution he made. You will see how important the life of one individual can be in God's total plan. Try to relate his experiences to your own life; think of the place you have in God's plan and what contributions you can make. Here are your goals for this lesson: Distinguish between biography, autobiography, and memoir Recall details of a short biography Complete sequence statements from a short biography Vocabulary autobiography An account of a person's life written by himself. biography An account of a person's life history written by another person. Brussels Capital city of Belgium. chronological Arranged according to sequence or order in time. Cologne City in Germany. heretic A person who does not agree with or obey the beliefs of a church. loose-tongued Telling everything you know. martyr One who dies, suffers, or sacrifices everything for his beliefs. memoirs Personal records of experiences or events the writer witnessed. persecution Causing people to suffer because of their beliefs. Reformation A sixteenth century religious movement that led to change and to the Protestant Church. refugee A person who escapes to safety. Scripture The Bible. smuggle Bring into or take out of a country secretly and illegally. wearisome To cause tiredness or fatigue. Vocab Arcade BIOGRAPHY AS A LITERARY FORM Biography, a form of literary prose that is closely related to history, attempts to describe a specific individual in a specific time and place. The personality and actions of character are explored through the historical events and information available to the author. A biographer usually gathers facts, arranges these facts about a person's life into chronological order to form a meaningful pattern, and interprets these facts. Occasionally, facts will not explain a person's actions; therefore, the biographer will try to imagine what thoughts or ideas probably caused that person to act. The primary goal of a biographer is to give the reader an understanding of the personality of the person, as well as to give factual sequences of events as influenced by his period in history. Common subjects for biography include patriots, military leaders, religious figures, political leaders, artists, scientists, and other public figures. One of the best ways to become familiar with a certain philosophy or period in history is to read a biography of a person closely associated with it. Some of the earliest biographical accounts are Biblical. The Old Testament records the lives of the patriarchs. The Gospels in the New Testament reveal the life of Jesus Christ. Other early works include Greek and Roman philosophers and the religious biographies of saints, martyrs, and others. Later European biographies include such subjects as artists of the Renaissance and prominent statesmen. Many scholars consider the Life of Samuel Johnson by James Boswell to be the finest English biography. Colonial America produced biographies as well. Many American biographies deal with clergymen and politicians. One of the outstanding American contributions is the six-volume Abraham Lincoln by Carl Sandburg. When an author writes an account of his own life, he is writing an autobiography. One well-known autobiography was written by Benjamin Franklin. A related type of writing is the memoir. A memoir is a personal record of events the writer has witnessed or experienced.

Flashback and Inferences in Biography Dolley Payne Madison was famous in Washington, D.C. as the hostess for the White House. She greeted official guests for Thomas Jefferson, whose wife had died. Later, as the wife of President James Madison, the Father of the Constitution, she impressed Washington with her parties, dinners, and fashionable clothes. This gracious lady showed great courage and patriotism in a time of danger. Her biography reveals her character through her background and actions. In this section, you will study the literary techniques of flashback, logical conclusion, and sequence of actions. Here are your goals for this lesson: Identify three ways flashback is used in biography Arrange details in chronological order Make inferences based upon details Vocabulary amid Among; in the middle of. deduce To infer or draw a conclusion from given information. Friends Another name for the Quakers. frivolous Unimportant; not serious. infer To draw a conclusion from facts; to guess. loot Rob, seize, and carry away by force. Quaker A Christian denomination that opposes war and stresses a simple and godly life. witty Clever and amusing. Vocab Arcade FLASHBACK TECHNIQUE IN BIOGRAPHY Usually a narrative is written in chronological order. However, chronological order in telling a sequence of events or actions can be rather dull or excessively long. Sometimes an author prefers to start a story in the middle of the action. The only way he can explain the reasons for certain things is to go back to an event that happened earlier. When an author places an earlier event out of chronological order by explaining about it later, he is using a technique called flashback. Flashback can be used in different ways: 1. By the character. A character who is riding a horse may remember the first time he ever rode a horse. If his earlier experience was a bad one, his reaction in the present may be quite different from what it would have been otherwise. 2. By another character. This character mentions something out of the past. Usually the earlier event must be told for the reader to understand something about the person or story. 3. By the author. He or she can simply write, "Emory had been born eighty-three winters before, in a dilapidated shanty near the river." The reader would learn Emory's age and the reason for his miserly characteristics. Flashback can be used to hold the reader's interest. The use of the flashback technique can create suspense or mystery. Missing information is supplied, and the mystery or the problem is solved. THE PRESIDENT'S WIFE ESCAPES 1 "There is no time to lose, Mrs. Madison," cried the messenger as he rode up in front of the White House in Washington. "The enemy is nearly here, and they have boasted that they will capture you and the President and take you both back to London in chains." 2 Dolley Madison did not fear for her own safety, but she did not want any of the national treasures that were kept in the White House to fall into the hands of the British. When she and her husband, President James Madison, had come to live in the White House five years before, no one had ever dreamed that the day would come when they would have to flee for their lives to escape capture by an enemy. 3 Dolley Payne had been born in North Carolina in 1772, but she spent most of her childhood days on a big plantation in Virginia. Her father was a Quaker, yet that did not prevent him from joining the American army and fighting for independence during the Revolutionary War. 4 After the war, Mr. Payne sold the plantation and moved his family to Philadelphia, the largest city in America at that time. There [was] ... much entertaining in that city which was then the capital of the United States, but Mr. Payne was a Quaker and did not take part in such frivolous things. 5 Dolley's father made her obey the strict rules of the Quakers.... On Sunday she went to the Friends' meeting house, where in her plain dress and bonnet she sat on one side of the house with other women and girls while the men sat on the opposite side. 6 One day Mr. Payne told Dolley that John Todd, the rich young Quaker lawyer with whom he did business, had asked for her hand in marriage. Her father thought that it would be a fine match for her, and so she consented. The marriage was announced in the Quaker meeting house a few months later. 7 Dolley and John Todd settled down and lived the simple life of the Quakers for three years. Then, in 1793, a dreadful epidemic of yellow fever broke out in Philadelphia. Dolley and her two children went to the country to escape the epidemic, but her husband had to remain in Philadelphia to take care of his business. Before he could join his family, he became sick and died. One of her sons also died in that tragic epidemic. 8 Dolley was grief-stricken and felt she would never be happy again. But when the yellow fever epidemic was over and she returned to Philadelphia, she found herself in the center of an admiring group of young men. She was young and beautiful, and her husband had left her enough money so that she now could do as she pleased. 9 One of the men who frequently called to see her was Aaron Burr. He was a Senator attending the session of Congress which met in Philadelphia. One day he asked if he might bring his friend, James Madison, who was anxious to meet Dolley. 10 Madison was one of the leaders in Congress and had helped write the United States Constitution. Although he was twenty years older than Dolley, she was pleased that he had asked to call on her. She told Burr she would be delighted to meet the famous Virginian, James Madison. 11 Madison was equally delighted to meet the pretty young widow. It was not long before they fell in love with each other and were married at the home of Dolley's sister in Virginia amid feasting and merrymaking. 12 At her husband's request, Dolley gave up wearing the simple Quaker gray gown and began to take her place as a leader in society. The parties that Mr. and Mrs. Madison gave became very popular, and everyone looked forward to receiving an invitation. 13 When Thomas Jefferson was elected President of the United States, he made James Madison his Secretary of State. Jefferson's wife had died, so the President often called upon the attractive and witty Dolley Madison to take charge of the state dinners at the White House. The fame of Dolley Madison as a charming hostess spread rapidly. 14 James Madison was elected President of the United States, succeeding Jefferson. Dolley felt right at home when she moved into the White House. "Everyone loves Dolley Madison," said one of her guests one day. "And Dolley Madison loves everybody," was Mrs. Madison's quick reply. 15 But it was not all fun in Washington, D.C., the new location of the Capitol. In 1812, war broke out between the United States and England because the British Navy blockaded American ships. They forced American sailors off their ships and made them join the British Navy. 16 The American Navy was so small at that time that, although our warships won a number of brilliant victories, they were no match for the mighty British Navy. In August of 1814, the British landed an army near Washington. No American army appeared to stop their advance. There was great terror in the capital city. 17 President Madison hurried away to see what could be done to stop the British. "If the British come before I get back," he said to his wife before leaving, "don't let the state papers fall into their hands." 18 Reports came to the White House that the British were advancing and were threatening to burn the Capitol. Mrs. Madison knew that there was no time to lose. She and the few servants who had not already fled to safety brought out her trunks, and she began packing them with the nation's most valuable papers. 19 The sound of the guns could be heard in the distance as the last trunk was packed. Just then a messenger rode up with the alarming news that the British were entering the outskirts of Washington and Mrs. Madison must go at once if she wanted to escape capture. There was no time to lose. He admonished Mrs. Madison for insisting on taking the trunks she had with her. 20 "These trunks contain the nation's most valuable state papers, including the Declaration of Independence. If I go, they go, too," said Mrs. Madison. 21 The White House guards who were standing nearby knew that Mrs. Madison was serious and started loading the trunks into her carriage. Then she started to climb in herself. It was then she remembered the famous Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington which hung in the state dining room. 22 "Wait a moment," said Mrs. Madison. "We cannot leave that painting to the British." Ignoring the pleas of the guards who said there was no time for her to go back, Dolley Madison jumped down from the carriage and ran up the stairs of the White House. 23 The picture was fastened to the wall, so she had to cut the picture out of the frame. Then Dolley Madison took the painting out and rolled it up. With the picture safe in her hands, she dashed back to her waiting carriage which drove away just in time. 24 The British could be seen coming down the road, but Dolley Madison escaped. They did not notice the carriage because they were anxious to loot and burn down the White House and the Capitol. 25 The war ended the following year. Washington D. C. and the White House were later rebuilt. Because of the bravery and foresight of Dolley Madison, the state papers were restored to the nation, and the famous painting of George Washington can once more be seen hanging on the walls of the White House. Click here to learn more about Dolley Madison. To be successful at the following game, you should review these lessons in this unit: "Biography: William Tyndale," "Sequence of Events," and "Flashback and Inferences in Biography."

Punctuation Review You have taken an in-depth look at punctuation. You had already learned many of the punctuation rules; some of it may have been new to you. Looking back, it may seem like a lot of rules to remember. Most of the rules, though, you understand well. Most of the time, good punctuation is just a matter of staying aware while you are working. When you write, don't worry about punctuation for your first draft. Get your ideas and thoughts on paper or on screen. Then proofread carefully. Stay alert, and pay close attention to each sentence when you are looking for errors. This lesson is a brief review to help you remember the punctuation you have studied in this unit. Pay close attention to the areas that you have found more challenging, and read quickly over the easier ones. Here is your goal for this lesson: Continue using punctuation correctly The Apostrophe. The apostrophe is used to show possession, omission, and plurals of letters and figures. Only plural nouns that end with s form the possessive by adding just the apostrophe. To form the possessive of all other words, add 's (all singular nouns, plural nouns not ending in s, and the indefinite pronouns). Remember that possessive pronouns (my, your, its) do not need any punctuation because they are already possessive. When two or more persons own something together, only the last name is punctuated as a possessive. When two or more persons possess or own items individually, each owner needs the apostrophe form. Use an apostrophe to show where letters are omitted in a contraction. Use an apostrophe to form the plurals of letters and figures. Quotation Marks. Use quotation marks at the beginning and at the end of a direct quotation (a person's exact words). Do not use quotation marks for an indirect quotation. Begin a direct quotation with a capital letter if it is a complete sentence. When a direct quotation is broken into two parts, do not begin the second part with a capital letter unless it is a new sentence. Each part has its own quotation marks. Use a comma to separate a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence. Remember that commas and periods come before the quotation marks. Sentences with exclamation points or question marks require a little more thought. Just think: Is the whole sentence a question or just the quote? Is the whole sentence excited, or just the quote? Place question marks and exclamation points inside quotation marks if the quotation itself is a question or exclamation. If the whole sentence is asking or exclaiming, put the punctuation outside the quotation marks. Use quotation marks to set off the titles of short works, such as stories, songs, poems, articles, and parts of books. Use quotation marks for the titles of programs and performances, whether live or electronic. Use quotation marks to indicate that a word is being used outside of its regular application. Parentheses. Use parentheses to enclose parenthetic (not closely related), supplementary (extra), and explanatory (clarifying) material when the idea that interrupts the main part of the sentence is very noticeable. If the interruption is less noticeable, we usually use commas instead. Use parentheses to enclose numerical figures (numbers) which repeat a number that has been spelled out. The Hyphen. Use a hyphen (-) to divide a word between syllables when the word must be continued to the next line. Divide words only between syllables. Never leave less than three letters on a line. Avoid dividing capitalized words. Use a hyphen when writing compound numbers and fractions as words. Use a hyphen to separate a prefix from a proper noun or adjective (any capitalized word). Use a hyphen to separate the prefixes all-, self-, and ex- when they are added to nouns. Use a hyphen to separate certain compound words. If you're not sure of the spelling of a compound word, always check the dictionary to see if it is closed (baseball), open (snare drum), or hyphenated (president-elect). The Comma. Use a comma after introductory words, phrases, or clauses. (If a phrase is very short, the comma can be omitted, but it's easier to just learn to do it all the time, which is never wrong.) Names of people used in direct address (when you speak to them) are separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma. When two sentences have been joined with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or), place a comma before the conjunction. Also use commas to separate words, phrases, or clauses in a series (as in this sentence). Remember to place a comma before the conjunction. Use a comma to separate the day from the year in a date. If it appears in a sentence, a comma is placed after the year. Use a comma to separate the city from a state. If it appears in a sentence, a comma is placed after the state. Use commas to set off nonessential elements, such as appositives and parenthetic words, phrases, or clauses, that interrupt the flow of the sentence. However, if a word, phrase, or clause is essential to clarify the meaning of a sentence or to correctly identify a person, do not set it off with commas. An Overview of Punctuation To be successful at the following game, you should review these lessons in this unit: "Apostrophe," "Quotation Marks," "Parentheses and Hyphen," "Comma," and "Punctuation Review."

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The problems in Germany began to grow closer. A young German watchmaker named Otto came to work in their watch shop. Since he was one of Hitler's youths, he showed no respect for the elderly, the Jews, or the Dutch. When Mr. ten Boom tried to reason with him, Otto only showed contempt.

Read Chapter 5. In the fifth chapter, the political situation becomes much clearer to the reader. Corrie described the fears of the Dutch as the invasion progressed.

Sentence Types: Introduction A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought and that is punctuated as an independent unit. In the written English language, the sentence is the basic structure. Until you have mastered the skills of writing clear, concise, correct sentences, you will not be ready to write paragraphs. You will need to develop a "sentence sense" that enables you to recognize a complete thought in sentence form. You will learn to classify sentences according to their function. Here is your goal for this lesson: Classify sentences based upon four possible functions Vocabulary declarative Making a statement; explaining. exclamatory Spoken suddenly in surprise; expressing strong feelings. function The work or normal action performed; the purpose. imperative Urgent; expressing a command or a request. interrogative Asking a question. Vocab Arcade Sentences may be classified, or typed, according to structure (as you learned in Language Arts 704) or according to function. In this section, you will study sentences according to their purpose, meaning, or function. To review briefly, a sentence is a group of words that communicates a complete thought. A sentence is punctuated as a separate unit. A sentence begins with a capitalized word and ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation mark. Click on the "Sentences" presentation below to learn about the four functions of sentences. As the "Sentences" presentation shows you, sentences may be placed in one of four classifications, according to meaning or function. A declarative sentence tells something about the subject. The proper end punctuation is a period. The declarative sentence is by far the most common in written English. As the "Sentences" presentation demonstrated, a declarative sentence spoken aloud ends with a descending tone. Example: The dog is in the yard . Jeff raked up the leaves . An interrogative sentence asks a question. The proper end punctuation is a question mark. As the "Sentences" presentation demonstrated, an interrogative sentence spoken aloud ends with an ascending tone. Example: Is the dog in the yard ? Did Jeff rake up the leaves ? An imperative sentence expresses a command. The proper end punctuation is usually a period. As the "Sentences" presentation demonstrated, if an imperative sentence is spoken with a forceful or stern tone, it may use an exclamation point. An imperative sentence can also be a polite request which resembles a question. Example: Put the dog in the yard ! Jeff, rake up the leaves . Jeff, would you please rake up the leaves ? An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling. The proper end punctuation is an exclamation point. As the "Sentences" presentation demonstrated, an exclamatory sentence is spoken with a raised or excited tone. Example: The dog is in the yard ! Jeff raked up the leaves !

Sentence Types: Declarative and Interrogative The sentences that appeared in the previous lesson's practice section, when read in sequence, tell a story. Did you notice that half of the sentences were declarative? In most examples of written English, half or more of the sentences are declarative. Here are your goals for this lesson: Distinguish between declarative and interrogative sentences Recognize the use of auxiliary verbs in forming interrogative sentences Rewrite declarative sentences as interrogatives Vocabulary abstract Expressing a quality or idea rather than a particular object. auxiliary verb Helping verb; verb used to form the tense of other verbs. Vocab Arcade Declarative sentences. Declarative sentences declare. They may tell, explain, state, describe, define, or illustrate.

Read Chapter 7. The following activities are related to the reading assignment. Your best preparation for completing the activities will be these steps: 1. Read the chapter, looking generally for main ideas, supporting details, character descriptions and relationships, sequence of events, and so on. 2. Review the chapter for more specific comprehension and for assignments given in the directions preceding the activities. 3. Complete all the learning activities that you can possibly complete without referring again to the chapter. 4. Refer to the assigned reading for any answers you cannot recall, after you have finished all the activities you can complete correctly.

The Germans began taking young Dutch men from their homes and making them work in German factories. Peter's family was afraid for him and for his brother Bob. They made a hiding place in a small cellar beneath the kitchen floor. When the soldiers came to their home, the boys were hidden away, and God was trusted to protect them. The soldiers left without finding them. Corrie and her family continued to help the Jews, and the Lord constantly opened new ways for them to receive and to give help. They found a way to have their telephone reconnected, and they sent messages by secret code over it. The most difficult Jews to hide were the ones who looked very Semitic, that is, whose facial characteristics obviously proclaimed their ancestry. The ten Booms had such a man come to them, and he became their first permanent guest. Soon other permanent additions came. One of these Jews was a schoolteacher who set up an electric alarm system for them. Corrie and her family practiced fake raids to be ready for real ones. The ten Booms had to be certain the Jews were all hidden and that the house showed no traces of the "guests" there. With practice, the group cut the drill time from four minutes to seventy seconds. Betsie and Corrie also devised stalling techniques at the door to give them more time.

Communication: Writing and Reading Communication takes place when one person passes an idea or a feeling to another person. Communication with others can take place through writing, reading, speaking, and listening. To communicate effectively through these media, certain skills are essential. You have learned many of these skills throughout the year in Language Arts 701-709. You will review how to write well-constructed paragraphs using topic sentences, unity of ideas, sequence of events, and coordination and subordination of phrases and sentences. You will also review how to understand and arrange events in proper chronological order to be a more effective reader and writer. Here are your goals for this lesson: Analyze paragraphs for topic sentence, unity, and sequence Use coordination and subordination in sentences Use chronological order and key events to understand nonfiction Recall chronological detail from previous reading Vocabulary autobiography A story of one's own life. biography An account of a person's life written by another person. chronological Arranged according to sequence or order in time. Vocab Arcade WRITING The Language Arts series this year has helped you to develop effective ways of communicating. Writing is one method of communication. In the first two sections, you have reviewed some of the basic rules of writing, such as capitalization, punctuation, and sentence formation. You will now review another skill essential to effective written communication--writing well-constructed paragraphs. Paragraphs help a person organize what he has to say by focusing the reader's attention on a single, central idea. Paragraphs help to fit ideas together smoothly, so that their relationship to each other and their relative importance will be clear to whoever hears or reads the message on paper. Most paragraphs have a topic sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph. It is most frequently the first sentence of the paragraph, but a topic sentence may also come within the paragraph or at the end of it. Unity. When all the sentences in the paragraph support the topic sentence, the paragraph has unity. Unity results when the paragraph develops one main idea from the beginning to the end.

Not only should the other sentences of a paragraph support the topic sentence, but the other sentences should also be arranged in a logical order, such as by time (chronological) or by relative importance. Sequence is a name for the logical progression of ideas or facts. The following short paragraph contains related ideas. All of the ideas except one follow each other in a normal order. Read the paragraph to find the idea that does not belong there. This idea does not support the topic sentence. Study the relationship between the other ideas in the paragraph. Notice how they are related to each other. When I arrived at his house, Larry was waiting for me. He immediately began to talk about the prayer meeting. Then he started asking me questions. His voice was very deep. As soon as I had answered his questions, we went out and played ball. As you may have noticed, the fourth sentence, "His voice was very deep," has nothing to do with the other sentences in the paragraph. Everything else is told as it occurs in time (chronological sequence). When, immediately, then, and as soon as are all used to show time relationships. The fourth sentence in the paragraph is a description of Larry that does not fit. Other descriptions of Larry that have something to do with time could be substituted. Examples: He spoke rapidly. He seemed to be in a hurry. He kept looking at the clock.

Pitch, Accent, and Pause You have studied sentence patterns and how to form creative sentences that give vivid, accurate descriptions. These language principles apply not only to writing but also to speaking. Conversation should be accurate and descriptive as well. To be a good conversationalist, you must first be a good listener. Give your full attention to all the sounds around you. Recall the types of listening studied in previous lessons. Concentrating on specific sounds can be meaningful to you. By listening with your mind, not just with your ears, you will understand the actual meaning of what is said. In this lesson, you will learn how to identify the different voice pitches a person uses and how to determine the meaning of the words said. You will review juncture (pause) as an effective signal or as a means for adding meaning to a sentence. Here are your goals for this lesson: Select the correctly accented syllable in words marked for pronunciation Determine the reasons for pitch changes in speaking Understand the use of pause in verbal communication Understand that the same words said with different accents, pitches, and/or pauses communicate different meaning Vocabulary accent Emphasis or stress placed on a syllable or word. imperative A sentence that makes a command or request. inflection The changes in tone or pitch our voices make. juncture A pause used in speech. pause A break or time of waiting that gives emphasis or signals the end of a sentence or phrase. pitch The various tones a voice uses when speaking. pronunciation The way we say a word. Vocab Arcade PITCH AND ACCENT Most people want their speaking voices to be pleasing and effective. Pronunciation (the way a word is spoken) is indicated by the dictionary. However, other factors determine pronunciation as well. You have learned that a voice is like a musical instrument--a very versatile one. A voice can run up and down a scale, can hit different pitches exactly, or can slur one pitch into another. (We are referring here to spoken, not musical, tones.) Changing voice pitch gives extra meaning to spoken words. Often when we know how a word should be accented, we know also where to change pitch. Look at the word insult. If you use it as a verb, the accent is on the second syllable. If you use it as a noun, the accent is on the first syllable. Read the following example with the correct accent. Examples: This accent rule can also be applied to other words used as both nouns and verbs. Read the two sentences for the word address, An accent can change the pitch of a word so that two words that look identical are actually different when we say them. The accent on certain words can also make two sentences that look identical have different meanings . Example: A person who was attempting to describe a wheel that is going around and around might say: However, if he were describing an old-fashioned device used for making thread or yarn, he might say: Knowing how to accent something you read orally the first time can be difficult. Most sentences will not have two meanings, and only some words have two meanings. If you know ahead of time that you will have to read something aloud, read it first to yourself. Then when you read it for others your voice pitch and inflection will add meaning to your words. Some words sound ridiculous if they are spoken in a high pitch; others would sound ridiculous if they are spoken in a low pitch. Try saying help in a low pitch in this sentence. Help should be said with some force behind it, and this cannot be done in a low pitch. Help must be said in a higher pitch. Read the two sentences again, following the pitch patterns. Sometimes the way we say a word of one syllable will change its meaning. The rising pitch in Sam gives him a signal and attracts attention. But what if you were upset with him? Try lowering the pitch as you say Sam. You have probably heard your parents call you in different ways. Voice pitch tells you whether they are just looking for you, or whether you may be in trouble and need to go home immediately. Say the following words. Note the difference in meaning between the noun and the verb form. If you are unsure of the meaning, look it up in a dictionary. (noun) (verb) (noun) (verb) (noun) (verb) Read the following four sentences aloud to a friend. Try using the wrong pitch, letting your voice fall for a question and raising your voice at the end of the statements. Ask a friend if he or she can find anything wrong. Will you come to my house? Do you have your homework done? I went to the store last night. I got up late this morning. Read each of the following sentences aloud, accenting the italicized word. Can you hear the difference in meaning? Come here! Come here! Are you my friend? Are you my friend? Are you my friend? Are you my friend? Give me your pencil. Give me your pencil. Give me your pencil. Give me your pencil. Look out! Look out!

PITCH AND PUNCTUATION Pitch can also give clues to the listener. It can tell him if a question is being asked or if a statement is being made. When the pitch falls and the voice fades out to a complete stop, a statement is being made. When the pitch of the voice rises and fades off, a question is being asked. Occasionally a voice indicates excitement or danger by rising in pitch, then quickly falling before fading out. This pitch change indicates an exclamatory sentence. When speaking or reading aloud, voice pitch must show whether a statement is being made, a question is being asked, or an emotion is being shown. Changing pitch is usually learned at the same time speech is being learned. It is possible to hear the murmur of voices from another room without hearing the distinct words and still know if English is being spoken by the inflection of the voices. Pitch can also signify punctuation. When a comma is in a sentence, our voice rises slightly but does not fade out, indicating that more information is to come. Notice the rising pitch before the commas as you say the following sentence: I like salad, potatoes, and meat. Sentence fragments are improper to use in writing. In conversation, however, they are not always improper. If someone asked you, "Which shoes are your favorites?" you might reply, "The yellow and red pair." Sometimes, only a few words will tell much more when we vary the pitch of our voice. This word, spoken in this manner, could indicate the following thoughts: "If that is the way you feel, forget it!" or "I can't believe she did that!" Spoken in another manner, with the voice rising slightly could indicate surprise or a question. A voice is a wonderful instrument given by God so that people can communicate with one another. Think how dull it would be if everyone spoke every word in a monotone, on the same pitch. Try to read the following sentences without changing the pitch or inflection of your voice. Examples: The lovely red rose grows in my garden. Are you coming to the ball game? That red car was super! Does it remind you of a robot or a computer? God has given us voices with the wonderful ability to do a variety of things, including change pitch.

atterns: Inverted, Compound Parts, S/V/DO Language, like the rest of creation, operates in a series of orderly patterns. Language patterns can be found in the sounds, words, phrases, and sentences that we use to speak and write. As you become more aware of the patterns in our language, you will be better able to use those patterns to express ideas in many different ways. Here are your goals for this lesson: Recognize sentence elements in inverted order Identify compound subjects and predicates within sentences Use sentence patterns to identify the direct object You have learned that all English sentences have two basic parts, the subject and the predicate. Although every sentence has the same two parts, not all sentences look the same or serve the same purpose. Subjects and predicates come in different shapes and sizes. For example, you could say the same thing about your neighbor, a brave fireman, in several ways. Our neighbor, John, is a brave fireman. Our neighbor, John the fireman, is brave. Our fireman neighbor, John, bravely fought the fire. Fireman John, our brave neighbor, gave the fire a fierce fight. All of the sentences above describe John, but the first set of sentences is different from the second set. The first two sentences use the being verb is to simply tell you the way things are. They rely on adjectives and nouns in the predicate (brave and fireman) to describe the subject, neighbor The second two sentences include much of the same meaning as the first two. Notice, however, that the second set uses action verbs; fought and gave allow Fireman John to show that he is brave. All of the subjects in the sentences above are similar, but the predicates differ in their meanings according to the kind of verb used in each sentence. The verbs, in turn, determine the kinds of words and phrases which follow. These differences among the types of predicates group themselves into basic patterns. Many of these patterns you already use, but taking time to think about them can help you more effectively speak and write about ideas in a variety of ways. In the next two lessons you will be studying five basic English sentence patterns; these appear below. -- subject-verb -- subject-verb-direct object -- subject-linking verb-predicate noun -- subject-linking verb-predicate adjective -- subject-verb-indirect object-direct object. Vocabulary compound subject Two or more subjects in a sentence. compound verb Two or more verbs joined by a conjunction. inverted Changed order. transitive An action verb that is followed by a direct object. Vocab Arcade SUBJECT-VERB PATTERN The most simple sentence pattern is the subject-verb pattern. The subject is the sentence part that tells who or what the sentence is about. The verb tells what the subject is, does, or says. In a typical sentence, the subject comes first and is followed by the verb. Example: My yellow cat sat under the tree. It can become an easy habit for sentences to fall into the same pattern: a subject followed by a verb. This type of writing can be very dull, but rearranging sentences can add spice to language. Sentences can be rearranged in several different ways. When a sentence is turned around with the verb before the subject, the sentence is in inverted order. Sentences with inverted subject-verb order often begin with a prepositional phrase. Example: Under the tree sat my yellow cat.

COMPOUND SENTENCE ELEMENTS Sometimes a sentence has two or more words acting in the same role. For instance, the subject of the sentence may have more than one verb. Example: Kelly locked the car and ran into the house. In this sentence both the verbs locked and ran refer to Kelly. When a sentence has two or more verbs, the sentence has a compound verb. The verb in a sentence can also have more than one subject. Example: James and Tim jumped off the truck. When a sentence has two or more subjects, in this sentence James and Tim, the sentence has a compound subject. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound verb. Example: Julie and Kyra washed and dried the dishes. Compound subject: Julie and Kyra Compound verb: washed and dried The compound parts in a sentence are joined by words such as or and and. These words are called conjunctions.

Parentheses and Hyphen This lesson focuses on using parentheses and hyphens correctly. To write clearly and concisely, you must learn to apply the rules for punctuation. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use parentheses for a variety of purposes Use hyphens to correctly divide or spell words Vocabulary confirm Prove to be true or correct. optional Left to one's choice; not required. parenthetic Characterized by adding an idea without changing the meaning. set off Set apart; separate. Vocab Arcade PARENTHESES Use parentheses to enclose parenthetic, supplementary, and explanatory material. A parenthetic expression is a group of words, an idea, that is not closely related to the rest of the sentence. Supplementary material is material added to further explain an idea. It is similar to a parenthetic expression. Explanatory material gives an extra explanation to help the reader better understand the main idea of a sentence. Information enclosed in parentheses does not change the meaning of the sentence. We use parentheses when the idea that interrupts the main part of the sentence is very noticeable. If the interruption is less noticeable, we usually use commas instead. Parentheses enclose parenthetic expressions. Example: The old radios (none of them work) are being donated to the rummage sale. Parentheses enclose supplementary material. Example: He is hoping (as we all are) that he does well in school this year. Parentheses enclose (surround) explanatory material (ideas). Look again at the previous sentence. The words surround and ideas are enclosed in parentheses because each explains the word that comes before it. They tell us that enclose means surround, and material means ideas. Use parentheses to enclose numerical figures (numbers) which confirm a written number. This type of usage occurs frequently in business, but it is seldom used in other kinds of writing. Example: The cost of thirty (30) packages of paper is fifty dollars ($50). Use parentheses to enclose numbers or letters in a series. Example: A good student always brings the following items to class: (1) book, (2) paper, (3) pens, and (4) pencils. If a list of ideas or words is used, the use of parentheses is optional.

THE HYPHEN Use a hyphen (-) at the end of a line to divide a word that is to be carried over to the next line. Divide words only between syllables. Check your dictionary if you are not sure of a word's syllables. Incorrect: On Sunday we ate dinner with our gran- dparents. Correct: On Sunday we ate dinner with our great- grandparents. Never divide a one-syllable word. Incorrect: We like to feed bread cru- mbs to birds. Correct: We like to feed bread crumbs to birds. Divide words evenly, and never leave less than three letters on a line. Awkward: He told me he was in- terested in model airplanes. Correct: He told me he was inter- ested in model airplanes. When writing formal English, do not divide capitalized words. Incorrect: This year we studied Amer- ican history. Correct: This year we studied American history. Use a hyphen to separate the parts of compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine when they are written in words. Examples: thirty-two students twenty-one years old seventy-five cents Use a hyphen to separate fractions written in words. Examples: a three-fourths majority one-sixth of a pie Use a hyphen to separate a prefix from a proper noun or adjective. Examples: un-American pre-Christian anti-Russian Use a hyphen to separate the prefixes all-, self-, and ex- when they are added to nouns. Examples: all-star ex-president self-regard Use a hyphen to separate certain compound words. Examples: secretary-treasurer mother-in-law president-elect day-to-day

Apostrophe This lesson focuses on using correct internal punctuation, specifically, the apostrophe. To write clearly and concisely, you must learn to apply the rules for punctuation. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use apostrophes with possessive nouns and indefinite pronouns Use apostrophes correctly with compound possessives Use apostrophes in contractions Use apostrophes to form plurals of letters and numerals Vocabulary clarity clearness of appearance, thought, or style emphasis special force; importance indefinite pronoun a pronoun that is not specific, such as any, anyone, some, and somebody plural containing more than one. possessive case the form of a noun, pronoun, or adjective used to show ownership punctuation the use of periods, commas, and other marks to help make the meaning clear Vocab Arcade When you speak to another person, you use your voice to give emphasis and meaning to specific words and ideas. You give emphasis and meaning by pausing, by saying certain words more loudly or softly, and by changing the tone and pitch of your voice. Although you cannot use your voice when you write, you have other tools to give emphasis and meaning to words and ideas. In Section One, you reviewed that a sentence begins with a capital letter. This capital letter announces the beginning of a new idea. If the word "he" begins with a capital letter within a sentence, it tells the reader that we are talking about God. Punctuation is another tool we use to give meaning, emphasis, and clarity when we write. You know how to use periods and question marks at the ends of sentences. In particular, you know that a period at the end of a sentence marks the end of an idea or thought. This kind of punctuation is called outside punctuation, because it comes at the end of a sentence. Punctuation that occurs within a sentence is called inside or internal punctuation. In addition to quotation marks and parentheses, inside punctuation includes the apostrophe, hyphen, and comma. THE APOSTROPHE The apostrophe ( ' ) is used to form the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns. The possessive case of personal pronouns does not require the use of an apostrophe. Examples: my coat (My shows possession or ownership of coat.) his coat your coat Also: her, our, their, its, whose That coat is hers. That coat is yours. Also: mine, ours, theirs The possessive case of indefinite pronouns is formed by adding 's. Examples: anyone's coat (Anyone's shows possession or ownership of coat.) somebody's coat Also: one, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, anybody, someone The possessive case of singular nouns is formed by adding 's. Examples: man's coat (man's shows possession or ownership of the coat) Janis's coat mother's coat The possessive case of plural nouns that end with s is formed by adding an apostrophe after the s. Examples: ladies' coats boys' skates The possessive case of plural nouns not ending in s is formed by adding 's. Examples: children's coats men's coats Many sentences use possessive nouns, which require 's, as adjectives, or modifiers of other nouns. Examples: A month's subscription is not too expensive. (modifying the subject) I cooked this morning's breakfast. (modifying the direct object) A pound of this fruit is a dollar's worth. (modifying the predicate noun)

When two or more words are used to show joint possession or ownership, only the last word is punctuated as a possessive. Examples: John and Bill's boat (The boat belongs to both John and Bill.) Jill, Sue, and Brenda's ball Jackson and Johnson's Hardware Store When two or more persons possess or own items individually, each name is in possessive case. Example: John's and Bill's coats (John and Bill each own a coat.)

Here are your goals for this lesson: Extend vocabulary using words with both prefixes and suffixes Construct words using common bases, prefixes, and suffixes Adding prefixes and suffixes to root words. We can also add prefixes and suffixes to the same base word or root. Do you remember the two longest words in the English language that were presented at the beginning of this section? You can learn a "trick" to use in reading and spelling these words. Each long word is made from a smaller base word and several prefixes and several suffixes. If you can read or spell the prefixes, the base word, and the suffixes, you can read and possibly even spell the entire word. pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis antidisestablishmentarianism These words break down in this way: pneumono-ultra-micro-scopic-silico-volcano-coni-osis Prefixes Base Suffixes pneumono- ultra- micro- scopic- silico- volcano con (Grk. konos) -i (-ni) -osis anti-dis-establish-ment-arian-ism Prefixes Base Suffixes anti- dis- establish -ment -arian (ary) -ism Not many words are quite so long, of course. Most long words are constructed in a similar manner. Such words usually have one or more prefixes, followed by a base word, or root, which in turn is followed by one or more suffixes. More About Word Parts View a List of Latin and Greek Roots To be successful at the following game, you should review these lessons in this unit: "Prefixes: Finding," "Prefixes: Meanings," "Suffixes: Finding," "Suffixes: Meaning of Suffixes and Parts of Speech," and "Prefixes and Suffixes."

Structure: Subject and Predicate An understanding of the basic patterns of sentences will help you use language more effectively. The English language uses five basic sentence patterns. The placement of sentence elements within a sentence determines the pattern. In the English language, the meaning of sentences depends on the placement or order of words; therefore, you should understand the relationship between word order and word usage. Here are your goals for this lesson: Understand that sentences have a definite structure Identify the complete subject and predicate of a sentence Identify the simple subject and verb of a sentence Recognize the definitions of various parts of speech Vocabulary direct object The noun or pronoun that follows an action verb and tells who or what received the action. indirect object The noun or pronoun that indicates to or for whom or what the subject performs the verb action. noun A word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. predicate The verb and the words that follow it. sentence A group of words that expresses a complete thought. subject Who or what does the action or being in a sentence. verb A word that expresses action or links the subject to a word in the predicate. Vocab Arcade A sentence is a group of words that communicates a complete thought. Sentences have an invisible structure. The words in the sentence seem to fall into groups. Look at the following sentence. The small boy kicked the red ball. If you wanted to divide this sentence into two related parts, you could draw a vertical line between boy and kicked. The small boy ‌ kicked the red ball. You have now separated the subject and the predicate. The subject and the predicate (the part that shows action) are essential parts of the sentence. The simple subject of a sentence consists of a noun or a pronoun that tells who or what does the action or being in a sentence. The complete subject consists of the simple subject and all the words that precede or describe the simple subject. For example, look at this sentence. The wounded puppy limped into the house. The simple subject is puppy and the complete subject is the wounded puppy. When used alone, the word subject refers to the simple subject. The simple predicate is the verb. The complete predicate consists of the simple predicate and all the words that modify or follow the verb. In the preceding sentence, limped into the house is the complete predicate.

In Language Arts 706, you learned about the correct use of capitalization and punctuation. In this section you will review these skills, which will add much to your writing ability. You will review the rules for capitalizing words and for identifying and correctly using such punctuation marks as apostrophes, quotation marks, parentheses, hyphens, and commas. You will also review some of the spelling words you studied in Language Arts 704 through 706. Here is your goal for this lesson: Use the rules of capitalization Vocabulary capitalization Writing or printing with a capital letter, especially the first letter of a word. direct quotation Telling what a person said by using his exact words. punctuation The use of periods, commas, and other marks to make the meaning clear. Vocab Arcade A carefully prepared piece of writing will usually receive a more favorable evaluation than one in which the writer is careless. Following some simple capitalization rules will add clarity and meaning to your writing. The following rules for capitalization are some that you learned in Language Arts 706. 1. Capitalize the first word of every sentence. Usually direct quotations begin with a capital letter. Examples: The work was finished. She said, "The work was finished." 2. Capitalize the names of particular persons, places, things, and companies (proper nouns). Examples: Jack Maryanne Pepsi Cola® Chicago New York France Smith Pacific Ocean Lincoln Park Rollerblades® Coke® Brooklyn Bridge 3. Capitalize titles preceding a name. Examples: Professor Fuller General Hershey Mr. Jones Pastor Howland President Jefferson Reverend McFarlane 4. Capitalize the names of schools, buildings, organizations, and so on (proper nouns). Examples: Friendship Christian School Girl Scouts of America Congress Arizona State University Bridger Building 5. The pronoun I is always capitalized. Examples: Lisa and I are good friends.

6. Capitalize days of the week, months, holidays, and holy days. Examples: Tuesday March Memorial Day Good Friday 7. Capitalize historical periods, events, dates, and documents. Examples Middle Ages World War I Bill of Rights July 4,1776 8. Capitalize words that refer to specific groups of people (proper adjectives). Examples: Americans French Methodist South Koreans 9. Capitalize the main words in titles of books, magazines, stories, musical compositions, plays, poems, and speeches. Examples: The Red Badge of Courage (book) Kansas City Star (newspaper) "Thy Mighty Fortress" (a song title) Lincoln's "Gettysburg Address" (speech) 10. Do not capitalize such common nouns as boy, girl, person, soda pop, company, city, country, river, park, school, building, club, and so on. 11. Capitalize the names of languages (proper nouns and adjectives). Examples: English Arabic Iroquois German Farsi Old English 12. Capitalize the names of school subjects that are specific course names. Examples: Economics 103 Algebra II Introduction to Chemistry Do not capitalize day, month, holiday, summer, fall, mother, uncle (when used this way: I asked my uncle...), history, art, and so on.

COMPOUND MODIFIERS Language elements that modify can be used in coordination. Adjectives that modify the subject can be compounded. Examples: The cute and fluffy puppy wagged his tail. Also: The cute, fluffy, friendly puppy wagged his tail. The baby, wet and hungry , cried for his mother. Adjectives that modify the complement can be compounded. Examples: Mother gave me a juicy red apple. My brother will tell a funny or a scary story. Adverbs that modify the simple predicate can be compounded. Examples: Jim practiced long and hard . She carefully and patiently painted the shells Will you go now or later?

COMPOUND PHRASES A phrase is a group of words that work together to form a single part of speech. A phrase may contain a subject or a verb, but it will not have both. Compound phrases are two or more phrases of the same type joined with a conjunction. Adjective phrases can only be joined or compounded with other adjective phrases. You could not, for example, join an adjective phrase with a noun phrase, a verb phrase, or an adverb phrase when you use coordination. The examples below show just a few of the types of phrases which can be compound. Compound prepositional phrase: Examples: I will arrive in the morning or in the afternoon . (adverb prepositional phrases) Charles jumped into the air and over the fence . (adverb prepositional phrases) Compound noun phrase acting as subject: Example: The man from Denver and the woman from Kansas City lost their luggage. (compound subjects with prepositional phrases that act as adjectives) Compound verb phrase (compound predicate): Example: Nick sat in a chair and looked at a magazine . Compound participial phrase: Example: Standing on a ladder and looking over the fence, Edward could see his friends. Compound infinitive phrase: Example: I like to read books , to talk with friends , and to relax .

Sequence. In Language Arts 703, you studied sequence of events in reading, understanding, and enjoying biographies. Now you are about to learn the importance of a logical order of events and ideas, or sequence, in writing well-constructed paragraphs. To be most effective, the sentences in your paragraph that support the topic sentence should be presented in some logical order. To a certain extent, the order you choose will depend upon the ideas or facts you wish to present. Order of chronology is one common sequence. Chronological, or time, order simply means that events are presented in the order in which they occurred: first, second, third, and so on. You would usually tell an anecdote in chronological order. Order of importance is another method of presenting facts. You may wish to state the most important item first, the second most important item next, and the third most important item last. However, you should remember that the reverse order--leading up to the most important statement--is often more effective. Order of complexity is yet another possible way to organize facts or ideas in a logical manner. Usually this sequence begins with material that is easily understood and gradually progresses to more and more difficult concepts.

Deductive, Inductive, and Transitional Paragraphs The placement of the topic sentence within a paragraph determines the paragraph pattern. The two basic paragraph patterns are the deductive pattern and the inductive pattern. A third pattern might be called transitional. In a deductive paragraph, the topic sentence is usually the first sentence. All other sentences in the paragraph explain or support the topic sentence. In an inductive paragraph, the topic sentence is the last sentence. All the other sentences build up to the topic sentence. The topic sentence serves as the conclusion or climax of the paragraph. Also, a topic sentence serves as a summary or tying together of all the details contained in the paragraph. If the topic sentence comes somewhere in the middle of the paragraph, the topic sentence links or connects the sentences that precede and follow it. It provides a transition. Here are your goals for this lesson: Recognize paragraph pattern by placement of topic sentence Understand the benefits of each type of paragraph pattern Distinguish between deductive and inductive paragraphs Write paragraphs of each pattern Analyze a paragraph for content, format, and organization Recognize and avoid three common flaws in paragraphs Vocabulary bow Forward part of a ship. deductive Reasoning from the general to the specific. flaw A defect or fault. helm Steering wheel of the ship. inductive Reasoning from the specific to the general. keel Main timber that runs the whole length of a ship's bottom. luff Weather side of a ship. summation A review of previously mentioned points. Vocab Arcade DEDUCTIVE PARAGRAPHS Remember that in a deductive paragraph the topic sentence is the first sentence, and all other sentences relate to the central idea. The paragraph from Treasure Island that appeared earlier in this section is an example of a deductive paragraph. I had never seen the squire so near at hand. He was a tall man, over six feet high, and broad in proportion, and he had a bluff, rough-and-ready face, all roughened and reddened and lined in his long travels. His eyebrows were very black, and moved readily, and this gave him a look of some temper, not bad, you would say, but quick and high. -- Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson Notice that the paragraph begins with a general statement about the squire. The sentences which follow proceed to look at "pieces" of the squire--his height, his face, his eyebrows, and the characteristics which these features suggest.

Communicating With Gestures The purpose of speaking is to communicate. When we speak, however, we communicate with much more than words and voice tone. We also use what has been called body language. The way we sit or stand, our level of relaxation or tension, the expressions on our faces, and the movements we make all communicate, even when we are unaware of them. The communication with our bodies is so strong and so natural that, if there is a difference between what our voices and our bodies say, the listener is more likely to believe the body. Think of a small child hiding something he should not have behind his back while saying, "No, I didn't take it." Couldn't you tell? Someone once said, "Actions speak louder than words. What you do speaks so loudly I cannot hear what you say." You will learn about making gestures with and without words. You will learn about the use of gestures for communicating with others and for entertaining others. Here are your goals for this lesson: Interpret universal gestures Note ways in which gesture enhances or detracts from speech Identify instances of languages based upon gesture State two purposes of gesture Identify the methods used by deaf people to communicate Recall details about pantomime Vocabulary beckon To signal to come by moving the forefinger or hand toward oneself. gesture The use of motions of the arms, legs, head, or body to communicate thoughts, ideas, or feelings. intensify To strengthen or to increase. universal Applying to everyone or existing everywhere. Vocab Arcade GESTURES WITH WORDS Without the understanding of words, most gestures would be meaningless. Even when gestures are used without speech, some understanding of words is needed. You may recall how Helen Keller's world changed when she learned that everything had a name; each name gave birth to a new thought. When words are used with appropriate gestures, the message can be exceedingly forceful. Public speaking. Most public speakers use gestures to extend the meaning of their words. This technique requires careful attention. The use of too many gestures, inappropriate gestures, or nervous gestures can distract the attention of the audience. A speaker who does not use gestures, however, can lose the attention of the audience by his lack of enthusiasm. A student who speaks in public should be poised as well as prepared. He should not only dress appropriately, but he should also use appropriate and meaningful gestures. His gestures should look natural and should add to the description or the meaning of his message. Certain gestures are almost universal; that is, they are used and understood by many people around the world. Shrugging the shoulders may describe indifference or puzzlement. A clenched fist might reveal strong convictions about what the speaker is saying, or it may show aggression and anger. Arms stretched out, palms up, might convince the audience that what the speaker is offering them is the best thing in the world. Distance or direction may be indicated by pointing the index finger at arm's length. Hands may be used to indicate something small, big, tall, or short. Gestures are used frequently to describe shape and location. A public speaker should never attract attention away from his speech with nervous habits. He should avoid leaning on the speaker's stand, standing on one foot, or playing with coins, keys, or jewelry. Private speaking. Everyone uses gestures. As you give the Pledge of Allegiance and place your right hand over your heart, your gesture expresses loyalty and faithfulness. Bowing your head in prayer indicates submission and worship. Patting someone on the back says "you did well" or "I like you." Waving or shaking hands says "hello," "good-bye," or "I'm glad to meet you." Frequently used gestures include shaking the head when you say "no" and nodding as you agree with someone. Some gestures are used with words to intensify their meaning. Other gestures may be used without words.

GESTURES WITHOUT WORDS Every day you use gestures without words. Perhaps you shake your head meaning "no," or you nod your head meaning "yes." If someone is too noisy, you put your finger to your lips or place both hands over your ears meaning "be quiet" or "too loud." When you try to recall a name or an event, you may put your index finger on your temple meaning "let me think." If you want to signal a friend to come to you, you might beckon or wave him over. To stop someone, you might raise your right hand, palm out.

Gestures alone can be so meaningful that they are sometimes used as an exclusive means of communication and as a form of entertainment. Gestures communicate. The use of sign language as a means of communication was mentioned in the records of the early explorers of our country, beginning with the landing of Columbus in America. The Native American tribes that lived in the Great Plains area from British Columbia to Mexico and from the Missouri River to the Rocky Mountains spoke different languages. Since these tribes were always moving about looking for buffalo herds, these people were constantly meeting those from other tribes. Sign language was commonly used by tribes speaking one language to communicate with people speaking another language. The following video clip is a brief demonstration of another kind of sign language. The language used was American Sign Language or ASL, a common sign language used by deaf people. Instead of using words, ASL uses thoughts to communicate with one sign expressing a specific concept. The individuals in the video are not yet certified interpreters. However, the signs they are demonstrating are accurate. These are examples of conversations by deaf people. The deaf can probably communicate by their gestures better than most other people. The sign language of the deaf is very expressive. This language includes finger spelling, movements of the hands, and facial and body expressions. This alphabet is quite simple. It is formed by various positions of the hand and fingers. Notice the formation of each letter in the following chart: The following is a video representation of the alphabet. The nine words listed below contain all the letters of the alphabet. If you practice forming these words in the sign language alphabet, you will be able to rearrange the letters to form new words. fly quick blaze sing yard wax hump vote joy Using the sign language alphabet, spell out a message to a friend. You might want to invite several friends to join in this activity. After choosing sides, you can see how many words each side can identify in a ten- or fifteen-minute period. The side with the most correct answers wins. Deaf people appreciate being greeted in their language. They use certain gestures. Using gestures to represent whole words saves time and effort. Imagine spelling out morning in the sign language alphabet when you could use one gesture for the same word. This video demonstrates some simple signs used by the deaf. Notice that ASL has a different sentence structure than English. The signers use ASL, but the subtitles use English sentence structure. If you are interested in learning more of these signs, you might ask your teacher or librarian for assistance. Click here to practice signing the alphabet!

Gestures can entertain. Pantomimes are plays without words in which actors express themselves with gestures. Sometimes a background of music is used. Occasionally, a voice is heard reading a selection, but the audience sees only the reproduction in gestures. Pantomime was used by the ancient Greeks and Romans in short, amusing sketches using gestures and humorous actions. These pantomimes were designed to make people laugh at the ridiculous actions of those in authority. Even today people enjoy pantomime as a form of entertainment. Children and adults often are amused by the exaggerated actions of the mime. To be successful at the following game, you should review this lesson carefully.

Biography: William Tyndale Reading can be pleasurable and informative. Through reading, you can experience an exciting moment in history or a meaningful experience in a person's life. Your experience need not be limited to a certain country or a particular time. You may read about factual events and actual people. Biography is the literary form dealing with real people in real situations. As you read the biography of William Tyndale, be especially aware of the contribution he made. You will see how important the life of one individual can be in God's total plan. Try to relate his experiences to your own life; think of the place you have in God's plan and what contributions you can make. Here are your goals for this lesson: Distinguish between biography, autobiography, and memoir Recall details of a short biography Complete sequence statements from a short biography Vocabulary autobiography An account of a person's life written by himself. biography An account of a person's life history written by another person. Brussels Capital city of Belgium. chronological Arranged according to sequence or order in time. Cologne City in Germany. heretic A person who does not agree with or obey the beliefs of a church. loose-tongued Telling everything you know. martyr One who dies, suffers, or sacrifices everything for his beliefs. memoirs Personal records of experiences or events the writer witnessed. persecution Causing people to suffer because of their beliefs. Reformation A sixteenth century religious movement that led to change and to the Protestant Church. refugee A person who escapes to safety. Scripture The Bible. smuggle Bring into or take out of a country secretly and illegally. wearisome To cause tiredness or fatigue. Vocab Arcade BIOGRAPHY AS A LITERARY FORM Biography, a form of literary prose that is closely related to history, attempts to describe a specific individual in a specific time and place. The personality and actions of character are explored through the historical events and information available to the author. A biographer usually gathers facts, arranges these facts about a person's life into chronological order to form a meaningful pattern, and interprets these facts. Occasionally, facts will not explain a person's actions; therefore, the biographer will try to imagine what thoughts or ideas probably caused that person to act. The primary goal of a biographer is to give the reader an understanding of the personality of the person, as well as to give factual sequences of events as influenced by his period in history. Common subjects for biography include patriots, military leaders, religious figures, political leaders, artists, scientists, and other public figures. One of the best ways to become familiar with a certain philosophy or period in history is to read a biography of a person closely associated with it. Some of the earliest biographical accounts are Biblical. The Old Testament records the lives of the patriarchs. The Gospels in the New Testament reveal the life of Jesus Christ. Other early works include Greek and Roman philosophers and the religious biographies of saints, martyrs, and others. Later European biographies include such subjects as artists of the Renaissance and prominent statesmen. Many scholars consider the Life of Samuel Johnson by James Boswell to be the finest English biography. Colonial America produced biographies as well. Many American biographies deal with clergymen and politicians. One of the outstanding American contributions is the six-volume Abraham Lincoln by Carl Sandburg. When an author writes an account of his own life, he is writing an autobiography. One well-known autobiography was written by Benjamin Franklin. A related type of writing is the memoir. A memoir is a personal record of events the writer has witnessed or experienced.

BIOGRAPHY OF WILLIAM TYNDALE Sixteenth century England was swept by ideas of reform in politics and society, as well as religion. Feelings of dissatisfaction with the church were expressed by many Bible scholars. Several men wrote about their ideas for reform within the church. Others chose more direct methods. In Germany, Martin Luther nailed his ninety-five theses to the church door. Many people joined his efforts to form the Protestant Reformation . Luther's writings influenced English thought. Many religious leaders thought that the people should be able to read the Bible in their own language. William Tyndale, who translated the Bible into English, was one of the leaders of the Reformation, a movement that brought a shift in religious control. The people were allowed more control of religion as a result of the Reformation. The two biographical selections you will study deal with very different subjects: one, a Christian martyr; the other, an American patriot. The first biography, that of William Tyndale, is set in sixteenth-century England. WILLIAM TYNDALE A BIBLE FOR THE PEOPLE 1Slowly a ship with square sails moved into London harbor. It was loaded down with sacks of grain. Those were the days when King Henry VIII ruled England and when Martin Luther taught at Wittenberg University in Germany. 2On the dock a young man named Geoffrey watched the slow ship and tapped his feet impatiently. He took a quick look around to see if anyone was watching. Then he felt his shirt to be sure the letter was safe in his pocket. 3"Above all, keep that letter secret!" Simon, the grain merchant, had warned Geoffrey. 4There! The ship was tied up at last. Geoffrey jumped aboard and ran to find the captain. He handed him the letter and the captain read it. Then he looked Geoffrey over carefully and said, "Come to my cabin." 5When they were alone in the cabin, the captain said, "All right! Now listen carefully. Some of the sacks of wheat have a special mark. Those are the ones for Simon Fyshe, the grain merchant. You have a cart? Good!" 6Geoffrey worked fast. Soon his loaded cart rumbled through the narrow streets of London toward the shop of his friend, Simon Fyshe. Within an hour, Geoffrey was helping the old grain merchant unload the sacks. 7"Careful, not so fast," said the merchant as Geoffrey ripped a sack open. "Don't forget that wheat is valuable too. The harvest here in England was bad this year. People will want to buy every grain of wheat we have!" 8"True," Geoffrey replied. "But what they will want even more is this!" Out from under the wheat, he pulled a dusty book and held it high. "Look," he said, "the Word of God in English!" 9He handed the book to the merchant. It was exciting to open the book and read the Gospels in plain English words. "Master Tyndale makes the words speak clear, doesn't he?" exclaimed the grain merchant. 10Geoffrey nodded. "I've heard that Tyndale once told a priest who didn't know his Bible, 'If God spare my life, before many years, I will cause the boy who drives the plow to know more of the Scripture than you do,' " he said. 11Simon Fyshe agreed, "Even a plowboy can read and understand this." 12Simon Fyshe, the grain merchant, had many visitors in the next few days. Hidden in the bundles they carried away were the precious books. A Mr. Bradford took a package to a monk near Reading. Other bundles went to Cambridge University. 13The Bishop of London had made a law forbidding anyone in England to translate or print the Bible in English without permission from the church. Then, when the bishop heard about the smuggled Bibles, he tried to stop them, too. He bought as many copies of Tyndale's English Bible as he could and burned them at Paul's Cross in London. A law was passed which ordered anyone who was caught with Tyndale's English Bible in his possession to be fined or put in prison. Some persons who were caught were even burned as heretics. However, the harder the bishop worked, the more the people wanted Tyndale's Bible. Copies of Tyndale's English Bible came in the baggage of travelers. The Bible came buried in sacks of wheat or packed in bales of wool. 14The bishop and the officers of the king asked, "Where do these Bibles come from? Who is this William Tyndale and where is he doing his work?" 15Spies were sent to Europe to find Tyndale. "He is everywhere and nowhere," wrote one of the spies. Tyndale was called a heretic. His life would be in danger if his enemies could find him. 16William Tyndale was a learned man who had been a priest in England. He spoke seven languages fluently and earned a Masters' Degree from Magdalen University. His mind was fixed on one idea, to translate God's Holy Word from Greek and Hebrew into common English so that everyone could read it. He had asked the bishop of London for permission to make an English translation, but he was turned away. The king and the leaders of the church had agreed that the Bible must be in Latin. No one was to be allowed to make an English translation. 17Then Tyndale disappeared, and the bishop could not find out where he went. About this time, a mysterious Englishman signed up as a student at Wittenberg University. The name he wrote in the university book was William Daltin. Perhaps this was a secret way of writing "Tindal." (Daltin: Tin-dal.) 18If this really was Tyndale, he must have talked with Martin Luther in Wittenberg about translating the Bible. Tyndale kept on working to make his dream of an English Bible come true. Soon he moved to Cologne to be near the people who would print copies of his secret English book. As quickly as he finished a few pages, he gave them to the printers to set in type. 19One day a man named Dobneck came to the printers in Cologne. He wanted them to print some of his books speaking against Luther, and he got to know several of the printers quite well. 20Often Dobneck stayed in the shop, to talk with them. Once, after they had several cups of wine, he heard a printer boast that whether King Henry of England liked it or not, in a short time England would be Lutheran. Dobneck listened to the drunken printer talk about two Englishmen who were hiding in the city and who could read and write many languages. 21Dobneck made up his mind to find the secret translator. He invited several of the printers to his room and brought out more and more wine to drink. Loose-tongued from drinking, one man stayed behind and told Dobneck a secret. In the shop they were printing three thousand copies of the New Testament in English. English merchants were paying for the books, and the work was already partly finished. 22Dobneck acted fast. He went to the authorities to tell them about the "heretics" and their work. Men were sent to seize the books, but Tyndale was warned just in time. Snatching up the parts of the book already printed, he escaped from Cologne and went to Worms, Germany. Worms was a Lutheran city and there he was safe. In Worms he found other printers and finished his translation of the New Testament. Merchants promised to smuggle the copies into England. 23So far, Tyndale had been successful. Now he began work on translating the Old Testament. He decided to go to the harbor town of Antwerp, Belgium, just across from England. There he could keep in touch with travelers from his homeland. Tyndale knew that Antwerp was a dangerous place because it was ruled by Roman Catholics, but he thought he would be safe because he lived in the house of an English merchant who supported the reformation of the church. 24Tyndale set apart two days a week for his "pastime" in his secret room. On Mondays, he went about the city to help and encourage refugees from England who had fled to Antwerp to escape religious persecution. On Saturdays, he walked about Antwerp "seeking every corner and hole where he suspected any poor person to dwell." He tried to help these poor people in any way he could. 25England was relentless in sending spies overseas to stop Tyndale. One of the spies sent from England was a man named Henry Phillips. Tyndale befriended this man despite the fact Phillips was waiting for an opportunity to betray him. 26"Be careful of strangers," an English merchant warned Tyndale. "I don't trust this Henry Phillips you befriended." 27Tyndale did not listen to the warning. He rather liked the young man and they were often together. One day Phillips made sure that the English merchant was away. He invited Tyndale to have dinner with him. As they came down the steps out of the house, two men were standing in the street. Phillips pointed down at Tyndale's head and the two men jumped on Tyndale, tied him up, and took him away to a prison near Brussels. 28Tyndale was kept in prison for more than four months. The jailer and his daughter became Christians because of Tyndale's influence. Through them he sent a letter to the governor: 29"And I ask to be allowed to have a lamp in the evening; it is wearisome to sit alone in the dark. Most of all I beg you to permit me to have my Hebrew Bible, Hebrew grammar, and Hebrew dictionary so that I may pass the time in study. And if any other decision has been made about me, to be done before winter, I will be patient and trust in God's will for me." 30Early in October 1536, before help could come, Tyndale was taken from prison to the town square. There they strangled him and burned him at the stake as a heretic. To the end, he was concerned about the laws of the King against distributing an English Bible. His last words were a prayer, "Lord, open the King of England's eyes!"

Apostrophe This lesson will give you the opportunity to be sure you understand the use of the apostrophe. Pay careful attention to the placement of the apostrophe in possessive words. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use apostrophes with possessive nouns and indefinite pronouns Use apostrophes in contractions Use apostrophes to form plurals of letters and numerals The apostrophe. The apostrophe is used with s ('s) to indicate possession of singular nouns. Examples: man's coat Dad's tools The possessive case of plural nouns not ending in s is also formed by adding 's. Examples: children's jackets women's meetings The only time possessive case is formed differently is for plural nouns that end with s. When plural nouns end with s, the possessive is formed by adding only an apostrophe ( ' ) after the s. Examples: dogs' bones girls' coats The possessive case of indefinite pronouns is formed by adding 's. Examples: anyone's paper somebody's report The apostrophe is also used to show which letters are omitted in a contraction. Remember that a contraction consists of two words joined to make a shorter one. An apostrophe is substituted for one or more of the letters which are dropped. The apostrophe usually replaces the first part of the second word. Example: might + have = might've When a word joins not to make a contraction, the o is dropped and replaced with an apostrophe (other spelling may also change). Examples: can + not = can't could + not = couldn't The apostrophe is also used to form the plurals of letters and figures. Example: The word middle has two d's. Click here to learn more about the apostrophe.

Quotation Marks and Parentheses This lesson will give you the opportunity to review the uses of quotation marks and parentheses. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use quotation marks to set off certain titles and a person's exact words Use parentheses to enclose parenthetic, supplementary, and explanatory material Vocabulary indirect quotation Telling what a person said but not using his exact words. parenthetic Characterized by adding an idea without changing the meaning. Vocab Arcade Quotation marks are used to enclose the exact words of a speaker or a writer. Use quotation marks at the beginning and the end of a direct quotation. Example: He said, "I will come." Remember, do not use quotation marks for an indirect quotation. Example: Cara said that she will attend church services. Usually a quotation begins with a capital letter. However, if the quotation is broken into two parts, do not begin the second part with a capital letter unless it is a new sentence. Each part has its own quotation marks. Examples: Manny said, "I thought the game was great!" "I will come with you," said Jocelyn, "but not until after lunch." "I will make a speech," said Willis. "It will be about my hobby, rocketry." A comma should be used to separate a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence. Commas and periods should be placed inside the quotation marks. Question marks and exclamation points should be placed inside quotation marks if the quotation is a question or exclamation. Examples: "Please come!" he yelled. "I need your help!" "Can you help me please?" Jack asked. Quotation marks are also used for certain titles. Use quotation marks for the titles of short stories and poems. Examples: O'Henry's "The Gift of the Magi" Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven" Use quotation marks for the titles of book chapters. Example: Chapter 8 of our history book is titled "The Period of Industrialization." Use quotation marks for the titles of newspaper and magazine articles. Examples: I read an article in the New York Times entitled "Can the Dow Jones Continue to Climb?" Was that article in Newsweek called "How to Lose Weight and Keep it Off"? Use quotation marks for the titles of special programs. Examples: "The Six-O'clock Report" "The Best in Gospel Music" Finally, use quotation marks for words used in a special or an unusual way. Examples: Mary objected to being called a "gossip." Click here to learn more about quotation marks.

Paragraph Components: Unity and Sequence The advantages of being able to communicate effectively in writing will carry over to all areas of your life, in and out of school. Giving attention to paragraph unity and sequence will improve your communication. Effective communication is essential for a Christian young person who wishes to give testimony to his faith. Here are your goals for this lesson: Evaluate paragraphs for unity and organization Recognize, choose, and use three methods of sequencing Select a topic, organize, and write a paragraph with unity and good seqence Evaluate your own writing for topic sentence, connections, unity, and sequence Vocabulary anecdote Short account of some interesting incident. chronological Arranged according to sequence or order in time. irrelevant Not to the point; off the subject. Vocab Arcade Unity. A good paragraph sticks to the point. A paragraph that contains unrelated sentences loses its effect. As a result, the reader may become confused or even misled. When the writer stays with one main idea from the beginning of the paragraph to the end, that paragraph has unity. We feed wild birds in the winter. I love winter, even when it snows. My brother, Mark, has promised to let me use his sled next winter. Of course, one bad thing is having to bundle up in so many heavy sweaters, but we can have a roaring fire in the fireplace. Ask yourself these questions: Does the group of sentences above form a well-written paragraph? Is a topic sentence clearly stated? Do all of the sentences relate directly to a topic sentence? Your answer to all three questions should be no. Although the sentences are all loosely connected to wintertime, they do not relate directly to a single topic or central idea. In fact, almost any one of the sentences could be rewritten in the form of a topic sentence. The writer actually brings up three separate topics: feeding birds, coping with the winter time, and winter fun. To repair the paragraph above, one of the three topics would need to be selected, and then a new paragraph would need to be written, focusing only on that one topic as seen below. We feed wild birds in the winter. Every morning my brother spreads bird seed on the snowy ground near the backyard shed. Then, we watch from the kitchen window. Most of the time, tiny sparrows are the first to arrive, but sometimes, a blue jay will fly in for a meal. When that happens, the sparrows fly away to give him room. This second paragraph is unified around the topic sentence "We feed wild birds in the winter." All of the sentences in the paragraph have something to do with the topic. Since the paragraph is describing an event, feeding the birds, the sentences are arranged in chronological order.

You will soon be ready to practice what you have learned about paragraphs to this point. The following tips will help you to succeed. Think before you write. The first writing step is the topic sentence, but the first thinking step is to select your topic and to have in mind what you want to say about it. Next, you will need to know the details you want to include. You may make a mental list, or you may jot down your ideas on scratch paper. The third step is to plan how you intend to connect or relate the details you will use. Keep similar or related information together. Do not include anything irrelevant. Do not hesitate to repeat some specific terms or carefully chosen synonyms. Use connecting words to show how statements relate to each other in your paragraph. These connecting words will help the reader to follow your written thoughts. Connecting words that will help you are some, others, one important reason, still more, next, after that, therefore, and as a result. You will be able to think of many more. Remember, you do not have to start every sentence with connecting words. The following examples may help you choose a topic: -A favorite Psalm -A funny incident -A favorite Bible character -A historic marker near your home -A hobby -An unusual pet -A book you have enjoyed -A science experiment -A sport -Importance of daily prayer Suppose you select a favorite Bible character as your topic. Then you must write your topic sentence. Some sentences you might write about this topic include the following examples: My favorite Bible character is Paul. or On the road to Damascus, Paul was converted. or Paul was commissioned to carry the Gospel to the Gentiles. If you choose a statement similar to the first one, all your supporting sentences should explain why Paul is your favorite. If you choose the second statement, all your supporting sentences should describe Paul's conversion. With the third example, you may choose to describe Paul's special commission as told in Acts 16:13 through 20, or you may tell about his missions to Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome. The supporting details you will include depend entirely upon your topic sentence. If you are trying to think of a topic to write about, the video below will give you some ideas.

SUBJECT-LINKING VERB-PREDICATE ADJECTIVE PATTERN Usually adjectives come before the nouns they modify. Example: The lovely red rose grew in the garden. (lovely and red both describe rose) At times, however, the adjective will follow the verb. This word order occurs when the verb is an intransitive linking verb. An adjective that completes the verb and describes or modifies the subject is called a predicate adjective. Example: The rose is red. (red is a predicative adjective) Several linking verbs that commonly precede a predicate adjective include these verbs: is, am, are, was, were, be, been, become, seem, appear, taste, feel, smell, is being, will be, and have been. Predicate adjectives may also be compound. Example: The rose was red and lovely. Be careful when identifying the parts of a sentence. Always check for compound subjects, verbs, direct objects, predicate nouns, or predicate adjectives.

Sometimes adverbs are mistaken for predicate adjectives in a sentence. The following example illustrates. Example: The boy is here. The boy is nice. The word is is usually a linking verb followed by a predicate noun or a predicate adjective.. In the sentences above, the only word that follows the word is in in each sentence is the word here in the first sentence and nice in the second sentence. Are here and nice predicate adjectives? The best way to see if a word is a predicate adjective is to place the word in front of the subject. Example: The boy is here. / The here boy The boy is nice. / The nice boy Notice in the sentences above, that though I can say the nice boy, I cannot say the here boy. This is because the word here is not an adjective. It is an adverb. Adverbs are words that tell how, when, where, or how much about other words. Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. In the sentence The boy is here, here tells us where the boy is and therefore functions as an adverb. Sometimes a prepositional phrase follows a form of is. Example: The sun was in my eyes. Like the word here in "The boy is here," in my eyes tells us where the sun was and therefore functions as an adverb. Both of these sentences are exceptions to the linking verb pattern. Since is and was do not link the subject to a noun or an adjective, the pattern of this type of sentence is S/V. There is no pattern called S/LV, because if the verb does not link, it isn't a linking verb.

Chapters 6-7: Comprehension This section deals with the events in The Hiding Place, Chapters 6 and 7. You will need to read these chapters before you can complete the activities. These chapters are filled with suspense and excitement as the Nazis intensify their persecution of the Jews. All persons giving help to the Jewish people were in constant danger. You will discover what happened to Corrie and her family because of their actions. Here is your goal for this lesson: Use main idea and supporting details to understand characters and sequence of events in nonfiction Vocabulary Gestapo Secret police force of the German Nazis. Vocab Arcade SEQUENCE OF EVENTS The story continues on a Sunday morning in May, 1942. The family was in church, and Peter was the organist. The Germans had placed many more restrictions on the Dutch. One restriction was that they could not sing their national anthem. Peter started playing it at the close of the service that day. Everyone stood and sang enthusiastically, but within a few days, Peter was arrested by the Gestapo. The following list contains words used in The Hiding Place. Look up any unfamiliar words. appropriate evaluate paraphernalia curiosity Hanukkah razzia deliberateness incredible realistic Read Chapter 6.

Soon, fleeing Jews began arriving at the Beje, and Corrie went to Willem for help. He told her that she would have to get the needed ration cards. She found a friend who obtained one hundred cards for her. Corrie realized she had many friends in Haarlem who could help her when special needs arose. She relied on God to lead her to the right person. Corrie had a chance to meet members of the underground. She met a man who helped her build a secret hiding place in her house. She also learned that Peter would soon be released. The secret hiding place was built, and such an excellent job was done that even Corrie had a difficult time believing it was actually there.

Logical conclusion. When you answered the questions that followed the biography about Dolley Madison, were you able to figure out how old Dolley Madison was when she was married? If you checked the answer, you know that she was eighteen years of age. The biography does not state that she was eighteen years old when she was married the first time to John Todd. There is, however, other information that will help us to deduce the answer to this question. In paragraph three of her biography, we are told that Dolley Madison was born in 1772. In paragraph seven we are also told that her husband died from a deadly epidemic in 1793. We are informed that Dolley and John Todd were married three years before. We can conclude that they were married in 1790. If Dolley Madison was born in 1772 and she was married in 1790, we deduce that she was eighteen years of age at the time. We can also conclude that she was twenty-one years of age when her husband died. If you learn to think effectively, you will discover that you know more than you think you know about certain things. If you are given complete and accurate information and if you follow logical thinking patterns, you will be able to draw conclusions through deduction or inference. Re-read the following paragraphs of the Dolley Madison biography. You will need them to infer when James Madison became President. 2 Dolley Madison did not fear for her own safety, but she did not want any of the national treasures that were kept in the White House to fall into the hands of the British. When she and her husband, President James Madison, had come to live in the White House five years before, no one had ever dreamed that the day would come when they would have to flee for their lives to escape capture by an enemy. 16 The American Navy was so small at that time that, although our warships won a number of brilliant victories, they were no match for the mighty British Navy. In August of 1814, the British landed an army near Washington. No American army appeared to stop their advance. There was great terror in the capital city. 17 President Madison hurried away to see what could be done to stop the British. "If the British come before I get back," he said to his wife before leaving, "don't let the state papers fall into their hands." 18 Reports came to the White House that the British were advancing and were threatening to burn the Capitol. Mrs. Madison knew that there was no time to lose. She and the few servants who had not already fled to safety brought out her trunks, and she began packing them with the nation's most valuable papers. 19 The sound of the guns could be heard in the distance as the last trunk was packed. Just then a messenger rode up with the alarming news that the British were entering the outskirts of Washington and Mrs. Madison must go at once if she wanted to escape capture. There was no time to lose. He admonished Mrs. Madison for insisting on taking the trunks she had with her. 20 "These trunks contain the nation's most valuable state papers, including the Declaration of Independence. If I go, they go, too," said Mrs. Madison. 21 The White House guards who were standing nearby knew that Mrs. Madison was serious and started loading the trunks into her carriage. Then she started to climb in herself. It was then she remembered the famous Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington which hung in the state dining room. 22 "Wait a moment," said Mrs. Madison. "We cannot leave that painting to the British." Ignoring the pleas of the guards who said there was no time for her to go back, Dolley Madison jumped down from the carriage and ran up the stairs of the White House. 23 The picture was fastened to the wall, so she had to cut the picture out of the frame. Then Dolley Madison took the painting out and rolled it up. With the picture safe in her hands, she dashed back to her waiting carriage which drove away just in time. 24 The British could be seen coming down the road, but Dolley Madison escaped. They did not notice the carriage because they were anxious to loot and burn down the White House and the Capitol. 25 The war ended the following year. Washington D. C. and the White House were later rebuilt. Because of the bravery and foresight of Dolley Madison, the state papers were restored to the nation, and the famous painting of George Washington can once more be seen hanging on the walls of the White House.

BIOGRAPHY OF WILLIAM TYNDALE Sixteenth century England was swept by ideas of reform in politics and society, as well as religion. Feelings of dissatisfaction with the church were expressed by many Bible scholars. Several men wrote about their ideas for reform within the church. Others chose more direct methods. In Germany, Martin Luther nailed his ninety-five theses to the church door. Many people joined his efforts to form the Protestant Reformation . Luther's writings influenced English thought. Many religious leaders thought that the people should be able to read the Bible in their own language. William Tyndale, who translated the Bible into English, was one of the leaders of the Reformation, a movement that brought a shift in religious control. The people were allowed more control of religion as a result of the Reformation. The two biographical selections you will study deal with very different subjects: one, a Christian martyr; the other, an American patriot. The first biography, that of William Tyndale, is set in sixteenth-century England. WILLIAM TYNDALE A BIBLE FOR THE PEOPLE 1Slowly a ship with square sails moved into London harbor. It was loaded down with sacks of grain. Those were the days when King Henry VIII ruled England and when Martin Luther taught at Wittenberg University in Germany. 2On the dock a young man named Geoffrey watched the slow ship and tapped his feet impatiently. He took a quick look around to see if anyone was watching. Then he felt his shirt to be sure the letter was safe in his pocket. 3"Above all, keep that letter secret!" Simon, the grain merchant, had warned Geoffrey. 4There! The ship was tied up at last. Geoffrey jumped aboard and ran to find the captain. He handed him the letter and the captain read it. Then he looked Geoffrey over carefully and said, "Come to my cabin." 5When they were alone in the cabin, the captain said, "All right! Now listen carefully. Some of the sacks of wheat have a special mark. Those are the ones for Simon Fyshe, the grain merchant. You have a cart? Good!" 6Geoffrey worked fast. Soon his loaded cart rumbled through the narrow streets of London toward the shop of his friend, Simon Fyshe. Within an hour, Geoffrey was helping the old grain merchant unload the sacks. 7"Careful, not so fast," said the merchant as Geoffrey ripped a sack open. "Don't forget that wheat is valuable too. The harvest here in England was bad this year. People will want to buy every grain of wheat we have!" 8"True," Geoffrey replied. "But what they will want even more is this!" Out from under the wheat, he pulled a dusty book and held it high. "Look," he said, "the Word of God in English!" 9He handed the book to the merchant. It was exciting to open the book and read the Gospels in plain English words. "Master Tyndale makes the words speak clear, doesn't he?" exclaimed the grain merchant. 10Geoffrey nodded. "I've heard that Tyndale once told a priest who didn't know his Bible, 'If God spare my life, before many years, I will cause the boy who drives the plow to know more of the Scripture than you do,' " he said. 11Simon Fyshe agreed, "Even a plowboy can read and understand this." 12Simon Fyshe, the grain merchant, had many visitors in the next few days. Hidden in the bundles they carried away were the precious books. A Mr. Bradford took a package to a monk near Reading. Other bundles went to Cambridge University. 13The Bishop of London had made a law forbidding anyone in England to translate or print the Bible in English without permission from the church. Then, when the bishop heard about the smuggled Bibles, he tried to stop them, too. He bought as many copies of Tyndale's English Bible as he could and burned them at Paul's Cross in London. A law was passed which ordered anyone who was caught with Tyndale's English Bible in his possession to be fined or put in prison. Some persons who were caught were even burned as heretics. However, the harder the bishop worked, the more the people wanted Tyndale's Bible. Copies of Tyndale's English Bible came in the baggage of travelers. The Bible came buried in sacks of wheat or packed in bales of wool. 14The bishop and the officers of the king asked, "Where do these Bibles come from? Who is this William Tyndale and where is he doing his work?" 15Spies were sent to Europe to find Tyndale. "He is everywhere and nowhere," wrote one of the spies. Tyndale was called a heretic. His life would be in danger if his enemies could find him. 16William Tyndale was a learned man who had been a priest in England. He spoke seven languages fluently and earned a Masters' Degree from Magdalen University. His mind was fixed on one idea, to translate God's Holy Word from Greek and Hebrew into common English so that everyone could read it. He had asked the bishop of London for permission to make an English translation, but he was turned away. The king and the leaders of the church had agreed that the Bible must be in Latin. No one was to be allowed to make an English translation. 17Then Tyndale disappeared, and the bishop could not find out where he went. About this time, a mysterious Englishman signed up as a student at Wittenberg University. The name he wrote in the university book was William Daltin. Perhaps this was a secret way of writing "Tindal." (Daltin: Tin-dal.) 18If this really was Tyndale, he must have talked with Martin Luther in Wittenberg about translating the Bible. Tyndale kept on working to make his dream of an English Bible come true. Soon he moved to Cologne to be near the people who would print copies of his secret English book. As quickly as he finished a few pages, he gave them to the printers to set in type. 19One day a man named Dobneck came to the printers in Cologne. He wanted them to print some of his books speaking against Luther, and he got to know several of the printers quite well. 20Often Dobneck stayed in the shop, to talk with them. Once, after they had several cups of wine, he heard a printer boast that whether King Henry of England liked it or not, in a short time England would be Lutheran. Dobneck listened to the drunken printer talk about two Englishmen who were hiding in the city and who could read and write many languages. 21Dobneck made up his mind to find the secret translator. He invited several of the printers to his room and brought out more and more wine to drink. Loose-tongued from drinking, one man stayed behind and told Dobneck a secret. In the shop they were printing three thousand copies of the New Testament in English. English merchants were paying for the books, and the work was already partly finished. 22Dobneck acted fast. He went to the authorities to tell them about the "heretics" and their work. Men were sent to seize the books, but Tyndale was warned just in time. Snatching up the parts of the book already printed, he escaped from Cologne and went to Worms, Germany. Worms was a Lutheran city and there he was safe. In Worms he found other printers and finished his translation of the New Testament. Merchants promised to smuggle the copies into England. 23So far, Tyndale had been successful. Now he began work on translating the Old Testament. He decided to go to the harbor town of Antwerp, Belgium, just across from England. There he could keep in touch with travelers from his homeland. Tyndale knew that Antwerp was a dangerous place because it was ruled by Roman Catholics, but he thought he would be safe because he lived in the house of an English merchant who supported the reformation of the church. 24Tyndale set apart two days a week for his "pastime" in his secret room. On Mondays, he went about the city to help and encourage refugees from England who had fled to Antwerp to escape religious persecution. On Saturdays, he walked about Antwerp "seeking every corner and hole where he suspected any poor person to dwell." He tried to help these poor people in any way he could. 25England was relentless in sending spies overseas to stop Tyndale. One of the spies sent from England was a man named Henry Phillips. Tyndale befriended this man despite the fact Phillips was waiting for an opportunity to betray him. 26"Be careful of strangers," an English merchant warned Tyndale. "I don't trust this Henry Phillips you befriended." 27Tyndale did not listen to the warning. He rather liked the young man and they were often together. One day Phillips made sure that the English merchant was away. He invited Tyndale to have dinner with him. As they came down the steps out of the house, two men were standing in the street. Phillips pointed down at Tyndale's head and the two men jumped on Tyndale, tied him up, and took him away to a prison near Brussels. 28Tyndale was kept in prison for more than four months. The jailer and his daughter became Christians because of Tyndale's influence. Through them he sent a letter to the governor: 29"And I ask to be allowed to have a lamp in the evening; it is wearisome to sit alone in the dark. Most of all I beg you to permit me to have my Hebrew Bible, Hebrew grammar, and Hebrew dictionary so that I may pass the time in study. And if any other decision has been made about me, to be done before winter, I will be patient and trust in God's will for me." 30Early in October 1536, before help could come, Tyndale was taken from prison to the town square. There they strangled him and burned him at the stake as a heretic. To the end, he was concerned about the laws of the King against distributing an English Bible. His last words were a prayer, "Lord, open the King of England's eyes!"

Read Chapter 15. Shortly after Betsie's death, Corrie was promised her release. Her legs and ankles were terribly swollen, which prevented her discharge until the swelling disappeared. At last, she was taken to the railroad station, but she had lost her bread and food coupons. By the time she arrived in Holland, she had almost starved. She went to a hospital where she received excellent care. After ten days, the hospital authorities arranged for someone to take her home to Willem and Nollie. After she had been home a while, Corrie started speaking about her experiences to groups of people. At one of the meetings, she met a woman who offered her a home for those who needed help to recover from the war. Corrie became more and more involved with the work. In fact, her rehabilitation work led Corrie to start a program at a former concentration camp. Thus, all of Betsie's dreams were realized; even Germans were given a place to begin anew.

Author's Purpose and Modes of Writing After you have finished reading a book, then what do you do? Too often, a reader will say to herself, "Well, okay, that's done," and then go about her next activity without really thinking about what she has read. The careful reader, however, knows that what she has read has affected her thinking in some way, whether it is immediately apparent or not. This reader analyzes what she has read: what was the author's purpose(s), what has the author communicated to her, and how should she respond to that message? Every book you read has some effect on you. Your thought patterns have subtly changed. By completing your reading with an analysis, you control what you take from the book. You consciously consider all aspects of that communication. Then you decide what ideas are valuable and what should be discarded. Here are your goals for this lesson: Analyze for author's purpose Evaluate how well author accomplished his purpose Identify modes of writing Vocabulary analyze to examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their relationships autobiography the story of one's life written by himself biography the story of one's life written by another deduce to conclude by reasoning description a representation of something, especially how it looks, by words exposition a systematic interpretation or explanation of a specific topic narration an account relating incidents or a course of events propagandist one who systematically spreads information to promote some cause, often using improper means Vocab Arcade THE AUTHOR'S PURPOSE When an author decides to write about a subject, he considers very carefully why the subject is worth writing about. What is it about the subject that has captured his attention? What does he want to communicate about the subject? How does he want the reader to respond to what he writes? All these decisions combine to form his purpose for writing. When the author has determined his purpose, he then must decide what form will help him accomplish that purpose. He may decide to write in any one of many forms--essay, poetry, biography, autobiography, letter, short story, or novel. Corrie ten Boom chose to write an autobiography. As you recall from Language 703, a biography is the story of a person's life written by another person. For a biography, the author does extensive research to gather all the information he can before he begins writing. Next, he determines the central thought of the biography. He then chooses an aspect of the person's life (or perhaps several) that will accomplish his purpose. A basic outline of main ideas and the events or details that support them are developed with this thought in mind. An autobiography is the author's own life story. When a person decides to write about himself, he has access to much more information than any biographer could have. The result is that he must decide which parts of his life experience to include. What would be most interesting to a reader? What incidents and details will hold the reader's attention and communicate his message clearly? In other words, what will accomplish his purpose? As with a biographer, the author must formulate the central theme, and then plan the main points and supporting details or incidents. All authors have a purpose for writing. Most of those purposes will fit into one of the main categories listed below. to entertain to inform or explain to persuade To Entertain. Most students have read several works of fiction that had no other goal than to entertain the reader. (Some of these novels and stories do a much better job of entertaining than others do.) The reader selects these books when he wants to read "just for fun" or "to relax." He may not give much thought to the content of the book beyond its obvious entertainment value. Even these books, however, are written in the context of a particular worldview, or way of thinking about life. The author who writes to entertain usually is not consciously attempting to alter your attitudes and beliefs. He simply writes from his own beliefs and attitudes, which can't help but show through. The wise reader, therefore, informs himself about the author's worldview, either through research or careful awareness while reading. He chooses most frequently to read those authors whose belief systems are similar to his own. To Inform or Explain. The purpose of much nonfiction writing is to give information or explanation. Textbooks, newspapers, cookbooks, and how-to books fit into this category. To Convince or Persuade. Other literature is written primarily to change the reader's mind or actions. The writer may want to persuade the reader that it is more relaxing to live in the country than the city or that it is better to attend a Christian school than a public school, for instance. Other authors have a project they wish to see accomplished, and they write to stir people up and to get them to act. This type of material is persuasive writing. Some authors write to expose something that they believe is wrong. Their purpose is to make sure that other people are aware of something that is wrong in order to encourage them to correct the situation. Many newspapers carry this kind of article almost every day. The editor chooses which articles to assign to the reporter, which articles are important to publish, and even which facts about the situation are included in the story. The article informs the public, but its primary purpose is to move the public to demand change. It is primarily persuasive in purpose. Most of the time, you will have to deduce, or figure out, the author's purpose for yourself. Occasionally, however, an author will state his purpose directly. Corrie ten Boom used this technique by quoting something her sister Betsie said shortly before her death. They placed the stretcher on the floor and I leaned down to make out Betsie's words. ". . . must tell people what we have learned here. We must tell them that there is no pit so deep that He is not deeper still. They will listen to us, Corrie, because we have been here." Many authors have written about the Nazi death camps. Some wrote to inform people, in great detail, about the horrible things that went on in the concentration camps. Some wrote to expose the terrible inhumanity of the guards and the leadership of Nazi Germany. They wanted to warn people so that this kind of cruelty would happen "Never again!" Others wrote to persuade governments across the world to keep looking for escaped Nazi war criminals. Unlike those authors, Corrie ten Boom wrote so that people would know that her God's love is greater than any horror that could happen to them. Miss ten Boom's primary purpose is to inform. There is an element of persuasion in the book--although she does not try to convince the reader, he knows that she hopes he will choose to embrace God and His love. Whatever the author's main purpose for writing, the most important thing is that his message is clear. After you have determined why an author wrote about something, you should ask: Was this a good reason? Did the author accomplish his purpose? Do I agree with his purpose?

Capital Letters 1 This lesson will give you the opportunity to review the rules about capitalization and to apply your knowledge in correcting sentences and paragraphs. Here is your goal for this lesson: Recognize and correct capitalization errors while proofreading sentences Vocabulary capitalize To write or print with an upper-case, or capital, letter. direct quotation Telling what a person said by using her exact words. proper noun The name of a specific person, place, thing, or idea; requires capitalization. Vocab Arcade How well do you write? Is your writing ability good, average, or poor? Would you like to improve your writing? Good writers know when to use capital letters; consequently, they also know when not to use capital letters. To help you review what you have learned about when to use capital letters, read and study the following rules. 1. Capitalize the first word of a sentence. Note: The word capitalize refers only to the first letter in a word. Examples: The weather is nice today. Do you like popcorn? 2. Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation. Examples: And God said, "Let there be light"; and there was light. She answered, "Yes, I do." 3. Capitalize the names of people and companies (proper nouns). Examples: John, Mary Johnston, Clyde R. Ferguson, Coca Cola ® , Ajax ® , General Electric ® Do not capitalize: boy, girl, man, soda pop, cleanser, refrigerator Notice that when a brand name is used with a product, the brand name is capitalized but the product is not. Example: General Electric ® refrigerator 4. Capitalize words that refer to specific groups of people (proper adjectives). Examples: Canadians, Christian, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, German 5. Capitalize geographical names (proper nouns). Examples: Elm Avenue, Phoenix, Minnesota, France, Atlantic Ocean, Rockies, Lake Michigan Do not capitalize: street, city, state, country, ocean, mountain, lake 6. Capitalize the names of schools, parks, buildings, organizations, and so forth (proper nouns). Examples: Friendship Christian School, Lincoln Park, Congress, Prince of Peace Church, Boy Scouts Do not capitalize: school, park, building, church, club

Capital Letters 2 This lesson will give you the opportunity to continue reviewing the rules about capitalization and to apply your knowledge in correcting sentences and paragraphs. Make sure that you also pay attention to the examples of what not to capitalize. Here is your goal for this lesson: Recognize and correct capitalization errors while proofreading sentences Vocabulary document Something written or printed that gives information or proves a fact. Vocab Arcade 7. Capitalize days of the week, months, holidays, and holy days (proper nouns). Examples: Wednesday, April Fools' Day, Labor Day, Good Friday Do not capitalize: day, month, holiday 8. Capitalize historical periods, events, dates, and documents (proper nouns). Examples: Renaissance, Korean War, Summer of 1850, Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776 Do not capitalize: century numbers—eleventh century, eighteenth century; summer, winter, spring, fall unless used with a year to designate one particular season. 9. Capitalize personal titles (proper nouns). Examples: Mr. Jones, Uncle Fred, President Jefferson, Professor Higgins, Queen Victoria, Pastor Davis, Dr. Thomas Do not capitalize: mother, father, uncle, aunt, doctor, or pastor when used in this way-- I asked my mother... , I asked my doctor... , and so forth. Do capitalize: Mother and Father when used as a name-- I asked Mother... , I told Father... , and so on. 10. Capitalize the main words in titles. Examples: "Amazing Grace," Song of Solomon, Treasure Island 11. The pronoun "I" is always capitalized (proper pronoun). Example: John and I are good friends. 12. Capitalize the Deity (God) and words which refer to God (proper nouns and personal pronouns). Examples: God, Father, Son, Holy Spirit, He, Him, His 13. Capitalize the names of languages (proper nouns and adjectives). Examples: English, French, Spanish, Chinese, Latin 14. Capitalize the names of school subjects only when they refer to specific courses--these will often have numbers after them (proper nouns). Examples: Algebra I, Religion III, Introduction to Calculus, Geography II Do not capitalize: mathematics, history, art

Read Chapter 13. This chapter describes the remaining two days of the terrible evacuation of prisoners by train. Corrie, Betsie, and many of the women were sent to Ravensbruck, a concentration camp in Germany. This experience was to be even worse for Corrie and Betsie. Suffering was everywhere. The prisoners in Ravensbruck were assigned to a barracks infested by fleas. This was a blessing in disguise because none of the Germans would come near the building. The prisoners, therefore, could hold their Bible studies with no fear of interruption. Betsie grew weaker, and at last she was admitted to the hospital. Corrie felt completely alone, even in the crowded barracks.

Chapters 14-15: Understand Characters As you continue to read, remember to pay close attention to story details, especially those that give you insight into the characters. Here are your goals for this lesson: Read for details Understand character reactions Read Chapter 14. Betsie improved somewhat and was allowed to knit rather than work outside. She did not get well, however, and finally died. Her last words were to urge Corrie to start a home to help people--especially Germans--recover from the war and the experience of the concentration camps.

Read Chapter 3 in The Hiding Place. A reading skill necessary for good understanding is ordering, or sequencing, of chronological events. This skill simply involves being able to tell when each event happened in relationship to the other events. You should pay particular attention to the order of important events as you read this chapter.

Corrie had her first experience with love in this chapter. She and Karel enjoyed each other's company. Corrie assumed they would marry some day. Her brother warned her that Karel planned to "marry well." She was hurt when Karel announced he was engaged to another. Her father helped her deal with her feelings.

Chapters 4-5: Reading for Details The Hiding Place is a story rich with details that make the narration come alive. As you read, pay attention to details that will help you understand later events in the book. Here is your goal for this lesson: Recall story details Vocabulary underground The secret organization in a country to oppose the forces in occupation. Vocab Arcade Read Chapter 4. The fourth chapter takes place after World War I has ended. It is also a part of the flashback Corrie used to explain her early life. Corrie's mother became very ill. She had a cerebral hemorrhage and went into a coma. She regained consciousness after two months and gradually recovered limited use of her arms and legs. She was able to move around with help. Her speech, however, did not return. She was able to communicate with her family for the three years before she died, and through them she continued the good works that she had always done for the town.

When Betsie came down with a cold, Corrie began working in the watch shop. She found she loved making order out of the chaos there, and Betsie discovered that she loved housework. All those years they had been doing the wrong jobs! So the sisters traded jobs and were much happier. Their father became ill with hepatitis. When he returned home, he received a radio from the people of Haarlem who had gotten together and bought it for him. This radio became a family treasure through which they could hear concerts and world news. Through the radio, they discovered that Peter, Corrie's nephew, was gifted musically, and Corrie's father made the discovery that Big Ben always kept correct time. He began to set the astronomical clock by it. The problems in Germany began to grow closer. A young German watchmaker named Otto came to work in their watch shop. Since he was one of Hitler's youths, he showed no respect for the elderly, the Jews, or the Dutch. When Mr. ten Boom tried to reason with him, Otto only showed contempt.

Use a comma to separate the day from the year in a date. Example: May 15, 1996 When a date appears in the middle of a sentence, a comma is placed after the year. Example: On May 15, 1996, our class will go on a nature hike. Use a comma to separate the city from a state. Example: Portland, Oregon When a city and state appear in the middle of a sentence, a comma is placed after the state. Example: Our family visited Portland, Oregon, last year. NOTE: Because of the use of the comma between city and state, if you are listing cities and states in a series, replace the usual commas between series items with semicolons. This helps those unfamiliar with the references to know which names are cities and which are states. Example: Our family visited San Francisco, California; Portland, Oregon; and Seattle, Washington last summer. NOTE: Your study of commas in this section will be important to you when you study coordination and subordination. You may want to look at this information again when you are studying those topics.

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COMPOUND SENTENCES A clause is a group of words which has a subject and a predicate. If that clause expresses a complete idea and it can stand alone as a sentence, we call it an independent clause. An independent clause appearing by itself is called a simple sentence. It is possible to join two independent clauses in one sentence. Such a sentence is called a compound sentence. Independent clauses can be joined to form compound sentences using one of three "tools." 1. coordinating conjunction 2. semicolon 3. conjunctive adverb Two independent clauses can be joined by using a coordinating conjunction. A comma is placed before the coordinating conjunction. Examples: The sun was shining brightly, and the sun was hot. I will go to the mountains, or I will drive to the desert. Note: If the two independent clauses are very short, a comma is often not used. Example: She worked and he played. Two independent clauses may also be joined by a semicolon without a coordinating conjunction. This construction is used in the place of two simple sentences when the ideas are so closely related that the writer wants to include them in a compound sentence. The writer does not want so distinct a break as separate sentences would give. Two clauses: The summer has ended; the harvest has been completed. When a main clause in a long compound sentence contains a comma within the clause, a semicolon may be used before the coordinating conjunction. (This construction, however, is not common; it is usually best to write shorter sentences.) Example: When the torrential rains came upon the valley during the early fall, the harvest was interrupted; and the grain, which had been soaked, could not be stored, leading to both loss of income for the farmers and higher feed prices. Two independent clauses can also be joined by a conjunctive adverb. The most common conjunctive adverbs are furthermore, in addition, indeed, in fact, likewise, moreover, instead, nevertheless, therefore, consequently, thus, however, and hence. A semicolon is placed before the conjunctive adverb. A comma is placed after it. Examples: Today is very cold; in fact , it is the coldest day in twenty years. Today is very cold; therefore , you should dress warmly. Though independent clauses can be joined as described above, not just any independent clause can be joined. The two (or more) clauses must be related to each other in meaning. If the clauses are not related to each other, they should not be joined in the same sentence. Compare these two compound sentences: Brenda is pretty, but she is not conceited. Brenda is pretty, and she likes to eat popcorn. The first sentence is logical because the two clauses work together. The two clauses in the second sentence are not related. Brenda's appearance has nothing to do with her fondness for popcorn. The following changes would make the clauses work together: Brenda likes to eat popcorn and other fattening foods, yet she remains slender.

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Antecedents. Remember that pronouns are noun substitutes. You must consider the functions of the nouns you are replacing before substituting the correct pronouns. Therefore, whenever you use a pronoun to refer to a noun, that pronoun must agree with the noun (antecedent) in person and number. Examples: Judy said that Judy lost Judy's watch. Judy said that she lost her watch. Bill lost the baseball glove he needed for the game. Click here to learn more about pronoun-antecedent agreement.

Adjectives and Adverbs Remember from the study of Language Arts 706 that modifiers are words that change, limit, describe, or explain. Adjective modifiers modify nouns or pronouns. Adverb modifiers modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Prepositional phrases function as either adjective modifiers or adverb modifiers. Here are your goals for this lesson: Identify adjectives within sentences by asking which one, how many, what kind Identify adverbs within sentences by asking when, where, how much Identify predicate adjectives Adjectives. An adjective can modify the simple subject of a sentence, or it can modify an object. An adjective can tell which one, how many, and what kind. Examples: The other house is mine. Three boys helped the teacher. The tall model wears a long gown. The articles a, an and the are adjectives. Example: A book and an orange were on the table. Adjectives can precede or follow the nouns or pronouns they modify. Examples: The tired and cranky baby cried after the long trip. The baby, tired and cranky after the long trip, cried. Adjectives can be part of the predicate. An adjective that modifies the subject but follows a linking verb is called a predicate adjective. Examples: The sky is cloudy. The flower is fuchsia.

Coordination. As you may remember from the study of Language Arts 706, good writers use coordination in writing paragraphs. Coordination is the compounding, or joining, of two or more equal language elements (nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, or clauses). Coordination is very important because it helps to express relationships between ideas, thus contributing to clarity and smoothness in writing. The following coordinating conjunctions can connect any kind of sentence parts, from single words to independent clauses, but they are always used to join two of the same kind: and, but, or, so, yet, and nor. Words: apples and bananas Phrases: in the house and on the roof waiting patiently, but not liking the delay Clauses: I may go to the party, or I may stay home. Coordinating conjunctions are used to form compound sentences from two or more independent clauses. As you read the following paragraph, notice that it is composed of several short sentences that might read more smoothly if joined together by coordinating conjunctions. My thirteenth birthday was yesterday. I had a party. I received many gifts. I wanted a bike. I got guppies instead. Now read the following paragraph and note the formation of compound sentences by the use of coordinating conjunctions. My thirteenth birthday was yesterday, and I had a party. I received many gifts. I wanted a bike, but I got guppies instead. Which of the above paragraphs seems to read more smoothly?

As you may remember, another way of joining language elements is through subordination. In subordination, language elements that are not equal are joined. However, the joined elements are related to each other. Some commonly used subordinating conjunctions include these words: after, although, because, before, if, though, until, when, while, and where. Examples: I will go if I get permission. We can't finish painting until we get more paint. Read the following paragraph. It has only simple sentences and sounds somewhat choppy. We tried hard. We didn't win. All of us felt bad about it. The team that won deserved to win. We couldn't help resenting losing. Now read the following paragraph and note the use of coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. Which paragraph seems more interesting to read? Although we tried, we didn't win, and all of us felt bad about it. The team that won the game deserved to win, but we couldn't help resenting losing.

Chapter 10: Sequence As you read this chapter, recall what you have learned about sequence of events. Here is your goal for this lesson: Use details to understand sequence of events The following list is made of words used in The Hiding Place. Look up any unfamiliar words. defective irretrievable procession execution labyrinth purpose incriminating opinion susceptible inventiveness oppressive SEQUENCE OF EVENTS Corrie and her family were first taken to the Gestapo headquarters in Holland. There she quickly claimed to be the ringleader, so the others might have lighter punishment. That night, they were all taken to their cells. It was the last time Corrie saw her father on this earth. Read Chapter 10. The horrifying experience of imprisonment became a reality to Corrie. Notice how her Christian faith sustained her in this situation. Click here to learn more about the Holocaust.

Corrie was ill at the time of her arrest. The terrible prison conditions kept her from recovering quickly. Gradually, however, Corrie improved, even though she was put in solitude and could not talk to or see anyone. A nurse was able to give a few things to her--individual volumes of the four Gospels. On Hitler's birthday, Corrie discovered that Nollie, Willem, and Peter had been released. Betsie was in a nearby cell and sent the message that the Lord is good. Corrie, however, could get no information about her father. About a week later, she received a package from her sister Nollie, who sent her a bright red towel to encourage her. Even more exciting was the news that all of the Jews hidden by the ten Booms had escaped--none had been captured! Only a short time later, she received a letter informing her of her father's death. Mr. ten Boom had died only ten days after his arrest.

Reflexive and Demonstrative Pronouns; Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement This lesson will give you the opportunity to review what you have learned about two types of pronouns. You will also practice using pronouns carefully so that they fit the noun to which they refer. Here are your goals for this lesson: Identify and use reflexive pronouns correctly Use demonstrative pronouns correctly Use pronouns in agreement with their antecedents Reflexive. Another type of pronoun you have studied is the reflexive pronoun. Reflexive pronouns show that the subject of the sentence, or the actor, is also the object of the verb, or the receiver of the action. All reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, yourselves, ourselves, themselves (not theirselves). Example: The cat washed itself. Jeannie made herself a promise. Remember to avoid using a reflexive pronoun as the subject of a sentence or as the direct object of a sentence unless it refers to the subject. Incorrect: My mother and myself wish to thank you. Correct: My mother and I wish to thank you. Incorrect: He gave the Bible to myself. Correct: He gave the Bible to me.

Demonstrative. One more category of pronouns you have studied in Language Arts 701 is the demonstrative pronoun. Only four such pronouns are in this category: this, these, that, and those. These pronouns indicate inanimate objects rather than people as personal pronouns do. Demonstrative pronouns show a relationship in location between the speaker and the object for which the pronoun stands. This and these indicate that the object or objects are close to the speaker. That and those are used to refer to objects farther away from the speaker. Examples: Take this to Mary, please. Those are beautiful red shoes, Renee.

AVOIDING AMBIGUITY Written information can be misleading or misunderstood when it is ambiguous. Ambiguity means that something is confusing because it can have two or more meanings. Ambiguity frequently is caused by careless writing. The following sentence is ambiguous. Mandy took the rug from the room and swept it. What did Mandy sweep--the rug or the room? Since the meaning of the sentence is unclear, the reader will have to guess which thing was swept. The purpose for writing is to communicate experiences, ideas, information, or feelings to other people. Always try to be precise. Some words that can be used either as a noun or as an adjective can also cause confusion. Example: a cross manufacturer Does this phrase refer to a man who makes crosses or to a man who is angry? The stress put on the spoken words give a good clue. If the stress falls on the word manufacturer (a cross manufacturer), then cross is an adjective meaning angry. If the stress is put on cross (a cross manufacturer), then cross is being used as a noun. This distinction is not clear to someone reading. When you write, try to make yourself very clear to avoid this type of confusion. Describing an event, a person, or any idea exactly is very important. Some words have many meanings. Choose the preferred meaning of the word, and then express yourself in such a way that your reader will know exactly what you are saying. The word pitch, for instance, can mean to throw, to toss and turn, or it can mean a tar-like substance or a tone level: Example: Pitch the ball to me, Warren. Example: Because this boat is pitching about, I may get sick. Example: Be sure the pitch fills every crack. Example: The pitch of her voice was very true.

EXACT WORD CHOICE Exactness in word choice results in writing that communicates clearly and accurately. One word might seem good but another word might be far better to use in a particular expression. Examples: The water felt cold. The water felt icy. Choice of nouns is very important. The dictionary meaning, or definition, of a word is known as denotation. Some words, however, convey emotions or attitudes, either favorable or unfavorable. The emotional meaning of a word is known as the connotative meaning. The words smell, odor, aroma, and fragrance could all be considered synonyms. The first two words, smell and odor, have unpleasant connotations, whereas the words aroma and fragrance both have pleasant connotations. Notice the different shades of meaning these synonyms have in the following sentences. Examples: The aroma of soup made me hungry. The attic had a musty odor. The rose had a unique fragrance. What is that smell? Both the synonyms and antonyms of words provide choices from which we can write vividly and can build exciting mental pictures. Synonyms are words with similar meanings. The meanings may not be identical but they are close. For instance, the words friendly and genial are synonyms. Synonyms often can be substituted for each other. Before you use a synonym, however, be sure that you know its exact meaning so that you do not convey the wrong impression. Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. The words hot and cold are antonyms. An adequate vocabulary will help you as a writer to use appropriate words. For this reason you should work constantly to increase your vocabulary. When you hear a new word or read it, look up the meaning. Then use it until it becomes a part of your vocabulary. Later, you will be able to recall the word. As you continue to grow mentally, your ideas will become more complex and your vocabulary should grow to accommodate these ideas. When you write, the words you use should express exactly what you want to say. A word should be adequate and appropriate. A dictionary, a thesaurus, or a dictionary of synonyms and antonyms can provide many word choices. Some books on usage describe circumstances in which one word choice is better than another one.

Use parentheses to enclose parenthetic, supplementary, and explanatory material. Parentheses enclose parenthetic expressions. These expressions are groups of words or ideas that are not closely related to the rest of the sentence. Example: The old typewriter (the one I learned on) has to be taken to the repair shop. Parentheses enclose supplementary material. Supplementary material is an added idea, somewhat similar to a parenthetic expression. Example: The honored painting (the oldest in the exhibit) hung on the west wall. Parentheses enclose explanatory material. Explanatory ideas give an extra explanation to help the reader better understand the main idea of the sentence. Example: Parentheses enclose (surround) explanatory material (ideas). Parentheses are used for accuracy in business to enclose numerical figures. Example: The cost of thirty (30) packages of paper is fifty dollars ($50). Parentheses are used to enclose numbers or letters in a series. Example: She is authorized to (1) sign checks, (2) pay bills, and (3) make purchases.

Hyphens and Commas This lesson will give you the opportunity to review the uses of hyphens and commas. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use hyphens to break words, in compounds, and with prefixes Use commas for multiple purposes The hyphen is used for division between syllables of a word at the end of a line. Example: He slipped and fell while walk- ing across the street. Remember to divide words evenly and never with less than three letters on a line. Awkward: I believe he was in- terpreted incorrectly. Correct: I believe he was inter- preted incorrectly. When writing formal English, remember not to divide capitalized words. Incorrect: This year we studied Brit- ish history. Correct: This year we studied British history. Use a hyphen to separate the parts of compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine when they are written as words. Examples: forty-two adults eighty-five cents Use a hyphen to separate a prefix from a proper noun or a proper adjective. Examples: un-American anti-Soviet Use a hyphen to separate the prefixes all-, self-, and ex-, when they are added to nouns. Examples: all-star game ex-president self-interest Finally, use a hyphen to separate certain compound words. Examples: teen-age father-in-law

Review Verb Agreement and Confusion Remember that languages have a logical, orderly system of organization. When the English language is used in accordance with this system of use, the language communicates clearly and harmoniously. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use subjects and verbs that agree in number Correctly use verbs and verb parts that are often confused The subject and the verb of a sentence must work together in a logical way. The subject and the verb must agree in number. If the subject of the sentence is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. Example: My brother washes the car every Saturday. My brothers wash the car every Saturday. Notice that the singular verb ends with -es (or -s). When I or you is used as a singular subject do not add -s to the main verb. Example: I cook the dinner. You read the book.

In Language Arts 705, you learned about verbs that are often confused. The following examples are the forms and correct usage of these verbs. Examples: lie (lying, lay, lain), to rest or to recline lay (laying, laid, laid), to place or to put sit (sitting, sat), to occupy a space or to rest in a sitting position set (setting, set), to place or to put something rise (rising, rose, risen), to move in an upward direction raise (raising, raised, raised), to cause to move in an upward direction Examples: I lie on the floor to rest. Please lay the book on the table. We sit at desks in school. Please set the dishes on the table. The sun rises every morning. The students raise the flag.

Formal, Informal, and Nonstandard English In this lesson, you will study about formal English, informal English, and nonstandard English. If you are to use English as an educated person, you should know the difference and should know what usage is appropriate. Here are your goals for this lesson: Understand that there are different usages of English based upon occasion Distinguish between formal and informal usage Vocabulary colloquial Informal and casual speech. formal English English language giving strict attention to the rules of correct English grammar, syntax, pronunciation, and usage. illiterate Unable to read or write; not educated; incorrect speaking and writing. informal English English language used in everyday speech, but not used in formal speaking and writing. nonstandard English English language that does not follow the rules of correct English grammar, syntax, pronunciation, and usage. usage A way of using words and phrases; an established procedure. Vocab Arcade Formal, informal, and nonstandard are three levels of English usage. Formal English and informal English are sometimes referred to as standard English. These two types of English are the accepted forms for English usage. Formal English generally is used in writing, while informal English generally is used in speaking. Nonstandard English is never acceptable in educated circles. Formal English is used particularly in writing school assignments and in giving formal speeches or oral reports. Neither slang nor colloquial expressions are appropriate. Contractions are not used. Correct grammar and a "polished" writing style are important. Example of formal English: My father was an unusual man. He had a unique sense of humor, and his perception of persons and events that touched his life caused him to overlook anything negative and emphasize, instead, what he found to be amusing. Very little escaped his attention. He had an uncanny ability to find a humorous aspect in any situation. He was constantly inventing parodies, mimicking what people said, and laughing at his own witticisms. My mother, by contrast, was a serious woman. At times she seemed genuinely annoyed by my father's "incessant prattle," as she called it, but inwardly, I think she enjoyed his jocularity even more than the rest of our family. He was a very likable man. This style of English may be difficult to use all of the time, but learning the differences between formal English and informal English and learning the acceptable time and place for using both are very important. Informal English is used when speaking to friends or when writing a letter or a note to a friend or to a relative. Colloquial expressions are acceptable in informal English. Certain slang terms, though not all, are usually acceptable. The use of contractions is common. The style can be less polished and have a 'folksy' or casual quality. Correct grammar, however, is still important even when using informal English. Example of informal English: My dad was quite a guy! He had a fantastic sense of humor, and he found everything and everybody around him funny. He hardly ever found something he didn't like. That's the kind of man he was by nature. Even the smallest incident scarcely escaped him and because of this special ability, he could always find something funny in what was going on around him. Anytime or anyplace, he was always making up funny stories, swapping jokes, imitating others, and then acting as cheerleader as he would laugh harder than the people whose fancies he was trying to tickle. Mom, on the other hand, was something of a pickle. She sometimes seemed to come unglued because he was likely to tell a joke at the wrong time. I suspect that inwardly she enjoyed his humor as much as anyone else in our family. He was a very likable sort of fellow. Both informal and formal English have their place. With practice, you can develop a sense of which type of English fits the purpose. Using nonstandard English can make you sound illiterate. Nonstandard English is out of place, just as arriving late for class or dressing in old clothes for a formal party is out of place. Incorrect grammar, unacceptable slang, and improper usage are characteristics of nonstandard English. Examples of nonstandard English: Nonstandard: I didn't go nowhere. Correct: I didn't go anywhere. Nonstandard: He had did the job. Correct: He had done the job. Nonstandard: The sky ain't blue today. Correct: The sky is not blue today. You will now have a chance to study and to apply certain words and phrases so that you will understand the difference between formal and informal English usage more clearly. A pair of words or phrases is in each example. The first part of each pair is informal usage. The second part shows what should be used when you are writing formal English. Informal Formal It is about 4:00 o'clock. The time is approximately 4:00 o'clock. Sit anyplace you like. Sit anywhere you like. I am done with my homework. I am finished with my homework. I dove into the water. I dived into the water. I expect you are tired. I believe you are tired. He was fired from his job. He was dismissed from his job. I have a funny feeling about him. I have an odd (or peculiar) feeling about him. I hope I don't flunk my math class. I hope I do not fail my mathematics class. Remember that both of these forms of English are correct at the proper place and time. In this section you will not be able to learn everything about formal English, informal English, and nonstandard English. You will study the most common mistakes people make. You will begin to be aware of when to use formal speaking and writing and when to use informal speaking and writing. If you continue to be aware of these differences as you continue your study of English in the years ahead, you will have no difficulty using formal English when you reach higher levels of education.

Informal Formal My older brother will stick up for me. My older brother will defend me. Would you like to swap bikes? Would you like to trade bicycles? He borrowed a dollar off of me. He borrowed a dollar from me. Don't tell on your friends. Do not betray your friends. I used to take swimming lessons. I once took swimming lessons. Try and do your best. Try to do your best. I see where our team won by two runs. I see that our team won by two runs. Our team has three wins this season. Our team has three victories this season. She is trying to fix her alarm clock. She is trying to repair her alarm clock. To be successful at the following game, you should review these lessons in this unit: "Words That Signal Types of Organization," "Words That Express Feelings," and "Smooth and Clear Expression."

Mentally review the story of Helen Keller, thinking about the characters involved. How did her mother have an effect on Helen? Mrs. Keller revealed her love and concern for her daughter by getting an outstanding teacher and preparing a room for her so that Helen could be taught at home. Miss Sullivan conveyed her love to Helen Keller the moment she met her. She proved her faithfulness by continuing to be her teacher and companion for nearly fifty years. She showed much patience and wisdom in dealing with her new student. Helen Keller was filled with anger and bitterness that resulted from a grieved or wounded spirit. The experience that she had at the pump house transformed her into a joyful individual filled with eager anticipation for more knowledge. Key events are the important happenings that unlock the meaning of the story. These key events are the backbone of the story. They are those happenings that would make a story incomplete if they were omitted. The key events in this story about Helen Keller are the coming of Miss Sullivan to be Helen's teacher and Helen Keller's discovering the mystery of language. On this day of discovery, Helen Keller realized that everything had a name and discovered that each name gave birth to a new thought. The results of these events transformed the inner life of this student. She had a whole new outlook on life and was filled with joy and hope. The other events are subordinate events that add more details to the story. Three people were involved in this story: Helen Keller; her mother; and her teacher, Miss Sullivan. The word involve means to have an effect on, or to affect others (effect is a noun, and affect is a verb). Perhaps you can think of people who have had an effect upon you. The effect can be for good or for evil. In Proverbs 13:20 we read, "He that walketh with wise men shall be wise: but a companion of fools shall be destroyed."

Nonfiction Literature: The Apple Tree Switch The incidents described in nonfiction are not always in sequence on the time line. They are retrospective, or flashbacks to the past. The time of the thought falls into the pattern of sequence, but what is being thought about occurred in the past. For example, you may be talking with a friend about an exciting ball game that you just watched together; then you suddenly remember an incident that happened to a friend of yours at a ball game two years ago. You proceed to tell that experience. The event being described is not in the order of the sequence of events. In the last part of the story "The Apple Tree Switch," the author is being retrospective. Keep in mind that the last part of the story recalls an incident that occurred in the time line of his life long before the first part of the story began. Here are your goals for this lesson: Determine sequence Understand the technique of flashback in narrative Distinguish between key events and subordinate events Vocabulary excruciating Very painful. finesse The skillful handling of a delicate situation. forthrightly Frankly; in an outspoken manner. incorrigible So firmly fixed (in bad habits) that nothing else can be expected. moral law That which is right and good as stated in God's laws. ominous Unfavorable; threatening. reluctantly Unwillingly; resisting something because it is disagreeable. retrospective Looking back on things past. suffice To be enough or adequate to meet present needs or requirements. Vocab Arcade Read this story for enjoyment. Then reread the story to distinguish between key events and subordinate events, noticing the characters involved. "The Apple Tree Switch" It was a few weeks after my mother's funeral. The ache in my heart was still excruciating. I could hardly think of her without tears. I went about my work as a grocery boy in a mechanical sort of way. The owner of the store was away at lunch when the woman and her ill-mannered son arrived. She flounced in through the front door with her incorrigible offspring at her heels. He made straight for the peanut barrel. In those days, long before lettuce was sold by the pound or steaks were wrapped in cellophane, the grocery store was a homey sort of place that you could enter without an engraved calling card, and where you could stop without having to observe traffic signals as you pushed a chrome-trimmed baby carriage around. I went on about my work of sacking potatoes and left the woman and her son to their own devices. Suddenly, during a lull in my own operations, I heard a crunching sound. I looked over toward the peanut barrel. That eight-year-old Public Enemy was gobbling up peanuts like a turkey eating grasshoppers. He was throwing the shells all over the floor. I spoke to the mother. "Hey! Your kid is in the peanut barrel," I called forthrightly with none of the finesse which a modern grocery clerk would use in addressing a customer. The woman put her groceries down on the counter and turned toward her son. Very gently she said, "Junior, you shouldn't eat those peanuts; they'll make you sick." I opened my mouth to say, "You are missing the point. Those do not happen to be Junior's peanuts. They belong to the store. What's more, they are worth ten cents a pound!" (Now you know how long ago this was.) At that moment the owner of the store, a fat, jolly sort of fellow, breezed in. Figuring it was his problem, I ducked down and started to fill the potato sacks. Suddenly, there flashed across my mind's eye the picture of my own mother in contrast to the empty-headed specimen with the peanut-stuffed kid. I remembered the most painful experience of my childhood for the first time with thankfulness and understanding. I had become a thief. What I had stolen was of little monetary value. In fact, it was worth then about two cents. It was just a red brick. I had taken it from a neighbor's yard where he was building a fireplace. The trouble was that Mother had seen the whole thing from where she stood washing dishes at her kitchen sink. Mother came through the kitchen door wiping her hands on her apron. I had the brick under my coat and was transporting it out behind the chicken house where I intended to use it in some of my business with some toy cars. I was arrested in my quick walk around the fence by an ominous call from Mother. "Young man, come here this very instant!" I threw the brick down and obeyed reluctantly. I knew before she verified it that I had been seen taking the brick. To my horror, I saw also that she had broken a small limb off the apple tree which stood near the kitchen door and was calmly stripping it of leaves. "You took something which did not belong to you," said my mother. "That is stealing. I am going to punish you for it." What happened then for a few dancing moments is too painful to relate. Suffice it to say that Mother gave me an application of child psychology punctuated at the close of each paragraph by the apple tree switch. "Now," she said, while I gouged my dirty fists into my tearful eyes, "you are going to take that brick back to Mrs. Jones. You are not going to put it back on the pile, but you are going to knock on her door, hand the brick to her, and tell her that you took it from her back yard, that you are sorry, and that you will never do anything like that again." That was the bitterest gall I had ever tasted. And now, as I weighed up a quarter's worth of potatoes, my eyes were filled with tears again. This time they were tears of happiness, as I thanked God for a mother who built her house upon Him and the precepts of moral law. She had cared more about my soul than she had about my stomach. (Harold Dye, A Story to Remember. Nashville: Broadman Press, pp. 37-40. Used by permission.) To be successful at the following game, you should review these lessons in this unit: "Nonfiction Literature: Helen Keller" and "Nonfiction Literature: The Apple Tree Switch."

Learning to Listen Review As you have learned, listening is a skill that needs to be developed. People often become accustomed to hearing, but not to listening, because they are preoccupied with their own interests or because they are distracted by noises around them. Someone has said, "If you are talking, you are not learning." The better your listening skills, the more you will learn, understand, and remember. "Nature has given man one tongue, but two ears that he may hear from others twice as much as he speaks." --Epictetus Here are your goals for this lesson: Understand critical listening skills Evaluate what you hear according to your Christian values Listening Courteously. By being courteous and attentive you will help the speaker to give you his best. Quietly look at the speaker at all times when you are not taking notes. Show a sincere interest in what is being said. When a room is filled with people who are courteous listeners, the atmosphere creates a condition for learning. Review the types of listening you have already learned, together with some examples. Passive listening: the reception of background noises and sounds without being fully aware of them Purposeful listening: the attention you must pay to the presentation of materials and the directions given in a classroom Appreciative listening: the experience and enjoyment of a music concert or play Review this list of listening hints that you have learned: Be comfortable, but not too comfortable. Listen for key words or phrases. Watch the speaker for clues about important information. Listen for the speaker to sum up his talk. Be sure to take notes on key information. Ask questions whenever possible. Compare new information with what is known. Finally, review critical listening, by which you compare the information given with what you already know. It is used to determine if the speaker is giving impartial information or spreading propaganda to sway the listeners' beliefs. Listening critically is very important for junior high and high school students. Review these questions to help your critical listening skills: 1. Do I know the statement is based on fact? 2. Is the fact colored or affected by emotion? 3. Do I want to believe this simply because it was stated by someone I like or admire? 4. Does this statement agree with the Christian ideals and standards I hold?

Note-Taking and Summarizing Here are your goals for this lesson: Take meaningful notes while listening Use notes from reading and listening to summarize briefly and effectively Use guidelines to evaluate a summary Avoid plaigarism TAKING MEANINGFUL NOTES Part of good listening and reading skills is learning how to pick out the most important ideas you hear or read and transfer them onto paper to help you remember them. This process is commonly called taking notes. Since speakers talk much more quickly than you can write, and since you don't want to copy down every word heard or read, you should write down only key words. Key words, like key events, unlock the meaning of a lesson, or a lecture. These words are the ones which contain most of the meaning of what the speaker says. Learning how to listen or look for key words will help you keep up with the speaker's pace, write down information accurately, and arrange ideas in their proper order. The notes you take will help you to recall main facts and mental pictures long after you first heard them. Since taking notes involves writing down only key words, notes will often be a series of short phrases, dashes, arrows, and other methods of "shorthand." A good note taker develops his own method of getting down just the facts. The video below illustrates the difference between what the listener hears and what he writes down. As the video above demonstrates, notes eliminate many details and include only the most important information. Notice also that the listener was careful to keep his notes neat and legible (readable). SUMMARIZING An extension of note taking is summarizing. A summary is a brief statement of the main thoughts of a speech, article, book, chapter, or report. A good summary is the result of taking good notes and then restating those key ideas in your own words. Once you have finished taking notes on something you hear or read, you may ask yourself three important questions that will greatly assist you in making a brief summary. 1. What was the main idea, problem, or issue? 2. What were the most important supporting ideas? 3. What is the conclusion or decision made? The topic sentence of the summary should be a brief summary of the main idea, problem, or issue. The next sentences should add only the most important details. Read the passage below and then study the summary which follows. For years, scientists have tried to discover how bats fly without hitting objects. Over two hundred years ago, an Italian named Abbe Spallanzani caught a number of bats and placed them in a room filled with bells. The bells were hung on tiny wires suspended from the ceiling. The bats flew in and out among the wires and didn't touch a single wire. Spallanzani put wax over the weak eyes of the bats. As before, the bats flew in and out among the wires and didn't touch a single wire. Later, scientists continued studying bats to try to understand how bats can fly safely without sight. Only recently was the mystery solved. It was discovered that when a bat's mouth was tied shut, the bat could not avoid hitting the objects. Also, if the bat's ears were covered, the bat also flew into objects. Based on these clues, the scientists learned that the bat emits a very high-pitched noise from its mouth. The pitch is so high that human beings cannot hear it. When this high-pitched sound hits an object, even a tiny wire, the sound echoes or bounces back and hits the sensitive ears of the bat, enabling the bat to tell how far away an object is. Scientists had at last discovered that God had created this tiny creature complete with a radar system. (226 words). SUMMARY For many years, scientists have tried to understand how the weak-eyed bats can travel without hitting objects. After years of experimentation, they discovered that though the bat can fly safely without sight, it needs both its mouth and its ears. Scientists found that bats send out a high pitched noise which bounces off objects and re-enters their sensitive ears. This built-in radar system enables bats to judge distances without sight. (71 words) When writing a summary such as the one above, the writer must make a decision about what information must be included and what information can be eliminated. For example, look at how much information can be summarized in a single sentence. Sentence two from the summary above . . . After years of experimentation, they discovered that though the bat can fly safely without sight, it needs both its mouth and its ears. replaces all of the information below, taken from the original passage . . . Over two hundred years ago, an Italian named Abbe Spallanzani caught a number of bats and placed them in a room filled with bells. The bells were hung on tiny wires suspended from the ceiling. The bats flew in and out among the wires and didn't touch a single wire. Spallanzani put wax over the weak eyes of the bats. As before, the bats flew in and out among the wires and didn't touch a single wire. Later, scientists continued studying bats to try to understand how bats can fly safely without sight. Only recently was the mystery solved. It was discovered that when a bat's mouth was tied shut, the bat could not avoid hitting the objects. Also, if the bat's ears were covered, the bat also flew into objects. In the summary above, the phrase "years of experimentation" does the job of telling the reader that scientists searched long and hard for reasons why the bat behaves the way it does. The reader does not need to know who performed the experiments or the details of the experiment itself. As the example summary above shows, the topic sentence of the summary should contain the main idea or ideas expressed. The summary should be around one-third as long as the original. One way to check the length of your summary is to determine how long the speaker talks. Then, read your summary and compare the length of time for your summary with the speech time. When you summarize from the written page, you may count the words of the original, and compare that number with the number of words in your summary. As much as possible, the words of the summary should be your own, but the ideas must be those of the author. Any exact words of the original used in the summary must be in quotation marks. Otherwise you will be plagiarizing (stealing the author's work). Personal opinions are not to be included in a summary.

PRONOUNS You have already learned in Language Arts 701 and 705 that a pronoun is a word used to take the place of a noun. A pronoun is a noun substitute. The noun for which it substitutes is called its antecedent. Pronouns prevent the tiresome repetition of nouns. Example: Doug parked Doug's car in the garage and went upstairs to do Doug's homework. The use of pronouns for some of the nouns improves the example sentence. Example: Doug parked his car in the garage and went up to his room to do his homework. Personal. One kind of pronoun you have studied is the personal pronoun. It designates person: the speaker, or first person; the person or thing spoken to, or second person; and some other person or thing spoken about, or third person. Pronouns used as subjects or predicate nouns are in the nominative case . Examples: subject verb predicate noun The student was she. She is the chairperson. Pronouns used as the objects of verbs or prepositions are in the objective case. Examples: subject verb direct object Jack saw it. subject verb prepositional phrase The message is for us. Pronouns used to show who owns an object are in the possessive case. Example: The dog lost its bone. The bicycle is mine.

Nouns and Pronouns This lesson gives you the opportunity to review what you have learned about nouns and pronouns. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use common and proper nouns Categorize nouns Use pronouns in agreement with their antecedents Use pronouns in correct case as subject, object, and predicate noun Vocabulary antecedent The noun that is referred to by a pronoun. Vocab Arcade NOUNS A noun is the name of, or label for, a person, place, thing, or idea. In Language Arts 701, you studied the two types of nouns--common nouns and proper nouns. Examples: Common nouns: boy, city, store, river, building Proper nouns: Colorado River, the Pentagon You also studied that one function of nouns is to show relationship between two or more objects, to identify categories. You may remember that categories consist of words that are related to each other in the same way. Notice the following categories and their members. Examples: Animals: deer, lions, sheep Rivers: Mississippi, Ohio, Amazon

Smooth and Clear Expression Much of what is termed informal English usage includes such things as colloquial expressions, slang, idioms, clichés, and other phrases that should be avoided in formal English usage. Here is your goal for this lesson: Simplify wordy expressions Vocabulary cliche A worn-out idea or trite expression. idiom A phrase or expression whose meaning cannot be understood from the ordinary meanings of its words. redundant Using too many words to express an idea; extra and not needed. Vocab Arcade Idioms. Informal language is full of idioms. Their use is so common that we often don't realize we are not saying exactly what the words mean. Imagine how confused a person just learning to speak English as a second language would be over the expression, the crack of dawn. Even if she knows the meaning of the word crack and dawn, it would be impossible to figure out that you meant at the earliest possible moment of the day. Here are some other common idioms and their literal, or actual, meaning. Idiom Meaning all thumbs clumsy draw a blank not remember fall for a line believe a clever lie go all out try your hardest in the doghouse in trouble Clichés. Most clichés started out as clever comments, colorful expressions, or highly descriptive similes. People liked them and repeated them. However, just like a popular song on the radio that finally gets tiresome, the clichés have "worn out their welcome" (to use a cliché). They are no longer fresh, and they often cause groans rather than nods of agreement or smiles of amusement. It is best to leave them out of your writing unless you have a special purpose for using them. Here is a list to help you recognize clichés as you hear them. He's as sharp as a tack. It was so quiet you could hear a pin drop. I see him once in a blue moon. He talked to her as smooth as silk. Well, that's why they pay you the big bucks. If you can't beat 'em, join 'em. No pain, no gain. You can't tell a book by its cover. Beauty is only skin deep. That's life! Try to avoid idioms and clichés; use the more formal words and phrases as often as possible. At the same time be on the lookout for other examples of informal usage.

One of your goals is to express yourself in a mature way. You read about using a polished writing style. To develop a polished writing style, you must learn to write smooth sentences. Train yourself not to use wordy or redundant phrases. You can express ideas more clearly by using fewer words. In each of the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence contains a lengthy expression that you should avoid when using formal English. The second sentence shows how to express the same idea more clearly and in fewer words. Poor Better We will go to the party at the conclusion of the game. We will go to the party after the game. At this time we are on vacation. We are now on vacation. We will bring to an end our lesson for today. We will end our lesson for today. Continue on with your Bible study. Continue your Bible study. By means of studying and turning in assignments, Jill earned straight A's. By studying and turning in assignments, Jill earned straight A's.

In the short biography about William Tyndale, events occurred in a certain order or sequence. The first event, followed by a second event, followed by a third event, and so on is called the sequence of events. To be able to identify the sequence of events is very important in most forms of writing, but especially when you read biographies. This ordering of events enables you to understand and remember what you read. Here is your goal for this lesson: Select events in a sentence according to which happened first, next, or last Certain words help you understand the sequencing of events in a story as well as earlier events that may be referred to. Look for words like before, then, or eventually. Other words indicate that two or more actions are occurring at the same time: while, as, and during, for example. Careful attention to these words, and others like them, will assist your comprehension. Read the following short selection and try to identify the sequence of events. Words that indicate sequencing or previous events are emphasized. Be aware of what happens first, second, third, and so on. When I was a boy, I wanted to be a professional baseball player. I played in Little League for three years, enjoying it very much. There I learned the fundamentals of baseball. As a young teenager, I was active in Pony League. The competition was stiff, and instead of playing third base, my position since Little League, I was changed to outfield. In high school, I was on the freshman team, then the junior varsity, and finally I made the varsity team in my senior year. After high school, I was offered a contract to play professional baseball in the farm system of the Minnesota Twins. I played Class A ball for two years, and I was on a Double A ball club for one year. I only hit .245, and I soon realized that if I continued to make baseball my career, I would always be in the minors, never on a major league team. I was almost twenty-one years old then. I quit professional baseball and went to college. Now I'm past the age of thirty-five, and I teach history at Washington High School in Timesberg, Iowa. I'm also the varsity baseball coach, and I love it. I love baseball and always will. As you read this selection, you probably noticed that the sequence of events was arranged according to time. This selection begins with the narrator as a boy and continues throughout his life until he becomes an adult. Anything arranged in the order in which it happened is said to be in chronological order. If we listed the sequence of events in chronological order, the list would look like this one: 1. I played in Little League for three years. 2. I played in Pony League in early teens. 3. I played on the freshman, junior varsity, and varsity teams in high school. 4. I played on minor league teams for three years after high school 5. I quit baseball and went to college. 6. I now teach high school and coach the baseball team. Sequence of actions. Each event within a sequence of events contains a certain order of actions. As you remember, one of the events in the biography about William Tyndale dealt with his arrest. Certain actions led up to his arrest. We call this order the sequence of actions.

Prefixes: Finding Sometimes students are overwhelmed by long words. They may not even try to read some words containing more than two or three syllables. Some of the longest words in the English language include these two: pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis antidisestablishmentarianism Long words such as these are actually just small words with many word parts added to them. In this section you will study the structure of long words (but not nearly as long as those two). You will learn to identify and use prefixes and suffixes. You will learn more about base words, Latin roots, and Greek roots. If you can read and spell roots, bases, prefixes, and suffixes, you will be able to read and spell longer words made up of these word elements. You might even be able to spell pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis (but it won't be on your quiz. Whew!). Here are your goals for this lesson: Recognize common prefixes Use the meaning of prefixes to decode a difficult term One way to change the meaning of a word and to make it longer is to add a prefix to that word. A prefix is a word part added at the beginning of a word. The word becomes a new word with a different meaning, and the new word is longer because it has two parts instead of one. Examples: un- + happy = unhappy ab- + sent = absent inter- + state = interstate tele- + vision = television

In the short biography about William Tyndale, events occurred in a certain order or sequence. The first event, followed by a second event, followed by a third event, and so on is called the sequence of events. To be able to identify the sequence of events is very important in most forms of writing, but especially when you read biographies. This ordering of events enables you to understand and remember what you read. Here is your goal for this lesson: Select events in a sentence according to which happened first, next, or last Certain words help you understand the sequencing of events in a story as well as earlier events that may be referred to. Look for words like before, then, or eventually. Other words indicate that two or more actions are occurring at the same time: while, as, and during, for example. Careful attention to these words, and others like them, will assist your comprehension. Read the following short selection and try to identify the sequence of events. Words that indicate sequencing or previous events are emphasized. Be aware of what happens first, second, third, and so on. When I was a boy, I wanted to be a professional baseball player. I played in Little League for three years, enjoying it very much. There I learned the fundamentals of baseball. As a young teenager, I was active in Pony League. The competition was stiff, and instead of playing third base, my position since Little League, I was changed to outfield. In high school, I was on the freshman team, then the junior varsity, and finally I made the varsity team in my senior year. After high school, I was offered a contract to play professional baseball in the farm system of the Minnesota Twins. I played Class A ball for two years, and I was on a Double A ball club for one year. I only hit .245, and I soon realized that if I continued to make baseball my career, I would always be in the minors, never on a major league team. I was almost twenty-one years old then. I quit professional baseball and went to college. Now I'm past the age of thirty-five, and I teach history at Washington High School in Timesberg, Iowa. I'm also the varsity baseball coach, and I love it. I love baseball and always will. As you read this selection, you probably noticed that the sequence of events was arranged according to time. This selection begins with the narrator as a boy and continues throughout his life until he becomes an adult. Anything arranged in the order in which it happened is said to be in chronological order. If we listed the sequence of events in chronological order, the list would look like this one: 1. I played in Little League for three years. 2. I played in Pony League in early teens. 3. I played on the freshman, junior varsity, and varsity teams in high school. 4. I played on minor league teams for three years after high school 5. I quit baseball and went to college. 6. I now teach high school and coach the baseball team. Sequence of actions. Each event within a sequence of events contains a certain order of actions. As you remember, one of the events in the biography about William Tyndale dealt with his arrest. Certain actions led up to his arrest. We call this order the sequence of actions.

Prefixes: Meanings Whether a prefix is added to an English word or a root from another language, its purpose is the same. The prefix alters the meaning of the word or root. Understanding a wide variety of prefix meanings will help you increase your vocabulary. Here are your goals for this lesson: Give the meaning of prefixes to understand simple words Select appropriate prefixes for a variety of words Construct words using common bases and prefixes A prefix makes a word longer; it also changes the meaning. Each prefix has a special definition. The definition, or meaning, of a prefix will be added to the base word. Words change in meaning when a prefix is added. The prefix im- means not. When im- is added to a word, the meaning of not is also added to that word. Example: Add the prefix im- to the base word material, and the new word immaterial means not material. The following are some common prefixes and their meanings. dis- not; do opposite of de- do opposite of; remove un- not; opposite of anti- against; opposite inter- between para- beside in- not post- after con- with; together pre- before bi- two sub- below super- above circum- around co- with; together com- with; together im- not re- again ir- not non- not mis- not; opposite of wrong Click here to learn more about prefixes.

Adverbs. A word that modifies the simple predicate is called an adverb. An adverb can tell when something happened. Examples: Mike did his homework yesterday. I always say my prayers. An adverb can tell where something happened. Examples: Maura lives there. The baby will lie down and take a nap. An adverb can tell how something happened. Examples: The children quickly chased the escaped cat. Donna ran as fast as she could. An adverb can tell how much. Examples: Will this assignment take long? I almost hit a home run in the ninth inning. An adverb can modify another adverb. Examples: Danny works very quickly on all projects. Kenneth can jump quite high. An adverb can modify an adjective. Examples: This room is not very big. Today is too warm to work outside. Click here for a parts of speech game!

Prepositional Phrases As you studied in Language Arts 706, prepositional phrases may be used in sentences to modify any of the main parts. Prepositional phrases might be called the "workhorses" of sentences because they carry so much meaning. In this lesson, you will review the work that prepositional phrases can do. Here are your goals for this lesson: Identify prepositional phrases within sentences Determine whether prepositional phrases are used as adjectives or as adverbs Prepositions. Prepositional phrases can be classified as either adjective or adverb, according to the function they perform in the sentence. Each prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun. The following list contains some prepositions arranged according to the conditions they describe. A prepositional phrase can do the work of an adjective. Examples: Adjective: The blue-eyed girl is my sister. Prepositional phrase: The girl with blue eyes is my sister. Adjective: The courageous soldier led in the battle. Prepositional phrase: The soldier with courage led in the battle. A prepositional phrase can do the work of an adverb. Examples: I swam in the swimming pool. (Tells where) I swam before dinner. (Tells when) I lay on my back. (Tells how) More About Prepositional Phrases To be successful at the following game, you should review these lessons in this unit: "Verb Tense," "Verb Agreement and Confusion," "Nouns and Pronouns," "Reflexive and Demonstrative Pronouns; Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement," "Adjectives and Adverbs," and "Prepositional Phrases."

As well as using different voice pitches to give emphasis and meaning to our words and sentences, we can also use the pause. The pause is a break or time of waiting. It can be used to add emphasis or to change the meaning of a sentence. At times we may use a pause, sometimes called juncture, and leave the rest of the sentence unsaid, letting the listener fill in the rest for himself. Example: "If you don't stop that noise right now ... " What will happen if you do not stop? You would have to be in the situation and know the speaker before knowing the answer. The sentence might be an idle threat, or it might indicate serious consequences. Example: "My uncle Steven is ... " He could be many things. Perhaps a body gesture finished the sentence. A shrug of the shoulder might mean you were not sure how to describe him. Making a ring of your thumb and forefinger might indicate he is really okay. Thumbs down might mean you did not care much for him. A pause can also be used to call attention. Example: "Barry--come to the front of the room." Mr. Cropter was--a mean man. The pause in the first sentence might be an indication that the speaker was making sure he had Barry's attention before he gave further instruction. In the second sentence the speaker paused to call attention to his opinion of Mr. Cropter. Example: Susan--shut the window. Amber--are you finished with the dishes yet? John--take out the garbage. Kristin--feed the dog. To be successful at the following game, you should review this lesson carefully.

Punctuating Pauses The pause is used almost as often as pitch change. In this lesson, you will study the different reasons and punctuations used for pauses. Here are your goals for this lesson: Select appropriate punctuation to indicate pauses in speech Use correct end punctuation according to sentence type Join closely related sentences with a semicolon Introduce a list with a colon Use commas to indicate meaning and following introductory phrases/clauses Use dashes to indicate hesitancy or interrupted speech Vocabulary declarative A sentence that makes a statement. exclamatory A sentence that shows excitement or emotion. interrogative A sentence that asks a question. Vocab Arcade The pause is used almost as often as pitch change. Pausing between words or in speech tells a listener one of many things. The most common fact is that a pause signal is the end of a sentence. Read the following sentences to yourself. My sister is in the hospital. She had a baby yesterday. When you read those sentences, you should have paused at the end of the first sentence. If the sentences were run together, it would be more difficult for anyone listening to understand. Punctuation marks are used as written symbols for voice pause. In all four types of sentences, whether you are stating a fact (declarative sentence), asking a question (interrogative sentence), showing surprise (exclamatory sentence), or giving a command (imperative sentence), always pause before going on to the next sentence. Examples: (Click on the Tiny Tutor to hear how these sentences should sound, according to the way they are punctuated.): Mrs. Hansley wrote four letters today. Did she write one to my mother? I hope so! Let me see the envelopes so that I can check. The examples above show you that punctuation is important in order to know how to read a sentence. Watch "Punctuation Play" to learn more. Without punctuation, the meaning of the sentence "Ann said Sue do you want to play" is unclear. Who asked the question, Ann or Sue? With punctuation, we know that Ann asked the question: Ann said, "Sue, do you want to play?" Of course, the punctuation could be changed to make Sue ask the question: "Ann," said Sue, "Do you want to play?" The point of "Punctuation Play" is that punctuation (and capitalization) plays an important part in making the meaning of sentence clear. USING PUNCTUATION AS A READING GUIDE Semicolons. At times, two sentences (i.e. a compound sentence) are joined together by a semicolon (;). These sentences would make sense if they were separated by a period, but they are connected because they closely share some idea. Do not read the following sentence without a break; pause at the semicolon before continuing. Example: You should pause at the end of a sentence; that is, you should make a break before continuing what you are saying. Colons. In some sentences a colon (:) is used before a group of items is listed. Example: These classes are my favorite ones: English, mathematics, and social studies. Punctuation marks help make clear the intention of written words. They indicate what your voice should do when you read aloud--pause. Commas. When you speak or read aloud, your voice should point out to listeners where commas are. Commas are extremely important because they can change the meaning of a sentence when they are used in various places. Examples: Julie put the car in the garage. Julie, put the car in the garage. The first sentence is making the statement that Julie has parked the car in the garage. The second sentence is a command, telling Julie to drive the car into the garage. If you do not pause at the comma, you will change the meaning of the second sentence. Examples: Mr. Sams, the teacher is here. Mr. Sams, the teacher, is here. In the first sentence, Mr. Sams is being told that the teacher is here. In the second sentence, Mr. Sams is the teacher. A pause is necessary in both places in the second sentence, or then the meaning of the sentence will be changed. Commas are used whenever another person is being directly addressed, no matter where his name comes in the sentence. Examples: Bob, where are you going? Where are you going, Bob? Where, Bob, are you going? A comma is used to separate an introductory phrase or dependent clause from the rest of the sentence. Introductory clauses usually begin with such adverbs as while, when, after, behind, and beside. If the dependent clause follows the main clause, the comma is not needed, though it can appear for emphasis. Example: After the sun went down, we all came into the house. We all came into the house after the sun went down. Commas separate the speaker from the words in a direct quotation. Example: "Charles," Joyce called, "come here a minute." Fred said, "My favorite color is blue." "Go to your room," Christy's mother ordered. Whenever a comma is used in a sentence for whatever reason, it usually indicates the pause is needed. Occasionally, pauses in a person's speech reveal that he is unprepared to speak or is nervous. The dash (--) is a particularly useful punctuation mark to demonstrate this type of pausing. Example: My report is about--um--my pet. My pet is a collie--uh, a Sheltie. Her name is Dusty. She is--ah--two years old. You have probably heard someone who speaks this way. Since he is difficult to listen to, listeners soon lose interest. Avoid using the pause as a substitute for words. Many students are a little nervous when giving an oral report. A well-prepared person will always do a better job. Listening is extremely important if we are to pick up on sentence signals. For example, if you were to whisper two or three sentences to someone near you and have him whisper the same thing to the next person who would then whisper what he heard to the next person and so on, what would happen when the message finally came back to you? Did the last person hear something different from what was originally said? What do you think caused the differences, if any? Usually the sentences will be different because each person did not listen carefully and repeat exactly what he heard. Why are sentence signals so important to us? They are important because they help us understand what we read and say; they let us know when we have reached the end of a phrase or sentence.

Interrogative sentences. If declarative sentences are so important, why are the other three types needed? Could the story of Saul's conversion (Acts 9:1-20) have been told using only declarative sentences? It probably could have, but sentences that ask questions are important also. Interrogative sentences ask questions. They may request information, seek directions, or ask for explanations. If the English language made no provision for asking questions, you might be able to express your desire for a tangible object by touching it or pointing to it and then to yourself. Asking for something not present or not visible would be much more difficult. Asking about something abstract, such as faith, religion, loyalty, or patriotism, would be impossible. Interrogative sentences usually do not follow a simple subject-verb pattern. A question may begin with an interrogative pronoun: who, which, or what. Example: Who left this chair in the aisle? Interrogative sentences may also begin with adverbs, such as what, where, when, or how. Example: How do you know?

Questions may also begin with auxiliary (or helping) verbs. Auxiliary verbs are used to express meanings that a single verb by itself could not express. Learn to recognize these important auxiliary verbs: shall would has am will should had is may must do was can might does were could have did are Examples: Should I go with you? Did you finish? Is Sharon going with us? Notice that in a question that begins with an auxiliary verb, the main verb and its helper are split or divided by a noun or a pronoun (the subject).

Quotation Marks This lesson focuses on using correct internal punctuation, specifically, quotation marks. To write clearly and concisely, you must learn to apply the rules for punctuation. Here are your goals for this lesson: Punctuate and capitalize direct quotes Write indirect quotes without quotation marks Use quotation marks for titles Use quotation marks for words used in special or unusual ways Proofread quotes for punctuation and capitalization Vocabulary dialogue Conversation in a play, story, etc. indirect quotation Telling what a person said but not using his exact words. Vocab Arcade QUOTATION MARKS Quotation marks are used to indicate direct quotations and dialogue. Use quotation marks at the beginning and at the end of a direct quotation (the words a person said). Click on the slideshow below to see how quotation marks can change the meaning of a sentence. The presentation above shows that quotation marks are important in identifying who is speaking about whom or what. The rules below provide guidance on how to use quotation marks correctly. Do not use quotation marks for an indirect quotation. Example: Caitlin said that she was going to church. Begin a direct quotation with a capital letter, if it is a complete sentence. Examples: Manuel said, "It is going to rain." Rita asked, "How do you know?" "I heard it on the radio," he answered. When a direct quotation is broken into two parts, do not begin the second part with a capital letter unless it is a new sentence. Each part has its own quotation marks. Examples: "Though you don't know how to ski," replied Maria, "you can go on the snow trip with the rest of the group." "I enjoy reading books," Mac said. "They are like good friends." Use a comma to separate a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence. Place commas and periods inside quotation marks. Example: "I wish I could go," he said, "but it's not possible." Question marks and exclamation marks are placed inside the quotation marks when they apply to the quoted material. These punctuation marks are placed outside the marks when they punctuate the entire sentence. Examples: Marnie asked, "Are you happy?" "Yes, I am!" shouted Kenny. But: Did you hear me say, "I'm ready"? When writing dialogue, start a new paragraph each time the speaker changes. Example: "My uncle has a boat, and he took my cousin and me to the lake." "Does your cousin know how to water ski?" "Yes, she's very good at it. She was the one who taught me how to water ski. You ought to try it some time."

Quotation marks are not only used to set off the words of a speaker. They are also used to set off the titles of short works and to highlight words used in a special way. Use quotation marks for the titles of short stories, songs, and poems. Examples: Robert Frost's "The Pasture" Bret Harte's "The Outcasts of Poker Flat" The children's song "Mary Had a Little Lamb" Use quotation marks for the titles of book chapters. Examples: The title of Chapter 7 in our history book is "The Westward Movement." Use quotation marks for the titles of articles in newspapers and magazines. Examples: I read an article in the New York Times entitled "Lower Taxes, Lower Productivity?" Did you see the article in the Reader's Digest called "How to Live a Healthy Life"? Use quotation marks for the titles of special programs. Examples: "Insight for Living" The Christian channel did a series called "Music from Martin Luther to Amy Grant." Use quotation marks for words used in a special or unusual way. Examples: She calls herself "queen," but she is just like anyone else. The word "pseudonym" is hard to spell.

Nonfiction Literature: Helen Keller Reading nonfiction is like visiting other countries, meeting new friends, and enjoying exciting experiences. A reader may satisfy his curiosity by reading scientific facts. He may appreciate the lives of people who lived long ago before he was born. Some authors write about their problems and how they solved them, their trials and how they overcame them. Some nonfiction stories may be about people whose lives have been changed by the power of God, by receiving Jesus Christ as their Savior and Lord. Nonfiction stories involving people usually answer these questions: when, where, who, and what. When and where did the story take place? Who was involved? What happened? What were the results? Here are your goals for this lesson: Distinguish between fiction and nonfiction Read for details and sequence Understand the concept of key events Evaluate a character's development Evaluate one's own character and contributions Vocabulary confounding Confusing. consciousness State of being conscious; awareness. factual Concerned with facts, or real occurrences; consisting of facts. languor Lack of energy; weakness. plummet Weight fastened to a plumb line (a tool used to find the depth of water or to ensure that a line is exactly vertical). repentance Showing sorrow for wrongdoing. sounding line A line marked at intervals of fathoms and weighted at one end; used to determine the depth of water. tangible Capable of being touched or felt. uncomprehending Not understanding the meaning of something. Vocab Arcade DEFINING NONFICTION Nonfiction literature is factual; that is, it seeks to accurately describe and discuss actual people, places, things, events, and concepts. The nonfiction author, therefore, does not create like the artist; instead, he reports or reflects on what has already been created. The fascinating facts of history and science are nonfiction. Nonfiction also includes textbooks, magazines, and newspapers. Most of the informative material used in school is nonfiction. Though nonfiction seeks to accurately relate facts, it is not without interpretation. A form such as the essay seeks to objectively lay out ideas and events in the real world with the intent of expressing an opinion as to why those ideas and issues are or are not important. Likewise, biography and autobiography provide not only accurate historical facts about a person's life, but they also include the author's interpretation of the importance or significance of those facts.

READING HELEN KELLER'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY The Story of My Life is Helen Keller's autobiography. Her life is a remarkable example of courage and determination to overcome severe handicaps. When Helen Keller was about nineteen months old, she was stricken with a serious illness that left her in a dark, silent world; she was both blind and deaf. Since she could not hear words, she did not learn to speak, as other children do. In spite of these difficulties, Helen learned to communicate and rose to international fame. When Helen was nearly seven years of age, Anne Sullivan became her teacher and remained with her for nearly fifty years. Sullivan worked out a kind of alphabet and spelled words, writing the letters in the palm of Helen's hand. Later, Helen learned to read and write in Braille. She used a typewriter made especially for her. She learned to sense sound by feeling vibrations in her throat as she attempted to speak. Her strong desire to speak prompted her to take lessons; she learned to control the sound of her voice even though she could not hear it. Keller graduated from college at the age of twenty-four. Helen Keller wrote many books that have been translated into more than fifty languages. She appeared before legislatures, gave lectures, and raised large sums of money to help educate the blind. Some people believe that she did more to help others than any other human being who ever lived. She brought new hope and courage to millions of blind people. She died in 1968. The following chapter is from the book The Story of My Life by Helen Keller. It tells about the day that Helen Keller called the most important one of her whole life. As you read the story of Helen Keller, try to imagine how you would feel if you could not see, hear, or speak. Close your eyes and think how you might feel living in a world of darkness. Do you take gifts of sight, hearing, and speech for granted? Are you grateful to the Creator for these gifts? As you read about Helen Keller's accomplishments, ask yourself, "Am I doing the best I can to prepare myself for a life of service for God and for others?" The most important day I remember in all my life is the one which my teacher, Anne Mansfield Sullivan, came to me. I am filled with wonder when I consider the immeasurable contrasts between the two lives which it connects. It was the third of March, 1887, three months before I was seven years old. On the afternoon of that eventful day, I stood on the porch, dumb, expectant. I guessed vaguely from my mother's signs and from the hurrying to and fro in the house that something unusual was about to happen, so I went to the door and waited on the steps. The afternoon sun penetrated the mass of honeysuckle that covered the porch and fell on my upturned face. My fingers lingered almost unconsciously on the familiar leaves and blossoms which had just come forth to greet the sweet southern spring. I did not know what the future held of marvel or surprise for me. Anger and bitterness had preyed upon me continually for weeks, and a deep languor had succeeded this passionate struggle. Have you ever been at sea in a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut you in, and the great ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and sounding-line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? I was like that ship before my education began, only I was without compass or sounding-line, and had no way of knowing how near the harbor was. "Light! Give me light!" was the wordless cry of my soul, and the light of love shone on me in that very hour. I felt approaching footsteps. I stretched out my hand as I supposed it was my mother. Someone took it, and I was caught up and held close in the arms of her who had come to reveal all things to me, and, more than all things else, to love me. The morning after my teacher came, she led me into her room and gave me a doll. The little blind children at the Perkins Institution had sent it, and Laura Bridgman had dressed it, but I did not know this until afterward. When I had played with it a little while, Miss Sullivan slowly spelled into my hand the word "d-o-l-l." I was at once interested in this finger play and tried to imitate it. When I finally succeeded in making the letters correctly, I was flushed with childish pleasure and pride. Running downstairs to my mother, I held up my hand and made the letters for doll. I did not know that I was spelling a word or even that words existed; I was simply making my fingers go in monkey-like imitation. In the days that followed, I learned to spell in this uncomprehending way a great many words, among them pin, hat, and cup, and a few verbs like sit, stand, and walk. But my teacher had been with me several weeks before I understood that everything has a name. Click here for more photographs of Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan. One day, while I was playing with my new doll, Miss Sullivan put my big rag doll into my lap also, spelled "d-o-l-l," and tried to make me understand that "d-o-l-l" applied to both. Earlier in the day, we had had a tussle over the words "m-u-g" and "w-a-t-e-r." Miss Sullivan had tried to impress it upon me that "m-u-g" is mug and that "w-a-t-e-r" is water, but I persisted in confounding the two. In despair she had dropped the subject for the time, only to renew it at the first opportunity. I became impatient at her repeated attempts; and, seizing the new doll, I dashed it upon the floor. I was keenly delighted when I felt the fragments of the broken doll at my feet. Neither sorrow nor regret followed my passionate outburst. I had not loved the doll. In the still, dark worlds in which I lived there was no strong sentiment or tenderness. I felt my teacher sweep the fragments to one side of the hearth, and I had a sense of satisfaction that the cause of my discomfort was removed. She brought me my hat, and I knew I was going out into the warm sunshine. This thought, if a wordless sensation may be called a thought, made me hop and skip with pleasure. We walked down the path to the well-house, attracted by the fragrance of the honeysuckle with which it was covered. Someone was drawing water, and my teacher placed my hand under the spout. As the cool stream gushed over one hand, she spelled into the other the word water, first slowly, then rapidly. I stood still, my whole attention fixed upon the motions of her fingers. Suddenly I felt a misty consciousness as of something forgotten--a thrill of returning thought; and somehow the mystery of language was revealed to me. I knew then that "w-a-t-e-r" meant the wonderful cool something that was flowing over my hand. That living word awakened my soul, gave it light, hope, joy, set it free! There were barriers still, it is true, but barriers that could in time be swept away. I left the well-house eager to learn. Everything had a name, and each name gave birth to a new thought. As we returned to the house, every object which I touched seemed to quiver with life. That was because I saw everything with the strange, new sight that had come to me. On entering the door, I remembered the doll I had broken. I felt my way to the hearth and picked up the pieces. I tried vainly to put them together. Then my eyes filled with tears; for I realized what I had done, and for the first time I felt repentance and sorrow. I learned a great many new words that day. I do not remember what they all were, but I do know that mother, father, sister, teacher were among them--words that were to make the world blossom for me, like Aaron's rod, with flowers. It would have been difficult to find a happier child than I was as I lay in my crib at the close of that eventful day and lived over the joys it had brought me, and for the first time longed for a new day to come. (From The Story of My Life by Helen Keller. Reprinted by permission of the publisher, Doubleday and Company, Inc. New York, New York. )

Interpretation and Communication What the author puts in a book is only part of the experience of reading the book. The other part is what you, the reader, bring to the book. Your response to the author's words is unique, not quite like anyone else's. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use details of description and actions to analyze and interpret characters Use good reading, listening, and speaking skills INTERPRETATION OF CHARACTERS At the end of this section, you are asked to watch for character descriptions as you read through The Hiding Place and to think about whether they were realistic. To determine whether a character is realistic, the reader must ask himself certain questions: Was the description of the characters appropriate? Was the result effective? The reader must answer these questions and draw his own conclusions, whether they are favorable or unfavorable. Analyze these characters by looking for strengths or weaknesses in their personalities. Are they loyal, honest, good-natured, hard-working, helpful, kind, loving, and so on? Are they disloyal, dishonest, grouchy, lazy, sloppy, selfish, and unkind? How do they react under stress? Do they put others first in a difficult situation? The author may also do some interpreting of characters. She not only presents facts about a character, but she may also express her personal impression--especially if this impression is the one that she wishes the reader to understand. The reader will become aware of the author's feelings about the characters through the actions, events, details, and observations presented. As you evaluate a character, first look for all the essential details about him or her. Then put them together in a meaningful fashion. Decide if your impression is favorable or unfavorable. Be prepared to back up your opinion by examples. For example, you might think that the prison guard at Scheveningen was cruel. The example of her tearing down the red shade on Corrie's light and taking away all bottles and sacks would support this idea. Her actions were unkind, and her attitude was uncaring. You might also get this impression from the way the other guard reacted to her with obvious fear. As you continue reading The Hiding Place and you react favorably or unfavorably to a character, ask yourself why you reacted this way. What characteristics does this character exhibit? Is he appropriately and realistically described? Is the character believable? When you answer these questions, you are evaluating the characters and drawing your own conclusions.

READING, LISTENING, SPEAKING Reading is very important--it reaches all areas of our lives. For reading to be effective, the student should read at the correct speed for his purpose. If the material is difficult or needs to be analyzed, it should be read slowly and carefully. If the material is easier, a normal reading speed would be suitable. Locating main ideas or rereading familiar material can be done at a faster than usual rate. A good reader can adapt his reading speed to fit his purpose for reading. Another necessary skill both in reading and in listening is the ability to find main ideas. As you read or listen to someone who is speaking, you should ask yourself, "What is the main idea that is being communicated?" After the main idea has been established, you need to look for the essential details. These details are the important points that are given to prove the main point, to support it, or to make it clearer. You will have to read slowly or to listen carefully to be able to find these details. Some listening hints include the following suggestions: 1. Concentrate on what the person is saying--don't let your mind wander. 2. Ask yourself, "What is the main point of what he is saying?" 3. Ask, "What do I want to remember later?" 4. Ask, "Do I agree with him? Why or why not?" 5. Show interest so that the speaker is encouraged. Taking notes as you listen may be helpful. If you do not quite understand something, ask the speaker a question courteously. Usually, he will be glad to help you. Most of your day is spent in listening or speaking. You have conversations with your family and friends, you listen to music or news, and you listen to your teachers at school. Good speaking habits are as important to develop as good listening habits. The first principle of good speaking is to speak plainly so that everyone can understand. A person should never interrupt someone who is speaking. All comments should be relevant and to the point. A speaker should not use too much time; he should give others a chance to speak. Disagreeing with someone should be done in a courteous manner. A person should never say anything either to hurt or to embarrass another. He should never focus all the attention on himself and the things that hold his interest. If asked to speak before a group, a student should: (a) choose a topic that is interesting and relevant to the group; (b) write the main ideas on a card to help him as he speaks; (c) attempt to know the material thoroughly without memorizing it; and (d) be relaxed, but use good posture. Other hints include: keeping eye contact with audience, avoiding strident, high-pitched, harsh, or grating tones, and varying the speed, pitch, and volume to give emphasis and to make the meaning clear. Reading, listening, and speaking are all very important skills of communication. These skills must be learned and practiced if they are to be effective tools for learning.

Chapters 11-13: Reading for Details As you continue reading and responding to The Hiding Place, pay attention to details of both events and characters. Here is your goal for this lesson: Read for details Read Chapter 11. This chapter dealt with a kind of special interest shown by a Lieutenant Rahms. Corrie was called for questioning before a lieutenant who obviously hated his job. His interrogation was not as difficult as the drills she had been given back at the Beje. She was able to witness to the Lieutenant. Although he never claimed to believe, he listened closely to what she had to say. She was able to see Nollie, Willem, and Betsie briefly at the reading of her father's will. This brief visit was a definite boost to her morale.

Read Chapter 12. In this chapter, the ten Boom sisters--Corrie and Betsie--along with many other women, were transferred from Scheveningen to Vught. Corrie's work experience as a watchmaker in her father's shop enabled her to have work that she enjoyed in the prison. When Corrie, Betsie, and the other women were transferred from Scheveningen to Vught, the sisters managed to find each other on the train and stayed together thereafter. Corrie and Betsie were sent into the inner camp very quickly. Since Betsie was not very well, she stayed in the barracks to sew. Corrie was sent to the factory to work. When the prison foreman discovered that she was a watchmaker, he gave Corrie a job she enjoyed--the final assembly of the relay switches on the radios for German planes. Corrie was so skilled she found it hard to intentionally make these switches wrong. As the invasion troops came close, the Germans killed over seven hundred men and took all the remaining prisoners away. The barbed wire fence and a watch tower at Vught after the liberation of the camp. September 1944-1945. Courtesy of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

Chapters 1-3: Flashback and Foreshadowing The setting of The Hiding Place is Holland in the late 1930's and early 1940's--the period of history leading up to, and including, World War II. This section deals with Chapters 1 through 5 of The Hiding Place. As you read each chapter of The Hiding Place, you will complete the accompanying exercises, which will help you come to recognize the sequence of events which make up the story. Note: all page numbers referenced in this unit are based on the widely available 1974 Bantam edition of The Hiding Place, which can be ordered from Alpha Omega Publications. The text for this book will not be printed in the lessons. Here are your goals for this lesson: Recognize flashback and foreshadowing in context Put events in chronological order, including those introduced through flashback and foreshadowing Identify characters and recall story details SEQUENCE OF EVENTS As the story begins, the ten Booms were preparing for a celebration. It had been a hundred years since the opening of their watch shop. It seemed that nearly all of Haarlem had come to see them on this day and to celebrate with them. It was a day of great happiness, although it was slightly shadowed by the things that would come soon. Read Chapter 1 of The Hiding Place. As you read this assignment, you will need to pay particular attention to the characters and to their relationships to one another. Vocabulary biography Account of a person's life written by another person. characters Persons in a play, story, etc. flashback To return to some event or scene of a previous time. foreshadowing Indicating or suggesting beforehand. setting Place and time in which the story takes place. Vocab Arcade The sunny January day described in the first chapter seemed to represent the happy life enjoyed by Corrie's family. The day started with Corrie's morning routine. The doorbell announced the arrival of the delivery boy and a bouquet of flowers for the party. As Corrie describes each event of the day, she reveals information about herself, her family, and her life. Click here to learn about the Corrie ten Boom Museum. In the middle of this description comes a hint of disaster. The Jewish man who came to the party with Willem had been injured--a victim of the growing persecution of the Jews. The appearance of this guest introduced the conflict of the story--the persecution of the Jews by the Nazis. An author often uses clues or hints to suggest that something is going to happen in the future. This technique is called foreshadowing. Corrie ten Boom uses foreshadowing in this chapter when she asks, "How could I foresee ... that ... I ... would ... (dare) to go no closer for fear of what was taking place behind Nollie's starched curtains?"

Read Chapter 2 in The Hiding Place . In this chapter, you will learn about the early life of the author, Corrie ten Boom, and about her family at that time. Corrie was six years old, and her sister Betsie was thirteen. The second chapter begins with a flashback. You may remember from your study of the biography selection about Dolley Madison (Language Arts 703) that the flashback technique is used to explain something that happened before the time of the story. Corrie's flashback in this chapter describes events from 1898 when Corrie was six years old and Betsie was thirteen. Corrie reflected on these happy years of her life. In Holland, all children started school when they turned six. Corrie was apprehensive about starting school, so she tried everything she could to avoid going to school, but her father took her anyway. Her father gently explained why she needed to go to school. Corrie had wonderful memories of her father and times she had spent with him. On Mondays in the summer, she went to Amsterdam with him. They bought watches and parts and got the correct time from the Naval Observatory. At this time, she could ask her father questions and talk to him without anyone interrupting them. He always had the right answer for her, whether he gave Corrie the answer directly or indirectly. Corrie relived a childhood fear--a time when she and her mother had called upon a poor family whose baby had just died. The sight of the dead baby upset her, and she suddenly became afraid that her father would die too.

Here is your goal for this lesson: Note the use of specific details in building suspense Read Chapter 8. The group became more tense in this chapter. This underground operation had grown so much that its members became afraid that a mistake would be made. About this time, Nollie (Corrie's sister) and a Jewish woman staying with her were arrested. The Jewish prison was broken into, and forty Jews were rescued, including the one who had been staying at Nollie's house. Corrie heard that a doctor who worked at the prison where Nollie was kept sometimes arranged medical discharges. Corrie went to him and asked for help. A few weeks later Nollie was released. Corrie was afraid of what she might reveal if she were ever to be questioned. The group started practicing realistic questioning. She had the others try different techniques of questioning, so she would not make a mistake. They would burst into her room in the middle of the night, asking her tricky questions. At first, she did a very poor job of answering in a way that would not give away dangerous information; but she improved as they worked with her. On Christmas, 1943, Corrie began to realize that many neighbors--even the chief of police--knew about the Jews in their home. Jop, the teenage apprentice at the watch shop, was sent to a nearby farm to warn the people there of a coming raid. He was captured by the Gestapo. Corrie suspected that it would be only a matter of time before the Nazis knew about the hiding place.

Read Chapter 9. On February 28, 1944, the Beje was raided. All the Jews ran into the hiding place and were not discovered. The people of Haarlem tried to warn them of the raid while the Gestapo was in the house. Corrie was ill. Although she was beaten as they questioned her, she revealed nothing. Betsie was also beaten, but the Gestapo got very little information. The prisoners were taken to headquarters, and then, just as Corrie had dreamed, they were carried out of the Grote Markt square against their will--with no idea where they were being taken. To be successful at the following game, you should review these lessons in this unit: "Chapters 1-3: Flashback and Foreshadowing," "Chapters 4-5: Reading for Details," "Understanding Characters," "Chapters 6-7: Comprehension," and "Chapter 8-9: Suspense."

INDUCTIVE PARAGRAPHS Remember that in an inductive paragraph all sentences build up to the topic sentence. The topic sentence is a summation of all the preceding information. The following paragraph, also from Treasure Island, is an example of an inductive paragraph. On our little walk along the quays, he made himself the most interesting companion, telling me about the different ships that we passed by, their rig, tonnage, and nationality, explaining the work that was going forward--how one was discharging, another taking in cargo, and a third making ready for sea; and every now and then telling me some little anecdote of ships or seamen, or repeating a nautical phrase till I had learned it perfectly. I began to see that here was one of the best possible shipmates. --Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson Notice in the paragraph above that the general statement or topic sentence about "the most interesting companion" does not appear until the final sentence. The sentences before this one give specific details about why the man is "one of the best possible shipmates." These details include his knowledge of ships, his knowledge of the sea, and his knowledge of sailing. These lead up to the final conclusion about the man being described. When your purpose is to convince or to persuade your reader, you may wish to present your details, facts, or opinions first. Then you will tie all these together in your final statement, as seen above. In doing so, you will encourage your reader to draw the same conclusions. A paragraph written in this pattern is an inductive paragraph. Many examples of inductive paragraphs appear in the Bible, particularly in the New Testament. Perhaps the Bible was written in this way because inductive paragraphs encourage the reader to think about, and to decide whether or not to agree with, the text. This characteristic of inductive paragraphs makes teaching and learning more effective. Perhaps you can find other Biblical examples of inductive paragraphs to share with your teacher or a friend. Remember, even though the topic sentence concludes the paragraph instead of introducing it, the inductive paragraph calls for the same unity and sequence required of all paragraphs.

Read the following paragraph. When my brother Jordan brought home a baby raccoon he found in the woods, we thought at first it would be a perfect family pet. We named him Tubby because he was so round and plump. Dad helped us build a box for him to sleep in. Mom found some soft, clean rags for his bed. We laughed and laughed as we watched Tubby eat and play. As Tubby grew bigger and stronger, our laughter stopped. Tubby scattered Dad's neckties all over the house. He broke Mom's favorite vase. He knocked over Jordan's bike. He treed our cat. He even chewed up all the rolled newspapers I had ready for my paper route. Finally, Dad had to call the game warden to come get Tubby and to return him to the woods where he belonged. We were sad to see him go, but we had learned a valuable lesson. Wild animals do not always make good pets.

Sentence Errors: Fragments You have learned that a sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought and that is punctuated as an independent unit. Although that sounds very simple, people sometimes get confused when it comes to actually writing sentences. Faulty or incorrect sentences are called sentence errors. Three of the most common and most serious errors are: sentence fragments, comma-splice sentences, and run-on sentences. Here is your goal for this lesson: Determine whether groups of words are sentences or fragments You should develop a "sentence sense" so that you will be able to recognize a complete thought. You also should be able to tell whether a group of words should be punctuated as one sentence (one complete thought) or as two. A more complete definition of the requirements for a group of words to be classified as a sentence will help clarify the situation for you. A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and predicate and expressing a complete thought. Let's break this definition apart and analyze each part: a group of words containing a subject containing a predicate expressing a complete thought 1. A sentence is a group of words. This one is simple. There must be more than one word, although one of them, as you will see next, may be "understood"; it may not actually be written on the page. When you see one word written by itself and punctuated as if it were a sentence, it will often be an interjection, a part of speech inserted to express emotion. 2. A sentence contains a subject. You know that the subject of a sentence is the noun or pronoun that does the action or being of the verb. It must be directly stated, except in the case of an imperative sentence with the "understood you." (You) Wait here. 3. A sentence contains a predicate. The predicate is the verb, including any auxiliary verbs, that states the action or being that the subject does. The predicate must be a verb that can stand by itself. That is, it cannot be an infinitive form (to dance, to hope) nor can it be a verb form that requires auxiliary verbs, unless those auxiliary verbs are present. Not a sentence: Kari to answer the question. Sentence: Kari will answer the question. Not a sentence: Kari answering the question. Sentence: Kari is answering the question. 4. A sentence expresses a complete thought. This is the tricky one. Sometimes all the required parts are present, but the sentence is incomplete. It seems unfinished. Example: While he was speaking to the class. If someone wrote or said this to you, your immediate response would be, "What? What happened while he was speaking? Tell me." The word while is a subordinating conjunction that makes this not a sentence, but a dependent clause needing an independent clause (a sentence) to attach itself to. Sentence fragment. As you have learned, in order to be a sentence a group of words must state a complete thought and must make sense by itself. If a group of words does not meet these two requirements, it may be a fragment or only a piece of a sentence. A sentence fragment is interrupted by a period before the thought is complete. A fragment is a group of words, often a phrase or a clause, that is punctuated as a sentence but does not express a complete thought. Example: That I built with scrap lumber Dad had given me. Although the group of words above contains a noun (I) and a verb (built), the words do not state a complete thought. We do not know what was built. It may have been a doghouse, a sled, a go-cart, or something entirely different. The words cannot stand alone. Everyone uses fragments of sentences in casual, informal conversation. Suppose someone asks you, "How old are you?" You might answer simply, "Thirteen." In formal written English, however, fragmentary sentences are incorrect. More About Fragments

Sentence Errors: Comma Splice/Run-On Another type of sentence error is the comma splice and the run-on sentence. Here is your goal for this lesson: Recognize and correct comma splices and run-on sentences COMMA SPLICE SENTENCES Comma-splice sentences are two complete sentences that have been incorrectly joined by a comma. To correct a comma-splice sentence, you have several choices. One of the complete sentences can be changed. It can be made less important so that it will no longer express a complete thought. To make an idea less important is to subordinate it. The following example shows this method for correcting comma-splice sentences. Comma-splice: The bakery was closed, we could not get the birthday cake. You will probably agree that the birthday cake is the most important thought in the example comma-splice sentence. Therefore, the other thought, (The bakery was closed,) can be turned into a less important part of the main sentence. Rewritten: Since the bakery was closed, we could not get the birthday cake. Sometimes both of the complete thoughts in a comma-splice sentence are equally important. The comma-splice sentence may be rewritten using a coordinating conjunction preceded by a comma. The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet. Comma-splice: This summer we will visit my grandmother, we can stay only two weeks. Rewritten: This summer we will visit my grandmother, but we can only stay two weeks. Another way to correct a comma-splice sentence is by substituting a semicolon for the comma if the main clauses are closely related. Comma-splice: Buy that one, it looks nice on you. Rewritten: Buy that one; it looks nice on you. Perhaps the simplest way to correct a comma-splice sentence is to divide it into two or more complete sentences separated by a period. Comma-splice: Our class helped raise money to buy new hymnals, next year we hope to give visual aids to the Sunday school. The two complete thoughts contained in the preceding comma-splice sentence are of equal importance. However, if they are joined by a conjunction, the resulting sentence is too long to be effective. The best solution is to make two complete sentences. Rewritten: Our class helped raise money to buy new hymnals. Next year we hope to give visual aids to the Sunday school. More About Comma Splices and Run-on Sentences

READING If a piece of writing contains well-written, organized paragraphs, the reader can comprehend more easily what the writer is trying to communicate. In Language Arts 703, you read biographies of William Tyndale and Dolley Madison. When you were working with Language Arts 703 and 706, one of your assignments was to write a two- or three-page biography about one of your grandparents. As you read these biographies, you may have noticed that certain events occurred in a certain order, or sequence. The first event, followed by a second event, followed by a third event, and so on, is called sequence of events or chronological order. If you can identify and be aware of chronological sequence, you will be able to understand better and to remember more of what you read. One device used to explain past events out of chronological order is the flashback technique. Likewise, as you write, chronological sequence is important. Without it you have a poorly organized piece of writing that is difficult to understand because the relationship of ideas is unclear.

Sequence of events was a particularly important part of Language Arts 707, in which you studied The Hiding Place, an autobiography. A longer work of nonfiction also contains more information about various characters. As you read The Hiding Place, you learned to interpret some of these characters by their actions and words as well as by their descriptions. Recall from Language Arts 708 that nonfiction is factual; it deals with truth and reality. Some forms of nonfiction are essays, biographies, autobiographies, histories, and textbooks. As you read nonfiction, remember to look for the key events, or important happenings, in the story. These key events unlock the meaning of the story. Another thing to notice in nonfiction is the people involved in the story or account. Your study of Helen Keller's story showed the effect different people had on her life. To be successful at the following game, you should review the material in this lesson carefully.

Many words in the English language contain one or more silent letters. Silent letters are often the result of "borrowing" words from other languages. Occasionally, however, the word's accepted pronunciation has simply changed over the years, and certain letters are no longer sounded when the word is spoken.

Some English words differ greatly in pronunciation and in spelling. You wonder how the written word can be the same word as the spoken word. See if your dictionary explains the history of the word colonel. Frequently, the same letter or combination of letters appearing in words of somewhat similar spelling will have quite different pronunciation. Click on the following words to hear the pronunciation. Chaldea charlatan chassis check chalk chasm chauffeur Christian The same word may be pronounced differently depending upon the meaning or the part of speech. Although the word may be spelled the same, the pronunciation and the meaning are not identical.

RUN-ON SENTENCES Do your friends like to talk with you on the phone? Perhaps you have a friend who calls and talks and talks. You keep waiting for her to take a breath so you can respond, but it never seems to happen. You become uneasy and finally find yourself wishing she'd just hang up. That's the way readers respond when they find run-on sentences in a piece of writing. Run-on sentences put together two or more complete thoughts as one sentence, strung together with conjunctions like and, but, and so. Example: Mary walked home yesterday because her car would not start and she began doing the dishes, but she had to do them by hand because the dishwasher was broken, so she was late fixing supper because of all these things, and, therefore, I was late for football practice, but it did not matter because it rained anyway. This paragraph is much easier to read and understand when it is broken into separate sentences. Corrected Example: Mary walked home yesterday because her car would not start. She began doing the dishes. She had to do them by hand because the dishwasher was broken. She was late fixing supper because of all these things. Therefore, I was late for football practice. It did not matter because it rained anyway. Another type of error occurs when no punctuation or connecting words are used between two sentences. Example: The wind blew fiercely the rain fell steadily. Using a period between the two complete thoughts divides them into two easily-identified sentences. Always remember to capitalize the first word of the new sentence following the period. Corrected Example: The wind blew fiercely. The rain fell steadily. Always proofread what you have written. Proofreading means checking for spelling, punctuation, and structural errors in each sentence. Careful proofreading of each sentence, paragraph, paper, or report allows you to correct your own mistakes. Not only will your paper be easier to understand, but your grades will also improve.

Structure; Word Choice; Ambiguity Writing effective sentences requires attention to many details. This lesson will help you with the structure of your sentences by adding inverted order to your sentence patterning skills. It will also help you choose effective words and avoid ambiguous writing that may confuse your readers. Here are your goals for this lesson: Write sentences in a variety of patterns, including inversion Avoid ambiguity through careful structure Avoid ambiguity through word choice Choose synonyms and antonyms with an awareness of connotation Vocabulary ambiguity Confusion because two or more meanings are possible and it is unclear which should be chosen. antonym A word with a meaning opposite that of another word. connotation The emotional overtones of a word; what a word suggests beyond the literal meaning. denotation The dictionary meaning of a word; a clear, easily-recognizable reference. synonym A word with a meaning similar to that of another word. Vocab Arcade Varying the use of the five sentence patterns learned in section one can make your writing interesting. No paragraph would be very exciting if almost every sentence used the subject-linking verb-predicate adjective or predicate noun pattern. Consider the following paragraphs. Paragraph 1: My dog is brown and white. He is a collie. His name is Barkley. He was active even when he was born. Barkley is fun to play with. He is good for me. Paragraph 2: My dog Barkley is a brown and white collie. He is active and loyal, and he plays with me. When I throw him a ball, he catches it. Barkley is a good companion. The second paragraph is more interesting because different sentence patterns were used. See how the sentences can be broken down into their various parts: My dog Barkley is a brown and white collie. (subject-linking verb-predicate noun) He is active and loyal, and he plays with me. (subject-linking verb-predicate adjective-predicate adjective/subject-verb) When I throw him a ball, he catches it. (subject-verb-indirect object-direct object/subject-verb-direct object) Barkley is a good companion. (subject-linking verb-predicate noun) Sentence variety adds the spice that brings your sentences to life. As well as varying the use of the sentence patterns, you can also invert, or change, the order of the sentences. The subject comes first in most English sentences, followed by the verb. However, the subject and verb may be reversed. This inversion will put the subject in the middle or the end of the sentence. Shorter sentences are often more effective than longer ones. Examples: Along came John. (inversion of "John came along.") Down jumped Calvin. (inversion of "Calvin jumped down.") The subject-linking verb-predicate adjective pattern can be inverted. Example: Lovely was the rose that grew in my garden. (inversion of "The rose that grew in my garden was lovely.") Sentence inversion does not work very well for the other patterns. The subject-verb-direct object pattern can be inverted, but it sounds awkward and can be confusing or misinterpreted. Example: The hamburger Steve ate. (awkward inversion of "Steve ate the hamburger.") These words sound like a phrase rather than a sentence. This word-order change can be completely reversed. Example: The hamburger ate Steve. (awkward inversion of "Steve ate the hamburger.") Because of the sentence structure, a person might misinterpret the sentence. Hamburger appears to be the subject because it precedes the verb. With the subject-linking verb-predicate noun pattern, inverting exchanges the subject and the predicate noun. This pattern is easily inverted, but the change is not very significant. Examples: George Washington was our first President. Our first President was George Washington. The subject-verb-indirect object-direct object pattern cannot be inverted because an indirect object must follow the verb and come before the direct object.

Consider also these wordy expressions and their replacements. Poor Better Due to the fact that the weather is bad we will not have physical education today. Because the weather is bad, we will not have physical education today Poor Better Carl is equally as smart as Debbie. Carl is as smart as Debbie. Poor Better You will receive your allowance if and when you clean your room. You will receive your allowance if you clean your room. Poor Better He did not clean his room, with the result that he will not receive his allowance. Since he did not clean his room, he will not receive his allowance. Poor Better You should eat properly in order to maintain good health. You should eat properly to maintain good health.

Study these wordy expressions and their replacements. Poor Better The days left in our vacation are few in number. The days left in our vacation are few. Our student body is small in size. Our student body is small. After the pieces of wood are joined together, paint them blue. After the pieces of wood are joined, paint them blue. Our family will visit the Grand Canyon in the near future. Our family will soon visit the Grand Canyon. We live in the vicinity of Elm Avenue and Tenth Street. We live near Elm Avenue and Tenth Street.

ave seen that base words become longer and have new meanings when prefixes are added to them. In addition to adding prefixes to base words, we can add prefixes to Latin roots and to Greek roots. Both the ancient Romans and the ancient Greeks had highly developed languages. Our English language today uses parts of these ancient languages. We do not use Latin words and Greek words. Instead, we use Latin roots and Greek roots without their inflections, or endings. Like prefixes, roots have meanings that help you understand the meaning of the whole word. If you know the meanings of both the prefix and the root, you can often determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Examples: Prefix Root com- (together) pose (put) de- (down) inter- (between) pro- (forth) Combining these prefixes with the root produces the words: compose, to put something together; depose, to put something/someone down; interpose, to put something in between; and propose, to put something forward (as an idea).

Suffixes: Finding This lesson will give you the opportunity to sharpen your skills in finding and using suffixes. Here are your goals for this lesson: Give the meaning of suffixes to understand simple words Select appropriate suffixes for a variety of words Another way to make base words longer is to add suffixes. A suffix is a word part added to the end of a base word. Examples: farm + -er = farmer agree + -ment = agreement good + -ness = goodness ask + -ing = asking

MODES OF WRITING The major modes (or forms) of writing that may be used by an author to accomplish his purpose are: narration description exposition persuasion Narration tells what happened. This type of writing describes an event or a series of events. A student who tells what he did over the Christmas holidays or where he went on vacation is narrating. Biography and autobiography are primarily narrative in nature. The purpose of narration is usually to entertain, but may also be to inform, particularly when writing about historical events. Description consists of a series of vivid and clear details that appeal to the reader's senses. A well-written description can create a picture in the reader's mind. Descriptive writing takes a great amount of work because the author must observe very carefully, and then he must choose words that will clearly bring thoughts to the mind of his reader. Description is often used when an author wishes to explain something. It is also often included in narration to engage the reader's interest and to increase the feeling of "reality" in the story. The purpose of description in travel writing is often to persuade the reader to visit the place described. Exposition is another type of writing that explains and informs. Exposition uses fact and proof, and it appeals to reason and logic, whereas narration and description usually appeal to the senses. Exposition is used every day either to provide information or instruction. This type of writing exposes, or makes plain, some fact, situation, or event. This lesson is expository in form. Persuasion is a form of writing that attempts to convince the reader to agree with the author's thinking and to incite the reader to action. The author uses strategy that is carefully thought out beforehand. Good persuasion involves the use of logical, clear, and honest reasons to convince the reader about a particular idea or opinion. Persuasion also requires that the author have solid evidence to support his reasons. Note that this is a mode, or form, of writing that is designed to fit with the author's purpose of persuading. (An author may, however, attempt to persuade while using another mode of writing. For example, he might write a description or a narrative of a very poor family's Christmas last year. His purpose might be to get you to donate to a special fund this year.) Sometimes an author attempts to persuade the reader by using techniques that are not logical, open, or honest. He may deliberately mislead by providing statements (factual or otherwise) that he agrees with, while limiting access to facts that do not support his argument. This kind of author is a propagandist.

THE WRITING OF A CHARACTER SKETCH A character sketch is a personal opinion. In it, the writer explains what he thinks about another person. To make this person clear to his reader, the author uses details and events to describe him. The author tries to show his readers the character traits he sees in this person. When you choose a person about whom you wish to write, you must ask yourself a few questions: 1. What has he done to make me feel that his character is happy, unselfish, or evil? 2. What has he said to back up my opinion? 3. What details about the physical appearance or conduct of this person would add to my impression? 4. What personal habits does he have? 5. How does he react under stress? 6. How does he react to other people? 7. What impression does his facial expression bring to others? You must reach a conclusion about these questions before you begin writing. A character sketch may deal with only one personality trait (examples: trustworthiness, honesty, pride, selfishness). A character sketch may be favorable or unfavorable. A character sketch of only one paragraph would usually describe only one character trait. A longer sketch of several paragraphs should include more aspects of the person's character. A good way to begin writing is by making an outline. The main point would be the traits to be discussed. The subpoints would be the facts, details, or incidents that support the main thoughts. Some writers find it easier to use a graphic organizer such as a concept map, because it is easy to add details or rearrange them as you go. Start with a circle in the middle of a piece of paper that contains the name of the character. Attach other "bubbles" around it with short lines. In the bubbles put the details. On the lines, put how they relate to the character. The main purpose of a character sketch is to give your personal impression of someone. After the outline or concept map is finished, write the paragraph, starting with the name of the person you wish to write about and the main impression you have formed. Then continue with the details, observations, and incidents that helped you reach this conclusion. Before presenting your composition to the teacher or the class, be sure to proofread it and to correct any mistakes you might have made. Another way to view this writing process is to extend the metaphor of "sketching" so as to compare the stages of writing to a similar process undertaken by an artist completing a pencil sketch. Click on "The Character Sketch" to see this analogy in action. To be successful at the following game, you should review the language lessons in this unit. The game will help you know whether you are prepared for the unit test.

Paragraph Components: Format and Topic Sentence Paragraphs perform several functions in the written English language. They break up a page of printing or writing and make it more readable. Paragraphs serve to focus the reader's attention on a single, central idea. Paragraphs may tell stories, impart information, persuade belief, or describe feelings. Effective written communication depends upon well-constructed paragraphs. A paragraph is usually a part of a longer piece of writing. When you are able to write good paragraphs, you can write a lively personal letter, an interesting book report, or an informative research paper. You will find it easier to arrange and present facts when you must give an essay answer for an examination. If you are called upon to give your Christian witness in written form, good paragraph writing skills will make your message more effective. Here are your goals for this lesson: Understand how paragraph unity is developed Identify and select appropriate placement for topic sentence Evaluate topic sentences for type and effectiveness Evaluate paragraphs for unity and organization Use connecting words Arrange sentences within a paragraph in correct sequence Vocabulary sequence The order in which events occur. transition Passage linking one section of a composition with another. Vocab Arcade A paragraph is a piece of writing that deals with one central idea or that gives the words of one speaker. A paragraph usually consists of three to five sentences, but may have more; occasionally, a paragraph will contain only a single sentence. An indention signals the beginning of each new paragraph in handwriting and in most type-written forms. To indent means to set the first sentence five or more spaces from the left margin. In styles of letters and academic writing where paragraphs are not indented, an open space is left below the previous paragraph in a printed text. In electronic text, such as your SOS ® lessons, you will often see indents and extra spaces marking paragraphs. This makes electronic text easier to read on-screen. The sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph is called the topic sentence. A good topic sentence may be a definition. Often a topic sentence tells time, place, or attitude. Whatever its content, its purpose is to make clear to you the function of the paragraph. The topic sentence is most frequently the first sentence of the paragraph. However, the topic sentence may appear within the paragraph or even as the last sentence of the paragraph. Sometimes the last sentence merely rephrases or reinforces the topic sentence. When all the sentences in the paragraph support the topic sentence, the paragraph has unity. Unity results when the writer stays with one main idea from the beginning of the paragraph to the end, when all the sentences support the topic sentence. In addition to supporting the topic sentence, the other sentences should be presented in some logical order, such as time or relative importance. Sequence is one name for the logical progression of facts or ideas.

TOPIC SENTENCES You have already learned that the topic sentence is the one which states the central idea of a paragraph. Often the topic sentence introduces a paragraph. When this condition is the case, all sentences in the paragraph should explain, reinforce, or support the topic sentence. Sometimes the last sentence is the topic sentence. When the topic sentence concludes the paragraph, the topic sentence often serves as a summary or a climax. All of the other sentences lead to the main idea as expressed in the topic sentence. Occasionally the topic sentence occurs in the middle of the paragraph. The topic sentence tends to link, or connect, the sentences that precede and follow it. The entire paragraph may be a transition paragraph. You should be aware that not all paragraphs contain topic sentences. Sometimes the central idea of a paragraph is not expressed in a single sentence. It is only implied. Topic sentences most often occur in formal written communication. Novels, magazine stories, and newspaper articles are examples of less formal writing. If you examine a favorite book or story, you will notice that not every paragraph has a topic sentence. You may, however, find a paragraph such as the following one. I had never seen the squire so near at hand. He was a tall man, over six feet high, and broad in proportion, and he had a bluff, rough-and-ready face, all roughened and reddened and lined in his long travels. His eyebrows were very black, and moved readily, and this gave him a look of some temper, not bad, you would say, but quick and high. -- Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson In the preceding paragraph, the topic sentence lets you know that a description of Squire Trelawney will follow. The author describes Squire Trelawney as seen through the eyes of young Jim Hawkins. When you read a well-constructed paragraph such as the example from Treasure Island, you are not aware of details such as topic sentences, unity, or sequence. You simply know that you enjoy reading the paragraph and you are eager to read more. Now you can better understand why skill in writing paragraphs is essential to effective communication. Because a well-written topic sentence is the first step toward a well-written paragraph in formal writing, you will want to practice to develop your skill. Remember that a good topic sentence may be a definition. The sentence may state a fact or an opinion or may ask a question. Often a topic sentence tells time or place or the writer's attitude or feeling. You should not begin with such expressions as "I am going to tell you about" or "The book I read is about" or "This is a paragraph about." Suppose you are a "shutter-bug," and you want to write about some aspects of your hobby of photography. You will not want to begin by writing, "This paragraph is going to be about photography." The sentence states the central idea of the paragraph, but it is a sentence that belongs in your thinking process before you ever pick up your pen to write. Once you have decided on your topic (in this example, some aspect of photography) you might write any one of the following topic sentences: Topic sentences: A camera is a box that has a lens to let in light. (Definition) A few simple rules will help you to take better photographs. (Fact) I think color pictures are more fun to take than black and white ones. (Opinion) Do you have a shoe box full of old family photographs somewhere around the house? (Question) Last summer at Yellowstone National Park my brother and I took many pictures. (Time and place) I enjoy taking unposed snapshots of my family. (Attitude or feeling)

More uses of the apostrophe. The apostrophe is also used to show where letters are omitted in a contraction. A contraction is two words joined to make one. An apostrophe is substituted for one or more of the letters which are dropped. When a word joins not to make a contraction, drop the o and replace it with an apostrophe. Examples: could + not = couldn't is + not = isn't In other contractions, the apostrophe usually replaces the first part of the second word. Examples: could have = could've I am = I'm

The apostrophe is also used to form the plurals of letters and figures. Examples: Be sure to cross your t's and dot your i's. His 8's are hard to read.

Verb Tense In this lesson, you will review the principal parts and tenses of some regular verbs and some irregular verbs. Here are your goals for this lesson: Identify principal parts of regular and irregular verbs Use past, present, future, and perfect tenses Vocabulary auxiliary Giving help; a helping verb. case One of the forms of a pronoun used to show its relation to other words. irregular verb A verb that does not follow a regular pattern to form its principal parts. tense A verb that shows the time of the action or state expressed by the verb. regular verb A verb that forms its principal parts by adding -d or -ed. Vocab Arcade You should remember from the study of Language Arts 702 and 705 that a verb is a word or a group of words which usually expresses action or state of being. The tense of a verb tells the time the action or being occurred. A verb is the backbone of every sentence; without it, a group of words is only a fragment of a sentence. Verbs may be classified regular verbs or irregular verbs. The principal parts of regular verbs are formed by adding -ed, -d, or -t to the present tense. Irregular verbs must be learned (see Chart 1 in Language Arts 702 to review the principal parts of some of these verbs). Click here to learn more about regular and irregular verbs. The three principal parts of a verb are: Regular Irregular Present tense: stop see Past tense: stopped saw Past participle: stopped seen From these three principal parts of a verb, the six verb tenses are formed. Present tense: I see him. She sees me. Past tense: I saw him. Future tense: She will see me tomorrow after class. Present perfect tense: I have read the assignment. Past perfect tense: I had read the book before the teacher assigned it. Future perfect tense: By next week he will have read all the assignments. Note: One tradition states that shall is required in the future first person singular and plural. Will is used for all other persons. Another tradition states that shall should be used to indicate the determination of the speaker or writer that a future event will occur. However, neither of these usage rules has ever had wide-spread acceptance. Will is used far more often than shall.

The present perfect tense expresses action begun in the past and completed in the present. The present perfect tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (or has) with the past participle form of the verb. Example: Mr. Collins has taught for seven years. Remember that the past perfect tense is used to describe an action completed in the past before a later past action. It is formed by using the auxiliary verb had with the past participle form of the verb. Example: I had eaten before I saw you. Finally, the future perfect tense, though rarely used, is used to describe an action completed before a set future time. To form the future perfect tense, use shall have or will have with the past participle form of the verb. Example: By tomorrow, I will have chosen the team members.

The first step in writing an inductive paragraph is to decide upon your topic sentence, even though the topic sentence will appear last in the paragraph. It may help you in your thinking process to say to yourself: "Therefore I believe" or "For these reasons I think." These words need not necessarily appear in your written paragraph. The following examples of topic sentences are to help you start your thinking. Daily Bible reading helps me grow spiritually. A well-balanced breakfast is a good way to start the day. "Cramming" the night before an examination can have unfortunate results. The care you give your horse after exercise is as important as the exercise itself. You never know when something you do or say can lead someone else to Christ. I know that prayers are answered. Dogs make better pets than cats because . . .

Transitional paragraph. In a longer piece of writing, a paragraph with the topic sentence in the middle frequently serves as a transitional paragraph. Transition means a change. In fiction the transition may be a change of season, setting, character, or action. The following example is a transitional paragraph with the topic sentence in the middle. The Hispaniola lay some way out, and we went under the figureheads and round the sterns of many other ships, and their cables sometimes grated underneath our keel, and sometimes swung above us. At last, however, we got alongside, and were met and saluted as we stepped aboard by the mate, Mr. Arrow, a brown old sailor, with earrings in his ears and a squint. He and the squire were very thick and friendly, but I soon observed that things were not the same between Mr. Trelawney and the captain. --Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson The sentence which begins, "At last, however, we got alongside" is the topic sentence that links the sentences which precede and follow it. In addition, the entire paragraph serves as a transition, or change, from the Admiral Benbow Inn to the ship. You have already learned that not every paragraph has a topic sentence. This fact is especially true in novels, short stories, magazine articles, and newspaper articles. However, even if the topic sentence is only implied or suggested, the paragraph still should be limited to one central idea or the thoughts or words of only one person. The following selection is an example of a good paragraph without a topic sentence. Now, just after sundown, when all my work was over, and I was on my way to me berth, it occurred to me that I should like an apple. I ran on deck. The watch was all forward looking out for the island. The man at the helm was watching the luff of the sail, and whistling away gently to himself; and that was the only sound excepting the swish of the sea against the bows and around the sides of the ship. --Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson The paragraph has no topic sentence. The central idea of the paragraph is not really Jim Hawkins' sudden desire to munch on a crisp, juicy apple. If you will read the paragraph closely, you will realize that it has both unity and sequence. In the story, the paragraph is the author's way of having Jim Hawkins hide in the apple barrel, where he will overhear a sinister conversation.

One night, the family listened to the prime minister over the radio as he assured the Dutch people that they would not be involved in the war. Her father said it was wrong to give people false hope. Five hours later, the country of Holland was bombed by the Germans. The country fell in only five days. The first year of German occupation was not terribly difficult, but things gradually began to change. Persecution of the Jews increased, and many were arrested. The Jewish furrier who had a shop across the street from the Beje was thrown out of his shop. The ten Booms helped him and sent for Willem, who took him away that night. They found out that Willem was connected with the underground. The increasing arrests and disappearances of neighbors upset the ten Booms, and Corrie offered herself to God to be used to help His people in any way she could. She did not realize what the future would hold.

Understanding Characters Any story or book that is to "come alive" for us must have believable characters. The author's description of a person draws a picture in the reader's mind. If the author is skillful, the reader feels he knows the character, just as he can visualize the setting by the author's description of the place and time. Sometimes the story is fiction, and the author will make up both the characters and the setting. It is the author's job to make you care about his characters. A good author can almost convince the reader that all these descriptions are of real people and actual places. Here is your goal for this lesson: Note how an author portrays characters Vocabulary fiction Imaginative prose; something made up. nonfiction A work that is factual in content. Vocab Arcade In a book of fiction, the author shares his vision of imagined characters, but in nonfiction the author's task is even more difficult. She must present factual details to guide the reader's impression of the characters. In The Hiding Place, the characters are real people, and the description of them is factual. The author, Corrie ten Boom, described the characters in her book exactly as she saw them. Before an author can describe the character, she must do some very careful observation. The author should have a very clear mental picture of the character. She must use very precise adjectives and descriptions to help the reader to receive the same picture as he reads. The author may present this information by stating it directly, by telling what the character said or did, or by telling what other characters say about or do to the first character. In The Hiding Place, Corrie presented both people she liked and those she did not like. She loved all her family members. In her descriptions of them, she related things about them that would bring them clearly to the reader's mind. She also revealed things about them that would show their good qualities. Father's hair and beard were now as white as the best tablecloth Betsie had laid for this special day. But his blue eyes behind the thick round spectacles were as mild and merry as ever, and he gazed from one of us to the other with frank delight. Corrie also wrote some descriptions of people who had undesirable personalities and characteristics. For example, the following quotation describes Otto, the young man from Germany. From the very first I had been baffled by his brusqueness with the old man. It wasn't anything he did--not in our presence anyway--but what he didn't do. No standing back to let the older man go first, no helping on with a coat, no picking up a dropped tool. It was hard to pin down. One Sunday when Father, Betsie, and I were having dinner at Hilversum I commented on what I had concluded was simple thoughtlessness. Willem shook his head. "It's very deliberate," he said. "It's because Christoffels is old. The old have no value to the State. They're also harder to train in the new ways of thinking. Germany is systematically teaching disrespect for old age." (All quotations in this section are taken from The Hiding Place, by Corrie ten Boom with John and Elizabeth Sherrill, © 1971. Published by Chosen Books Ltd., Lincoln, VA. Used by permission.) As you continue reading The Hiding Place, look for Corrie's descriptions of the various people in her book. What kind of mental picture do these descriptions bring to your mind? Are they true to life and realistic?

Comma Commas have an important function to perform in writing. Without commas, readers would be unable to interpret the writer's ideas properly. To avoid confusion, commas serve as signals that give meaning and clarity to sentences. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use a comma after introductory words, phrases, and clauses Use a comma in direct address Use a comma with a coordinating conjunction when forming compound sentences Use a comma to set off nonessential sentence elements Use commas to set off appositives Use commas to set off nonrestrictive phrases and clauses Use commas in a series Use commas with dates and place names Vocabulary compound Having more than one part; something made by combining parts. introductory Used to introduce or to begin. nonessential Not necessary; unimportant. Vocab Arcade THE COMMA Use a comma after introductory words and phrases. Names of people used in direct address are separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma. Example: David, please come here. Please come here, David. If you do this job for me, Tony, I'll pay you five dollars. The words yes, no, why, and well are followed by a comma when they are used as the first word of a sentence. Examples: Yes, you may go. No, I don't like fishing. Well, if that's the way you want it. Why, you've spent all your money! Note: A main (independent) clause has a subject and a verb. It expresses a complete idea and can stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate (dependent) clause expresses an idea or gives added information, but it cannot stand alone as a sentence. When a subordinate clause is placed before an independent clause, it is followed by a comma. Many introductory phrases and clauses are followed by a comma. Examples: After Sue washed her hair, she borrowed her mother's blow drier. By the end of the day, Father was very tired. Writing as fast as she could, our class secretary tried her best to take notes. Short introductory phrases do not require a comma, but a comma is acceptable. Examples: Before today he had never eaten caviar. In the future, I will go to college. When a modifier such as an adjective, an adverb, or a participle is used as an introductory word, it should be followed by a comma. Examples: Happy and warm, the baby quickly fell asleep. Excitedly, Faith screamed and cheered. Coughing, the engine came to life. Annoyed, the children began to complain.

Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions when they join independent clauses. As you know, an independent clause contains a subject and a verb. It can stand alone as a sentence. Observe two examples of independent clauses: Today is warm. Yesterday was cold. Each example is a complete simple sentence. Two independent clauses can be joined to make one sentence. Today is warm, but yesterday was cold. A sentence with two independent clauses is a compound sentence. When independent clauses are joined, they must have a comma and a coordinating conjunction between them. The most common coordinating conjunctions are these: and, but, or, nor, and for. Examples: I like lemonade, and Bill likes orange juice. Todd must clean the windows, or his parents will be very angry. If the independent clauses are very short, a comma is not necessary before the coordinating conjunction. Examples: I am able but you are not. You can go or you can stay. Sometimes an independent clause appears to be followed by a phrase containing a verb. However, the second verb is simply being joined to the first verb so that the independent clause contains a compound verb. Since two elements (the verbs) are being joined with a conjunction, no comma should be used. Examples: I read the chapter and answered the questions. (and is joining read to answered) John will play chess or read a book. (or is joining play to read) When a coordinating conjunction simply joins two words or phrases, do not use a comma. Examples: bread and butter He has a strong body but a weak mind.

Commas. Since about half of all punctuation errors involve the misuse of the comma, a careful review of this mark will greatly increase your ability to punctuate clearly and correctly. If you need more review on commas, see Language Arts 706. Use a comma to set off names or words used in direct address. Examples: Harry, please answer the telephone. If you answer the telephone, Harry, I will be very grateful. Set off the words yes, no, why, and well at the beginning of a sentence. Examples: Yes, you have my permission. Well, I suppose so. Introductory elements generally require commas. Always use a comma following an introductory clause. Always use a comma when a sentence is introduced by multiple prepositional phrases. Examples: After Moses saw the burning bush, God spoke. (clause) During the close of his campaign, the political candidate revealed some interesting facts. (two prepositional phrases) Very short introductory prepositional phrases do not always require a comma. This is largely a matter of style. SOS prefers that the comma be used even after very short introductions. Magazines, newspapers, and some other publishers are likely to use fewer commas. Example: On Mondays, I have piano lessons. (SOS preferred style) On Mondays I have piano lessons. (acceptable alternate style) Set off modifiers used as introductory words. Examples: Huffing and puffing, the runner finished the race. Frustrated, the child began to cry.

Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions when they join independent clauses. Remember that an independent clause contains a subject and a predicate, and it can stand alone as a sentence. When two independent clauses are joined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a compound sentence is formed. The most common coordinating conjunctions are and, but, yet, or, and nor. Compound sentences: I like to go camping, and Bill likes to fish and to hunt. Jack must write his term paper, or his teacher will be upset. A comma is not necessary before a coordinating conjunction under these circumstances. 1. When the independent clauses are very short. Example: You can speak or you can write. 2. When a part of a sentence is compound, such as the subject, predicate, or object. Example: I cleaned the house and fixed dinner. (compound predicate) I enjoy bread and tea with my meals. (compound object) Use commas to set off nonessential elements that interrupt the sentence. Example: Karen, of course, does not wish to go. Use only one comma if an interruption comes at either the beginning or the end of a sentence. Examples: Of course, Karen does not wish to go. Karen does not wish to go, of course. Use commas to set off parenthetic words, phrases, and clauses. Examples: She was, however, unable to qualify. There are six broken dishes, he reported.

Use commas to set off nonrestrictive clauses. A nonrestrictive clause is usually used as an adjective. It modifies a noun. A nonrestrictive clause adds information to a sentence, but it doesn't change the meaning. Examples: William Philleo, who is my friend, helped me build a go-cart. Last Wednesday, which was the Fourth of July, we had a picnic. Go back and read the last two sentences again, skipping the italicized portions. The meaning of each sentence does not change. A restrictive clause is also used as an adjective, but it is essential to the meaning of a sentence. Restrictive clauses are not set off with commas. Examples: The man who arrived yesterday was my Uncle Jake. The dress that she is wearing is nice. The car that is parked in front of our house is new. If you were to read the last three sentences again and skip the italicized portions, some of the meaning would be lost in each sentence. Without these clauses, it could be unclear what man, what dress, or what car was referred to. Use commas to set off nonrestrictive phrases. A nonrestrictive phrase is used as an adjective. It adds information, but it is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Example: Brenda, wishing to be finished, started to work faster. Read the sentence again, skipping the italicized portion. As before, the meaning of the sentence does not change. A participial phrase that is necessary to the meaning of a sentence is restrictive and is not set off with commas. Example: People wishing to be finished should work faster. If you were to skip the italicized portion in the last sentence, some of the meaning would be lost. Use commas to set off absolute phrases. An absolute phrase is a group of words that has no grammatical relationship to any other word in a sentence. Examples: The hour being late, we adjourned the meeting until tomorrow. I swam by myself, my friends having gone to the game. Note: Do not be too concerned with grammatical terms such as participial phrase, absolute phrase, appositives, etc. You need to remember only two ideas: 1. If a word, a phrase, or a clause is not essential to the meaning of a sentence, or if it simply adds more information without changing the meaning of a sentence, set the material off with commas. 2. If a word, phrase, or clause is essential to the meaning of a sentence, do not set it off with commas.

Use commas to separate words, phrases, or clauses in a series. A series is three or more items that come one after another in a sentence. Examples: blue, red, and yellow For lunch, Jerry had two sandwiches, an apple, and a glass of milk. I don't know if I should do my homework, take a nap, or play with my friends. When the conjunction and comes before the last item in a series, use a comma before the conjunction. Example: She likes apples, oranges, peaches, and plums. Do not use commas if all the items in a series are short and separated by a conjunction. Examples: We visited Boston and New York and Philadelphia. Bob or Jeff or Michael will be our representative.

Use commas to set off nonessential elements. Use commas before and after an idea that interrupts a sentence. You may remember that if the interruption is very noticeable, you use parentheses. If the interruption is less noticeable, you use commas instead. Example: Maureen, of course, does not approve of lying. Use only one comma if an interruption comes at the beginning or end of a sentence: Example: Of course, Maureen does not approve of lying. Maureen does not approve of lying, of course. Use commas to set off parenthetic words, phrases, and clauses. A parenthetic expression will not change the meaning of a sentence. Therefore, the meaning of the sentence will not change if the parenthetic expression is left out. Examples: I told him, if you must know, that I did not care for his behavior. Generally speaking, the sky is blue. It is the thought that is important, not the gift.

Use commas to set off appositives and their modifiers. An appositive is a word, or group of words, that comes after a noun or pronoun. An appositive refers to the noun or pronoun and often gives added information. Examples: Mrs. Jones, our librarian, helped me find a book. Ron, the tallest boy in our class, is the captain of the basketball team. My grandfather, a minister, is now retired. My favorite sport, skiing, is costly. Go back and reread the last four sentences. This time, skip the italicized portion of each sentence. Does each sentence make sense? When an appositive is closely related to the word before it, do not use a comma. Examples: Uncle John my sister Tasha

Regional Differences in Pronunciation Have you ever met someone who pronounced a common word differently than you? Perhaps you tried to convince your friend that your pronunciation was the correct way. Maybe your friend was very definite that his way was the way "everybody says it." What would you have thought if you had gone to the dictionary to prove your point of view and found both your pronunciations there? In this lesson, you will study words that have regional differences in correct pronunciation. Here is your goal for this lesson: Recognize regional differences in pronunciation by matching diacritical spelling to spoken words How do you determine the correct pronunciation of a word? One answer, of course, is to consult a good, standard, modern dictionary. Sometimes the dictionary will give two or more pronunciations for the same word expressing the same meaning. When a dictionary gives two or more pronunciations, the first pronunciation is not necessarily "more correct" than the others. Usually the first pronunciation is the most commonly accepted pronunciation, however. Some words differ greatly in pronunciation from one region or part of the country to another. One pronunciation is not necessarily more correct than the other. If you still have doubts after looking in the dictionary, try to find out how an educated person in your community says the word. The chart of diacritical marks is copied here for your reference.

Words in Reading and Nonsense Words The ability to pronounce words correctly is important, even when you are reading silently or reading nonsense verse. Here are your goals for this lesson: Apply pronunciation skills to unfamiliar words Recognize and avoid spelling errors related to poor pronunciation Practice pronunciation skills on nonsense words and literature Recognize various literary terms relating to pronunciation and nonsense verse Identify two prominent writers of nonsense literature Vocabulary alliterative Having words beginning with the same sound or letter. anonymous By or from a person whose name is not known or given. coined Made up or invented. jabberwocky Nonsensical talking or writing. jingle Verse or song that has repetition of similar sounds; a catchy rhyme. limerick A form of humorous nonsense verse of five lines. nonsense Foolish talk; words without meaning. pseudonym Pen name; fictitious name used by an author instead of his real name rhyme Agreement in the final sounds of words or lines. rhythm Regular repetition of beat or accent. tongue twister Phrase or sentence that is difficult to say quickly without a mistake. Vocab Arcade Unfamiliar words encountered in reading. You may be convinced by now that correct pronunciation is vital to spoken communication. However, you may think when you are reading silently to yourself, that whether or not you can pronounce certain words does not matter; if so, you are mistaken. Being able to pronounce internally the words you are reading is important. For one thing, the eye tends to skip over words that the silent reader cannot pronounce. Furthermore, a word that you cannot pronounce even silently in your own mind is a word you truly do not understand. When you are asked to read aloud, the problem is compounded. Words that the eye skips over are words that the tongue stumbles over. Perhaps nowhere are these twin problems more obvious than in reading from the Bible. The following fifty words were selected from Mark's Gospel. Click on the word and listen. See how many of them you were able to pronounce correctly. synagogue ordained marveled hypocrites leprosy surnamed testimony perceive beseech perish tolerable draught publicans rebuke anointed covetousness physicians asunder convenient impediment marred fetters thither fragments Sabbath virtue constrained savour withered tumult toiling raiment plagues damsel besought tabernacles nought scourge spikenard insurrection gnash alabaster tarry myrrh millstone ointment staves transgressor centurion sepulchre Practice pronouncing the preceding fifty words. On a separate sheet of paper, write the words that are difficult for you to pronounce and those that are familiar to you. Look up those words in your dictionary. Copy the pronunciation, complete with diacritical marks. As an added learning aid, you may wish to write a brief definition of the words that are new to you. To improve your reading and spelling skills, select a favorite Bible passage. Read it aloud to yourself. If you cannot pronounce some words, you know how to learn the correct pronunciation. When you are confident you can read the passage aloud, correctly and smoothly, you may wish to ask your teacher to listen to you read. Some spoken words are mispronounced so often that they are frequently misspelled as well. Sometimes, the problem is that not all the letters are correctly pronounced when the word is spoken; therefore, those letters are accidentally left out when the word is spelled. An example is the word government. If the word is mispronounced as goverment (with the n left out) it is almost certain to be misspelled. Sometimes, the problem is a matter of substituting the sound of a letter that the word does not contain. An example is the word escape. If the word is mispronounced as excape (with the sound of an x substituted for the s) the word is bound to be misspelled.

SUBJECT-VERB-INDIRECT OBJECT-DIRECT OBJECT PATTERN The last pattern we will study contains an indirect object. An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that indicates to or for whom (or what) something is given, said, or done. Example: John lent me the book. An indirect object always comes between the verb and the direct object. Example: Susie gave me homemade bread. Indirect objects only occur in sentences that contain direct objects, but every sentence that contains a direct object will not necessarily contain an indirect object. To see if a sentence contains an indirect object, place the words to or for in front of the word. Example: Mrs. Simon handed (to) Becky a bracelet. If the word is an indirect object, the meaning of the sentence will not be changed by the addition of to or for. Often, but not always, sentences with verbs such as give, show, offer, and make contain indirect objects. The indirect object does come before the direct object. An indirect object may also be modified by adjectives. Example: Bill offered the small, sobbing girl a lollipop. A sentence may contain a compound indirect object. Example: Mom bought Ruth and me new dresses.

Writing Complete Sentences You may not realize it, but you have much knowledge to share with other people. The different places, the many events you have experienced, and the variety of people you have met form a huge reference from which to draw ideas when you want to write. You also have an imagination which you have used since you were very young. Through your imagination you can create fantastic situations, terrifying creatures, wonderful happenings, or breathtaking rescues. All that remains to be learned or developed are the skills needed to help you express your ideas and experiences. You can create vivid word pictures to share your experiences with others. Here are your goals for this lesson: Recognize sentence fragments and run-on sentences Proofread for fragments and run-ons Vocabulary fragment A group of words that does not express a complete thought, even though it is punctuated as a sentence. proofread To look over your work carefully, checking spelling, punctuation, and form. Vocab Arcade SENTENCE FRAGMENTS In the first section, you studied different sentence patterns. You found that subjects and verbs are essential to any sentence. If one or the other of these parts is missing, only a sentence fragment remains. Since a sentence is a complete thought, a fragment tells only part of the thought. It is like an uncompleted building; it is inadequate for its purpose. Example: Ran around the room. Sometimes a fragment does not tell who or what is doing something. This fragment does not have a subject to tell who or what ran around the room. A complete thought must contain a subject. Example: Jess and his friends. This fragment has no verb to tell what Jess and his friends did. Without this information the thought is not complete. Example: Behind the house. This fragment tells where, but not who or what. Example: Bob behind the house. Adding a subject is not enough to complete the thought. Obviously more information is necessary for this sentence to have meaning. Adding a verb will complete the thought. Example: Bob played behind the house. Now there is a complete sentence. The subject and the verb act together to express a complete thought. The prepositional phrase behind the house adds more detail and interest to the sentence. It is also important that the verb be in the correct tense. A verb ending in -ing, for example, is not a complete verb by itself. It requires an auxiliary verb to complete it. This can be tricky, because the -ing form of the verb can be used to introduce phrases that are not the predicate of the sentence. Example: Drinking nectar from every flower, the hummingbird flitted about the bush. The introductory phrase that begins with drinking could not be used alone. The main verb, or predicate, of the sentence is flitted.

An understanding of the signal words in this lesson will improve your reading and listening comprehension. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use signal words to understand the organization of details within a paragraph Use words that signal chronological order Use words that signal example or illustration Use words that signal cause and effect Use words that signal comparison or contrast Anticipate conclusion or summary by using signal words Vocabulary communicate Give information by talking and writing; receive information by listening and reading. express Put your thoughts into words. feeling An emotion such as love, sympathy, pain, and happiness. language Human speech, spoken or written. signal An object or word placed to give notice or warning. Vocab Arcade A signal is an important clue to understanding the situation in which you find yourself. You have already learned to interpret many signals. When you were younger, you learned about traffic lights that warn you when to stop and let you know when it is safe to cross the street. You know that drivers must be careful to notice and respond to all kinds of signs and signals in order to arrive at their destinations safely. In much the same way, writers who want to communicate clearly use words for signals. These signal words give the reader important clues about the content of the writing. They help the reader make the correct connections between ideas. In this way, the author assists the reader to look at things they way he does. Chronological Sequence. You are already familiar with the signal words used in describing time relationships. Words like before and after clearly indicate when something happened in relationship to other events. Other signal words and phrases used to show sequence are listed below. Be sure you know what each of these words means. as soon as formerly not long after during immediately preceding finally initially previously following meanwhile until at last eventually ultimately Example - Illustration. When a good writer presents the reader with a concept, he provides examples that clarify the concept. Even the dictionary uses this technique. If you were to look up the word pachyderm, you would find a definition similar to this: "Any of various large, thick-skinned, hoofed mammals..". Immediately following that definition, most dictionaries would provide an example to ensure your understanding: "...such as the elephant, rhinoceros, or hippopotamus." Ah! Now you know what a pachyderm is. The phrase such as signaled you that an example would follow. Words and phrases used to signal you to look for the example include: for example for instance such as in other words generally typically Compare - Contrast. You will frequently read material that compares and contrasts two or more persons, items, or concepts. When writers compare things, they show how they are alike. When they contrast things, they point out the differences. Many times, a writer will examine two similar things, discussing both their likenesses and their differences. The paragraph or essay may include a great deal of information pointing you in different directions, just like the highway signs above. In reading complex material like this, it is especially important that you pay careful attention to the signal words that tell you whether to expect similarities or differences. Comparison Comparison Contrast Contrast additionally in common although nevertheless also like as opposed to on the contrary as well as likewise but on the other hand both similarly conversely otherwise compares with similar to even though unlike in addition still however whereas instead yet Example: The Whangdoodle Pro runs on a 491k snarfle, whereas the Flopdiddle managed with just a 35X3 spankle. You don't know what the Whangdoodle Pro and the Flopdiddle are, but you know that a difference between them is the type of engine that operates them.

ed up dominoes standing on end like those in the picture? If so, you know the effect that you can get by pushing the front domino back. As each domino tilts backward, it upsets the balance of the one behind, all the way down the line. Eventually, all the dominoes are lying flat. Some hobbyists enjoy creating lengthy chains of dominoes that snake around a room, perhaps even on multiple levels, just so they can enjoy the progression of falling dominoes. This little game has even entered our language. The domino effect refers to a chain of events set off by a single cause. Of course, cause-and-effect relationships are not always so simple. Sometimes multiple factors work on various levels to accomplish an effect, or result. When reading about the causes of any event or situation, pay careful attention to these signal words and phrases. as a result for this reason leads to / led to because of gave rise to made possible brought about hence so that consequently if...then thereby due to is caused by therefore effects of it follows thus Conclusion or Summary Signal Words. Just as it would be impolite to leave a friend's home without saying good-bye, writers know that it is important to help you come to a conclusion at the end of a piece of writing. They do not want to "leave you hanging." There are signal words and phrases that let you know the text is coming to an end. Some of them are the same phrases you have seen used to signal chronological order or cause and effect. When you see these signals near the end of a piece of writing, they will help you wrap up your thoughts: as a result, finally, in conclusion, to summarize, therefore. To conclude, therefore, remember to look for signal words when you are reading and to include them when you are writing.

Transitional paragraph. In a longer piece of writing, a paragraph with the topic sentence in the middle frequently serves as a transitional paragraph. Transition means a change. In fiction the transition may be a change of season, setting, character, or action. The following example is a transitional paragraph with the topic sentence in the middle. The Hispaniola lay some way out, and we went under the figureheads and round the sterns of many other ships, and their cables sometimes grated underneath our keel, and sometimes swung above us. At last, however, we got alongside, and were met and saluted as we stepped aboard by the mate, Mr. Arrow, a brown old sailor, with earrings in his ears and a squint. He and the squire were very thick and friendly, but I soon observed that things were not the same between Mr. Trelawney and the captain. --Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson The sentence which begins, "At last, however, we got alongside" is the topic sentence that links the sentences which precede and follow it. In addition, the entire paragraph serves as a transition, or change, from the Admiral Benbow Inn to the ship. You have already learned that not every paragraph has a topic sentence. This fact is especially true in novels, short stories, magazine articles, and newspaper articles. However, even if the topic sentence is only implied or suggested, the paragraph still should be limited to one central idea or the thoughts or words of only one person. The following selection is an example of a good paragraph without a topic sentence. Now, just after sundown, when all my work was over, and I was on my way to me berth, it occurred to me that I should like an apple. I ran on deck. The watch was all forward looking out for the island. The man at the helm was watching the luff of the sail, and whistling away gently to himself; and that was the only sound excepting the swish of the sea against the bows and around the sides of the ship. --Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson The paragraph has no topic sentence. The central idea of the paragraph is not really Jim Hawkins' sudden desire to munch on a crisp, juicy apple. If you will read the paragraph closely, you will realize that it has both unity and sequence. In the story, the paragraph is the author's way of having Jim Hawkins hide in the apple barrel, where he will overhear a sinister conversation.

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Sentence Patterns and Types Sentences are made up of words such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. These words function as sentence elements: subjects, verbs (predicates), objects, and modifying words. Sentences may be classified according to either structure or function, as you may remember from your study of Language Arts 709. Sentences generally have certain patterns; the parts are arranged in a certain order. Here are your goals for this lesson: Classify sentences by type (declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory) Classify sentences by five patterns Analyze sentences to identify subject and verb complements Construct sentences according to five patterns Sentence patterns. You may remember from the study of Language Arts 704 that a sentence is a group of words that communicates a complete thought. Pattern 1 - Subject-Verb Birds fly in the sky. Pattern 2 - Subject-Verb-Direct Object Most birds build nests. Pattern 3 - Subject-Linking Verb-Predicate Noun The sixteenth President was Abraham Lincoln. Pattern 4 - Subject-Linking Verb-Predicate Adjective The Lord is benevolent. Pattern 5 - Subject-Verb-Indirect Object-Direct Object The teacher gave the students a test. Click here to learn more about sentence patterns.

qwertyuiop asdfghjkl zxcvbnm Sentence types. Another way of classifying sentences is according to the function of the sentence. English has four different types of sentences, named according to their function. Declarative sentences tell something about the subject. They are the most commonly written English sentences. The proper end punctuation is a period. Example: Genesis is the first book of the Bible. Interrogative sentences ask questions. The proper end punctuation is a question mark. Example: Do you know if Ed went to school today? Imperative sentences express commands. The end punctuation is usually a period. Example: Sit down in your seat. Exclamatory sentences express strong feelings. The proper end punctuation is an exclamation point. Example: The captain shouted, "A man is overboard!"

RUN-ON SENTENCES Run-on sentences, sometimes called run-together sentences, make excessive use of the conjunctions and and so in joining several main clauses into one sentence. Usually, the best method for correcting run-on sentences is to subordinate one of the main clauses. Run-on sentence: We went to town yesterday and we bought some school supplies and we ate a hamburger and we went home. Rewritten: When we went to town yesterday, we bought school supplies, ate a hamburger, and went home. If all of the ideas in the run-on sentence are equally important, you might divide the run-on into separate sentences. Run-on sentence: Two cars crashed together at the Queen Creek turnoff and the county rescue unit quickly freed the men and miraculously the three men escaped unhurt. Rewritten: Two cars crashed together at the Queen Creek turnoff. The county rescue unit quickly freed the trapped men. Miraculously, the three men escaped unhurt. Other methods for correcting the run-on sentence include making part of the sentence compound by joining two main clauses with a comma and a conjunction or by using a semicolon between two closely connected main clauses. Run-on sentence: Two of my best friends live close to my house and we visit each other every afternoon after school and play catch. Rewritten: Two of my best friends live close to my house; we visit each other every afternoon after school and play catch. A combination of methods can also be used. Run-on sentence: I did not know if Dad would let me go to the game so I stopped by his office after school and I asked him and he said I could, so I bought the tickets. Revised sentence: Because I did not know if Dad would let me go to the game, I stopped by his office after school and asked him. When he said I could go, I bought the tickets. To be successful at the following game, you should review these lessons in this unit: "Sentence Types: Introduction," "Sentence Types: Declarative and Interrogative," "Sentence Types: Imperative and Exlamatory," "Sentence Errors: Fragments," and "Sentence Errors: Comma Splice and Run-on."

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Consider these wordy expressions and their replacements. Poor Better Steve set a new record for the high jump. Steve set a record for the high jump. Up until last August, I didn't know how to ride a surfboard. Until last August, I didn't know how to ride a surfboard. Our teacher gave us an advance warning that the assignment must be turned in on time. Our teacher gave us a warning that the assignment must be turned in on time. With the exception of Bill, the class will attend the concert. Except Bill, the class will attend the concert. The class, together with their teachers, will attend the concert. The class, with their teachers, will attend the concert.

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Sentence Types: Imperative and Exclamatory Two more types of sentences add interest to our writing. They are the imperative and exlamatory sentences. Here are your goals for this lesson: Understand that imperative sentences may look like declaratives or interrogatives in structure Punctuate exclamatory sentences and interjections correctly Classify sentences by function Imperative sentences. An imperative sentence gives a command or an order or a very urgent request. Imperative sentences frequently do not have stated subjects. Rather, the subject is implied, or understood. Example: (You) Close the door. Direct commands are often expressed by the simple form of the verb. Example: Finish the test. Negative commands are often expressed with do not or the contraction don't. Example: Do not go in the water. Emphatic imperatives may be punctuated with an exclamation mark. Even though an exclamation point is used, the function is still imperative. Example: Halt! Polite imperative sentences use adverbs of courtesy, such as please, or auxiliary verbs. Softened or polite imperatives may be punctuated with question marks. These sentences remain imperative in function. Example: Please come here. Will you erase the blackboard? The function of the sentence, not the end punctuation, determines whether the sentence is imperative.

Exclamatory sentences. Exclamatory sentences express strong feelings or emotions or emphatic statements of facts or opinion. An exclamation may be only one word, a phrase, or a fully developed sentence. Examples: Oh! At last! How fortunate you are! Notice that exclamatory sentences are punctuated with exclamation points. Can a single word or a phrase (as in the first two preceding examples) truly be considered a sentence? Not unless the single word is a verb (Wait!) or the phrase contains a verb (You're here!). The examples given, however, are not classified as fragments. Because they contain a clear, complete thought that would be inserted before, after, or between other sentences, they are called interjections. Therefore, such one-word imperatives or phrase imperatives and exclamations are considered correct, even though they are not true sentences. The occasional use of exclamatory sentences not only lends emphasis to ideas, but it also adds variety to a piece of writing. However, you should guard against scattering exclamation points throughout your writing just for the sake of variety. The use of too many exclamation points actually decreases emphasis. Usually, only an immature or inexperienced writer makes this mistake.

Communication: Speaking and Listening This lesson will give you the opportunity to review the skills you have learned related to speaking and listening. Here are your goals for this lesson: Recognize how the use of intonations affects meaning in speech Determine the four different types of purposes of listening SPEAKING You may recall from your studies in Language Arts 702 and 708 the concept that speech is more easily understood than the written word because our voices and actions reflect more than just the words we are speaking. Speech is a very important tool of communication. It can send different messages to the receiver depending on word choice, tone of voice, method of expression, or accompanying gestures. When we speak, we use intonations to clarify the meanings of our words. As you recall, these intonations are stress, pitch, and juncture. Stress is the force or emphasis placed on a spoken word or part of a word. Pitch is the highness or lowness of a voice tone. (A change in pitch is called an inflection.) Juncture refers to the spacing of words. A pause between words or sounds causes differences in meanings. Look at the following sentence: You are eating. It may have different meanings depending on where the stress is placed. Click on each box to hear the differences in this sentence. (a statement) (a command) (a question) Changing the stress on words changes the meaning of a sentence.

LISTENING A review of Language Arts 702 will show that listening is another skill necessary for effective communication. For communication to be effective, a sender and a receiver are both necessary. If the receiver does not listen to the message the speaker is sending, communication does not take place. Listening is not just hearing; it is attending to and comprehending what is being said. Recall the different types of listening and the purpose for each. Passive listening occurs when a person listens to something while his mind is occupied with other thoughts. Usually only key words or sounds will be noticed. Purposeful listening occurs when you want to remember what is being said. Listening to announcements, to directions being given, or to information being presented requires purposeful listening. Critical listening occurs when you want to compare information you already have with what you are hearing. Listening to commercials, political speeches, and various types of programs and plays requires critical listening. Appreciative listening occurs when you enjoy listening to stories, plays, and musical programs.

Meaning of Suffixes; Parts of Speech Suffixes change the meaning of base words and roots and the part of speech of the word. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use suffixes to identify a word's part of speech Construct words using common bases and suffixes Suffix meanings. As you have seen, a suffix will make a word longer. A suffix will also add to the meaning of the base word. It will do one more interesting thing. A suffix will help determine what part of speech the new word will be. The major parts of speech are usually classified as noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. These parts of speech are generally determined by their use in sentences. However, certain suffixes have particular functions when they occur in particular words. Study the following table: Suffix Part of Speech Meaning Example -able adjective able to likeable -age noun process, result of wreckage -dom noun condition freedom -en verb/noun to cause to be lengthen -er noun a person or thing that does player -ful adjective full of joyful -hood noun condition widowhood -ing verb action; result (marks the present participle of verbs) wrecking -ion, -tion, -sion noun process; condition of creation, adhesion -ish adjective characteristic of girlish -ist noun person who or thing that does dentist -less adjective without hopeless -ly adjective/adverb manner or like slowly -ment noun quality; action or process statement -ness noun quality happiness -ous adjective marked by; having the qualities of poisonous

Adding suffixes to root words. You have learned that prefixes can be added to Latin roots and to Greek roots. These prefixes have meanings that can change the definition of the entire word. Suffixes can also be added to roots. If you know the meanings of both the root part and the suffix part of a word, you can often determine the entire meaning of an unfamiliar word. Build words by adding suffixes to the root in each group. Notice the meaning of each new word.

Coordination Coordination in language happens when two or more equal language parts are joined together. This joining together is called compounding. The language parts to be joined are often individual nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. Language parts also include phrases and clauses. Equal language parts are words, phrases, or clauses of the same type or grammatical structure--two or more verbs, two or more prepositional phrases, two or more clauses, and so on. Here are your goals for this lesson: Select elements of the same type (coordinating elements) Use coordinating conjunctions to join words, phrases, and sentences Use correlative conjunctions to join words, phrases, and sentences Language parts of the same kind are joined together by special parts of speech called conjunctions. The most commonly used conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions. These are listed below. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet Examples: (conjunction joining two nouns) Hurricanes and tornadoes are devastating forces of nature. (conjunction joining two predicates--phrases) These storms often uproot trees and destroy buildings. (conjunction joining two independent clauses, or sentences) Hurricanes form over the ocean, but tornadoes can form over land or sea. Another group of conjunctions works in pairs to join sentence parts of the same type. These conjunctions are called correlative conjunctions. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS either--or neither--nor both--and not only--but also Examples: (conjunction joining two nouns) Both hurricanes and tornadoes are devastating forces of nature. (conjunction joining two predicates--phrases) These storms not only uproot trees but also destroy buildings. (conjunction joining two independent clauses, or sentences) Not only can tornadoes form over land, but they also can form over the ocean. Click here to learn more about conjunctions.

COMPOUND NOUNS AND PRONOUNS Nouns and pronouns can be compounded only if they are used as the same part of the sentence--subject or object, for example. Common Nouns Examples: These men and women have worked faithfully for the company. The mountains and lakes of Colorado provide great vacation spots. We will need either the chair or stool at the table. Proper nouns Example: Bill and Sally will visit either Texas or Alaska. Personal pronouns Examples: He and she will greet you at the airport. The team chose either you or me. We and they will meet together on Sunday. Nouns, proper nouns, and pronouns mixed Examples: She and Doreen are cute. I will give it to the boy or him. Bill and he went on a camping trip. COMPOUND VERBS, ADJECTIVES, AND ADVERBS Verbs, adjectives, and adverbs can also be compounded. These sentence elements can only be compounded with a sentence element of the same kind--verb with verb, adjective with adjective, adverb with adverb. Verbs Examples: Billy loves to run and jump. We sat or stood for five hours. Adjectives Examples: Doreen was happy and excited about the trip. Only one or two people were eating in the restaurant. The red and green lights decorated the hall. Adverbs Examples: Tina slowly and carefully tiptoed through the swamp. We can eat now or later . Shiny pennies were scattered here and there around the room. COMPOUND SUBJECTS, PREDICATES, AND COMPLEMENTS You studied earlier that the core of a sentence consists of a subject, a predicate, and sometimes a complement. When the core of a sentence has a complement, it is part of the complete predicate. Example: Mary felt happy. Mary is the subject and felt happy is the complete predicate. Happy is the complement. Example: Bob hit the ball. Bob is the subject, hit the ball is the complete predicate, and ball is the complement. The main parts of the sentence can be used in coordination. The subject can be compound. Examples: Matthew , Mark , Luke , and John are the four Gospel writers. Tennis and soccer are forms of recreation. Sugar or honey can be used. The simple predicate (verb) can be compounded. Examples: I can run and jump . She knits and sews quite well. He drives or walks to school. The complete predicate can be compounded. Examples: He drives to school and walks home (ways to travel) She vacuumed the carpet and washed the windows . (housework) Brent kicked the ball , ran fifty yards , and tackled the runner . (actions in a football game) Caution! Do not compound predicates that are not closely related. You would not want to write, "She rode her bicycle and picked flowers" unless both occurred at the same time. You also should be cautious about mixing verb tenses in the same sentence. Only if you wish to emphasize that what happened then is not what will happen next would you want to use both past and future tenses together, for instance. A complement can be compounded. Examples: We ate cake and ice cream . The sofa is blue and green . Do you know him or her? More than one part of a sentence core can be compounded in a single sentence. Compound subject and compound predicate: Example: Danielle and Ricardo will go to town or stay at home . Compound subject and compound complement: Example: Danielle and Ricardo ate popcorn and peanuts .

SUBJECT-VERB-DIRECT OBJECT PATTERN In many sentences, another noun follows the verb. If this noun follows a verb showing action, it is called the direct object, and it names the person or thing that receives the action. Example: The car hit a tree. Car is the subject and hit is the verb. The word tree tells what the car hit, so tree is the direct object. After you have identified the subject and the verb, ask "Whom?" or "What?" to find the direct object. Example: Jerry bought a bicycle. The subject and verb are Jerry bought. Ask: Jerry bought whom? Jerry bought what? The answer is bicycle, the direct object. If no word answers the question, the sentence has no direct object. An action verb that has a direct object is known as a transitive verb. The direct object will always be either a noun or a pronoun and follows the verb closely. It is usually, but not always, the very next word. The direct object may be compound. Example: Today I typed a letter and a report. In this case, two persons or things answer the question "What?" (letter and report). To find the direct object in questions, it is often helpful to restate the question with the subject and verb in usual order. Example: How many books have you bought? (You have bought how many books?) If you are careful in your identification of the subject and the verb, then you should still be able to find the direct object by asking "Whom?" or "What?" after the verb.

Patterns: S/LV/PN, S/LV/PA, S/V/IO/DO In this lesson, you will study three more sentence patterns. These patterns will help you determine the parts of speech of words within the sentence. Here are your goals for this lesson: Identify predicate nouns Distinguish between predicate nouns and predicate adjectives Identify indirect objects through the use of sentence pattern Vocabulary adverb A word that tells how, when, where, or how much about other words. intransitive A verb that does not transfer action to a direct object. linking verb A verb of being, seeming or condition that connects the subject to a predicate noun or a predicate adjective. predicate adjective A word that follows a linking verb and describes or modifies the subject. predicate noun A noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject. Vocab Arcade SUBJECT-LINKING VERB-PREDICATE NOUN PATTERN People, animals, and things often have more than one name to identify or explain them. An important person in your family is the one you call father. At work he may be known as Mr. Kline. A friend could call him Ted, and everyone knows he is a man. All of these words describe or identify the same person. If you construct a sentence with a subject preceding the verb and another noun following the verb that renames the subject, that second noun is a predicate noun. Notice the renaming function of the predicate noun mechanic in the following sentence. Example: Mr. Kline is a mechanic. The predicate noun is a noun or pronoun that follows the verb and renames the subject. The predicate noun completes the thought or the meaning of the sentence. Example: The first President was George Washington. Verbs that join a subject and a predicate noun are called linking verbs. They are verbs of being, seeming, or condition. The most common linking verbs include these verbs: is, am, are, be, being, been, become, was, were, and seem. The linking verb is also an intransitive verb. It does not show action, and it is not followed by a direct object. The predicate noun may also be compound, as the following example demonstrates. Example: My aunt is a teacher and an advisor. Always look carefully at a sentence after you have identified the subject and the linking verb to be certain that you have found every word that renames the subject.

Words That Express Feelings When you write, your objective is to convey your ideas and feelings to another person. In order to communicate clearly, it is important to use words that express exactly what you are feeling. This lesson explores some of the subtle differences among synonyms for emotions. Here are your goals for this lesson: Understand that the physical, mental, and emotional parts of our beings impact one another Use words that express emotions specifically Select words that express degrees of emotion Distinguish between the subtleties of meaning of words expressing similar emotions Have you ever had your feelings hurt? Of course, you have. We all experience hurt feelings at one time or another. At other times, our feelings soar. But what is a feeling? Is it physical? Is it mental? Is it emotional? The answer is yes. Although we define a feeling as an emotion, our feelings involve the physical and mental parts of ourselves as well. Our bodies have a complex balance of chemical signals going on inside us all the time. When our feelings are hurt, our brains and other glands produce certain chemicals. This may make us cry or get a stomachache. We may find it hard to think of anything but the thing or person that hurt us. When something causes us to feel happy, other chemicals are secreted. We become more alert, more energetic, and generally more optimistic. The world seems like a wonderful place. Our bodies and our emotions are so closely connected that we can even "trick ourselves" into feeling better by forcing a smile. After a little while, the brain begins producing the chemicals that make us feel good in response to the signals the muscles around the mouth send out. When we are frightened or face an emergency or stressful situation, our body pours out chemicals that give us greater strength and sharper thinking. Then, when the emergency is over, we feel shaky and weak. Although emotions can be felt, they cannot be touched or examined directly by others. We can often guess, however, how a person feels by the way his face looks, whether he stands straight or slumps, and by his tone of voice. But we cannot really communicate how we feel without language. For this reason, it is helpful to know a number of words that express the subtle shades of feeling. Look at these words: hurt, pain, misery, agony, uncomfortable, and ache. These words mean similar things, having physical pain, yet they are not identical in meaning. There is a great deal of difference between feeling uncomfortable after eating and having a stomach ache. To say that something hurts does not express as much pain as to say you are in agony or misery. Misery also includes the emotional distress that often accompanies physical pain. Words for Angry Feelings. We have all felt anger, and we have all faced someone else's anger. Let's look at some common words for anger and see exactly what they mean. Displeasure is dissatisfaction. If you have been told to clean your bedroom, and you have not finished it in a timely manner, your parent may express displeasure. This is a relatively mild level of anger. The word anger itself is defined as strong displeasure or hostility. Suppose that you feel someone has done something wrong to you. Whether this mistreatment is real or only imagined, if you carry an angry ill will in your heart toward that person, you are feeling resentment. Usually, the only way to get rid of resentment is by choosing to forgive the person you believe has wronged you. There are two words for extreme anger. The first is rage, which is violent, explosive anger. If you have seen someone suddenly "lose their cool" and "blow their top," then you are familiar with rage. Rage is often the result of keeping resentment in one's heart. The resentment builds and builds until it suddenly explodes. Often, the person who receives the effect of rage is not even the person the rager is really angry with. Rage is usually destructive of relationships because it creates fear and distrust. Wrath is another word which expresses intense anger, usually on an epic, or larger-than-life, scale. Wrath, however, does not include the idea of loss of self-control that rage does. Wrath sometimes leads to punishment, as when God destroyed the wicked cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, but it does not lash out at innocent victims. Words for Sorrowful Feelings. Sorrow is a feeling of great sadness, often accompanied by regret for having done something one shouldn't have done. When someone says, "I'm sorry," he is saying he feels great sadness for something. An apology without the emotion of sorrow behind it really doesn't mean much. Closely related to sorrow is remorse, which refers to bitter regret and moral anguish for having done something very hurtful. When we have sinned, we are in a state of guilt, whether or not we feel bad about it. The guilt is a fact, not a feeling. When the Holy Spirit points out our guilt to us, or convicts us, then we should feel shame. Shame is a painful emotion resulting from an awareness of inadequacy and guilt. How do we get rid of the guilt and the feeling of shame? We go to God in repentance, admitting that we have sinned, expressing our remorse, and asking God to forgive us through His son Jesus and to help us not to sin again. Words for Happy Feelings. Several words for happy feelings should become familiar to you. The word pleasure has to do with amusement, diversion, and the indulgence of our senses. One experiences pleasure at an amusement park, for instance, or when eating a favorite dessert. One can feel pleasure by listening to music, looking at a beautiful piece of art, or by partying. Pleasure can be a good thing, but it can also deceive, or fool, a person. The trouble with pleasure is that it is temporary. It just doesn't last, and it can attract us into chasing it. As we spend more and more time looking for pleasure, we miss the things that bring lasting happiness. Intense happiness that is ecstatic and exultant is called joy. Joy is not a fleeting thing as pleasure is, but it lasts. A word closely related to joy is delight, which means extreme pleasure and satisfaction. The Bible tells us that God delights Himself in His children -- He receives extreme pleasure and satisfaction from them. Then there is contentment. The person who feels contented is happy with his situation in life.

Words for Quiet Feelings. Calm, peace, tranquillity, harmony: these are all words that make us think of soothing, quiet times, but they do not mean exactly the same thing. Let's look at the differences among these four words. Peace is defined as inner contentment and serenity; it is the absence of mental stress or anxiety. It is a feeling, or emotion, but it is more than that. A person who is at peace has physical and mental quietness as well. Closely related is tranquillity, a disposition free from stress or emotion. A person who is tranquil feels quiet, peaceful, and at rest. The word calm refers to a steadiness of mind under stress not excited or agitated. A person may be calm when things around him are not peaceful. Have you ever been in the eye of a hurricane? Though the terrible storm rages all around, in the eye is perfect calm, complete stillness. You can feel calm, peaceful, and tranquil all by yourself, but it takes two to have harmony or its opposite, disharmony. In music, the melody is played on single notes and the additional notes provide harmony. Harmony is defined as agreement in feeling or opinion. Harmony requires two different musical notes that blend well together. Just as in music, when you are in harmony with someone else, you do not think or feel exactly alike, but you blend well together. There is no conflict. Words for Loving Feelings. Finally, let's consider love. Love is one of the most complex of human emotions. It goes beyond the power of language to describe love adequately, but we frequently use the word casually: I love that outfit. Don't you just love rocky road ice cream? We will look at some words that relate to love, and then we will examine love more closely. When most people talk of "being in love," they are referring to romance. Romance is ardent emotional attachment, with fascination, and often including an air of mystery. It is an exciting feeling. Sometimes it lasts a long time, but usually it doesn't. When the couple get to know each other well, the mystery is solved; the excitement is over; and they wonder where the love went. Mistaking romance for love has resulted in many broken relationships among family members. A tender feeling or fondness is often referred to as affection. If you feel affectionate toward someone, you enjoy being around them, but you may or may not want a long-lasting relationship with them. A deep love characterized by dedication and selfless affection is called devotion. This is the kind of love that lasts. When a couple are devoted to one another, each individual works hard to provide for and please the other person without worrying about who is giving more. This kind of couple has children together, solves problems together, dreams together, and stays together. Devotion is also used to describe our feelings of love for God. This kind of love tries to pattern itself after the love God has for us. God's love for us is the best kind of love. It is the most unselfish love. It is the love that gives itself completely. To understand more about this kind of love, read in your Bible the following passages: John 3:16 and I Corinthians 13.