Late World History Final Study Guide

Alfred Dreyfus

WHO: A French Jewish military officer. WHEN: 1859-1935; Dreyfus Affair in began in 1894 and was resolved in 1906. WHERE: France. WHAT: Dreyfus was convicted on charges of treason in 1894 after investigations revealed that French military secrets were being leaked to the Germans by a highly ranked spy. While there was no evidence that Dreyfus was guilty of this crime, suspicion quickly fell on him, and he was formally and publicly degraded by the military. He was then sentenced to life imprisonment, and spending nearly five years in jail in French Guiana. Only in 1906 was he tried again and acquitted. WHY: Most scholars attribute the injustice in the Dreyfus Affair to antisemitism. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The lack of evidence proving him guilty—and the availability of evidence to the effect that the real traitor was someone else—did not deter superior military officials from accusing Dreyfus. In fact, the French army falsified and suppressed evidence in order to avoid a reversal of Dreyfus' legal ruling. This is a recognized as an iconic case of injustice and antisemitism, and it divided the French population for decades after the affair. It prompted many intellectuals to voice their discontent at the affair. Most famously, Emile Zola's J'accuse... ! was an article published in the journal L'Aurore, in which Zola wrote an open letter to the French President, denouncing the officials responsible for the injustice and demanding that Dreyfus be tried fairly in front of a civil jury, not a military one.

Charles de Gaulle

WHO: A French general during WWII; president from 1959-1969; founder of the Vème République (Fifth Republic), under which the French government still operates. WHEN: 1890-1970; president from 1959-1969; Algerian independence in 1962. WHERE: France, Great Britain (London), Algeria. WHAT: De Gaulle was a French military general who, from London, led the French Résistance against the Nazis during WWII—notably with L'appel du 18 juin (Appeal of June 18), a speech given via radio from London encouraging the French people to resist occupation and Nazism. He was an officer during the First World War, wounded and later taken prisoner at the Battle of Verdun. Following WWII, he was the chairman of the French Provisional Government (1944-1946), an interim period of French governance between the end of the war and the founding of the Fourth Republic. He founded the Fifth Republic in 1958, and was elected president that same year. WHY: HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: De Gaulle is an emblematic figure of French warfare and politics. A hero in both world wars, he is also partly responsible for the Algerian War, which was fought under his presidency. Following the Algerian War, to the dismay of French conservatives (and members of his party), he yielded French control over Algeria and granted independence to the colony of more than a century.

Frantz Fanon

WHO: A Martinican psychologist and sociologist. WHEN: 1925-1961; wrote The Wretched of the Earth in 1961. WHERE: France and its colonies. WHAT: Author of The Wretched of the Earth, a radical book that addresses colonization and effectiveness of various processes of decolonization, as well as third-world development. He fought in the Free French Forces during WWII, an experience during which he was exposed to severe racism against people of color. Later, he lived in Algeria and joined the FLN following the outbreak of the Algerian War in 1954. WHY: The main thesis of Fanon's work—that violence was a legitimate route via which decolonization was to occur—was defended by the premise that, because the colonizer did not consider his subjects as "human," the colonized people should not be expected to uphold standards of human morals and ethics. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth provides a sociological and psychological analysis of the effects of colonization, on both the individual and the communal scale. In his work, Fanon most notably advocates for extreme violence in the process of decolonization, citing it as the only way to truly allow for cultural restoration of the subjugated people. This book was banned in France and he was expelled from Algeria in January 1957.

Bandung Conference

WHO: Asian and African states; organized by Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan. WHEN: April 18-24, 1955. WHERE: Bandung, Indonesia. WHAT: The Bandung Conference was a conference of 29 nations of Asia and Africa. The nations represented more than half of the world's population at the time. Most of these nations were newly independent. The conference reflected the organizers' dissatisfaction with their exclusion from foreign policy decisions made by the European powers, as well as apprehensions towards tensions between China and the United States. WHY: The conference's stated aims were to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and to oppose colonialism or neocolonialism by any nation. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The first large-scale Asian-African conference the Bandung Conference paved the way for a series of other similar conferences in the next decade. These conferences led to the establishment of the Non-Aligned movement, a group of countries sharing the policy of avoiding alliances and affiliations with major power blocks in times of peace.

Gavrilo Princip

WHO: Bosnian nationalist revolutionary. WHEN: 1894-1918; murdered Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914. WHERE: Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina; Austria-Hungary. WHAT: Gavrilo Princip was the assassin of the Archduke of Austria-Hungary and the heir to the throne, Franz Ferdinand. WHY: He acted as a representative of a growing nationalist movement in Austria-Hungary called Mlada Bosna (Young Bosnia). Indeed, nationalist currents for Bosnian independence were encouraged and supported by the Russians following trade restrictions imposed on them. Princip aspired to free Bosnia, and other Yugoslavs, from Austria-Hungary. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: This assassination led to a chain of events that culminated in the declaration of World War I. On July 28, with the assurance that they would be backed by their ally Germany, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, hoping that it would finally dismiss the question of Slav nationalism in the region. Germany, after Russia refused to abide by the terms of a proposed ultimatum, declared war on Russia three days later. Both nations mobilized, and the same day, France mobilized as well.

Great Leap Forward

WHO: Chinese Communist Party; Mao Zedong. WHEN: 1958-1960. WHERE: China. WHAT: A political campaign undertaken by the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao. The Great Leap Forward attempted to organize and structure the large rural populations in China—often by force—to reconcile the nation's industrial and agricultural needs with adequate production and supply. The CCP resorted to the Great Leap Forward as a result to the failure of the Soviet model for economic development and industrialization in China. Indeed, China could not acquire machinery, because its dense population and lack of agricultural surplus made it impossible for centralized agricultural production to yield sustainable profits or capital. Therefore, it was decided that industry and agriculture were to be developed simultaneously rather than one after the other. WHY: Following the fall of the Qing dynasty and the subsequent absence of direction provided by Chinese government, the Chinese lagged behind its Occidental competitors economically, militarily, and industrially. The CCP therefore wished to industrialize the country unorganically, in an accelerated process; the Great Leap Forward aimed to do this by accumulating capital and machinery in order to bypass the typically slow and gradual process of industrialization. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Following an experimental commune established in Henan in 1958, the system spread throughout the nation. Political decisions were decentralized and Maoist ideology was emphasized. Labor was strenuous and strictly regimented and organized. The failure of this system, due to implementation errors and natural disasters, caused widespread famine for three years. About 20 million people were estimated to have died of starvation from 1959 to 1962. The Cultural Revolution, many historians argue, was launched as a reaction to the failure of the Great Leap Forward.

Meiji Restoration

WHO: Japan and the West. WHEN: 1868; Meiji Period spanned from the latter half of the 19th century into early 20th century. WHERE: Japan. WHAT: The Meiji Restoration was a political shift in Japan, occurring in 1868, that brought about the end of the shogunate—or the rule by military warlords in the pursuit of national unification. The country indeed returned to direct imperial rule following a coup d'état against the last shogun. WHY: The presence of Western powers in Japan triggered a Japanese response that was different than the Chinese. Instead of attempting to stubbornly push for isolationism, the Japanese decided it would evaluate the West and the reasons for which it had become so powerful, and adopt certain aspects of its culture. The Meiji restoration was a part of this response, this attempt to restrengthen Japan. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The Meiji restoration was the beginning of a transformative revolution in Japan that led to its modernization. The nation decided to westernize in order to compete with foreign technology, trade, and military power. Restoring the imperial rule initiated the modernization of these sectors.

Fukuzawa Yukichi:

WHO: Japanese author, educator & publisher famous for the Meiji Restoration WHEN: b. 1835 - d. 1901; 1882 WHERE: Japan WHAT: led the struggle to introduce Western ideas in order to increase Japanese strength & independence; founded newspaper & wrote books advocating parliamentary government, popular education, language reform, women's rights WHY: the advent of Western imperial power in Japan HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: helped Japan modernize & helped people/ citizens get involved in the social & political structures of Japan

Indian National Congress

WHO: Organized by Allan Hume, led by Mahatma Gandhi. WHEN: Founded in 1885, strong influence in 1920s, independence granted in 1947. WHERE: India, United Kingdom. WHAT: The Indian National Congress conducted its first session in Bombay on December 1885 at the initiative of retired Civil service officer Allan Hume. Its aim was to obtain a greater share in government for educated Indians, and to create a platform for civic and political dialogue between them and the British Raj. By the early 1900's the congress was pushing for independence. WHY: It was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa. From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement, with over 15 million members and over 70 million participants. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The Congress was an unforeseen product of the education and civil service reforms of the 1858 in India. The Congress led India to independence from Great Britain, and powerfully influenced other anti-colonial nationalist movements in the British Empire. The Congress party in India still has powerful impact on politics.

Unequal Treaties

WHO: Qing Dynasty, Western powers. WHEN: Late 19th century, early 20th century. WHERE: China. WHAT: A series of treaties signed between China and the West, deemed unequal by the Chinese. The first of these, the Treaty of Nanjing (August 29, 1842) and the Treaty of the Brogue (October 8, 1843), opened the ports of Canton and Shanghai to trade with the West, and gave the British control of Hong Kong. Permitted by the introduction of opium into China, the signing of this treaties dismantled the strict commercial terms outlined by the Canton system, effectively opening up Eastern markets to the French, the British, and the Dutch. Signed in 1858, the Treaties of Tientsin further opened Chinese ports to foreign trade and permitted foreign legislation in the capital of Beijing. It also legalized missionary activity and the import of opium. WHY: Chinese markets were long isolated from the rest of the world, and the Chinese economy was self-sufficient. The Chinese needed very little, apart from specie, from the Occidental world. The West, on the other hand, had much to desire from Eastern markets: technology, trade goods, and more. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Until the 19th century, China remained an isolated world power. Not a single nation or empire could come close to competing with China until then. China thus remained closed on itself, restricting trade and movement in its territory. Their goods were constantly in demand, and thus they had immense power; they could trigger trade wars at their will, and made Europeans acknowledge their inferiority in order to conduct trade. The unequal treaties therefore mark the beginning of a change in world dominance. For the first time, the Chinese are involved in trade against their will, largely because of the large-scale introduction of opium into China. The unequal treaties contributed to the fall of the Qing dynasty, and thus indirectly created a power vacuum for Mao and the Red Army to gain prominence.

Crimean War

WHO: Russia, France, Great Britain, Ottoman Empire. WHEN: October 1853 to February 1856. WHERE: Crimean Peninsula. WHAT: The Crimean War was a conflict fought in the Crimean Peninsula over the rights of Christians (Catholic and Orthodox) living in Ottoman-controlled Palestine. The French defended the Roman Catholics while the Russians defended the Eastern Orthodox. The Turks, backed by France and Britain, took a firm stand against the Russians. On October 4, 1853, the Turks declared war on Russia, and on March 28 the following year, France and Britain did the same. Russia's loss was signed at the Treaty of Paris on February 1, 1856. WHY: Rights and privileges of different branches of Christianity in the Holy Land. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The Crimean War, given the large loss suffered by the Russians, awakened the Russian emperor Alexander II to the great progress that Russia needed to make in order to compete with European powers. This partly prompted the modernization and industrialization of Russia's economy and military.

Perestroika

WHO: Soviet Union; Mikhail Gorbachev. WHEN: Late 20th century, specifically the 1980s; first proposed in 1979. WHERE: Soviet Union. WHAT: The Russian word for "restructuring," Perestroika was a program devised by Soviet leader Gorbachev to reshape the political and economic policy of the Soviet Union. This entailed decentralizing focal points of financial controls and encouraging self-financing enterprises. WHY: Gorbachev aimed to reform the economic policy of the Soviet Union in order to compete with global capitalist powers like Germany, France, and the United States. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The Perestroika program marks a shift towards more liberal economic policy in the Soviet Union, modifying the command economy to create a more competitive socialist model. Gorbachev proposed greater economic liberty for local governments, reducing the Communist Party's influence over activity and production. This program was opposed by the economic bureaucracy, as it reduced its power over the country's economy. In parallel with glasnost, Gorbachev's "openness" and transparency policy, perestroika is often considered to have set the stage for the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Cuban Missile Crisis

WHO: United States, Soviet Union, Cuba. WHEN: Cold War; October of 1962. WHERE: Cuba. WHAT: In October of 1962, the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a 13-day confrontation concerning the Soviet decision, enacted by Nikita Khrushchev, to install a nuclear missile base in Cuba, just 90 miles from US shores. President John F. Kennedy, in a TV address on October 22, 1962, warned the American people that a nuclear war could be underway, making it evident that the United States was prepared to mobilize its military in the case of further threats to national security. WHY: The Soviets intended on building a military base in Cuba following the failed military invasion of Cuba, known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, and the presence of American nuclear weapons in Turkey and Italy. The USSR intended to dissuade any further attempts of invasion by implementing a military presence in Cuba. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The Cuban Missile Crisis is largely recognized as the closest the Cold War ever got to becoming an explicit military conflict. The Crisis was ended when Kennedy agreed not to invade Cuba, and secretly agreed to retract missiles from Turkey.

Difference b/w Existentialism, Nihilism, & Absurdism

Existentialism: the belief that through a combination of awareness, free will, and personal responsibility, one can construct their own meaning within a world that intrinsically has none of its own. Nihilism: the belief that not only is there no intrinsic meaning in the universe, but that it's pointless to try to construct our own as a substitute. Absurdism: the belief that a search for meaning is inherently in conflict with the actual lack of meaning, but that one should both accept this and simultaneously rebel against it by embracing what life has to offer.

Nazi-Soviet Pact:

On August 23, 1939-shortly before World War II (1939-45) broke out in Europe-enemies Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union surprised the world by signing the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, in which the two countries agreed to take no military action against each other for the next 10 years. With Europe on the brink of another major war, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) viewed the pact as a way to keep his nation on peaceful terms with Germany, while giving him time to build up the Soviet military. German chancellor Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) used the pact to make sure Germany was able to invade Poland unopposed. The pact also contained a secret agreement in which the Soviets and Germans agreed how they would later divide up Eastern Europe. The German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact fell apart in June 1941, when Nazi forces invaded the Soviet Union. Nazi Germany unilaterally terminated the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact at 03:15 on 22 June 1941 by launching a massive attack on the Soviet positions in eastern Poland which marked the beginning of the invasion of the Soviet Union known as Operation Barbarossa. Stalin had ignored several warnings that Germany was likely to invade, and ordered no 'full-scale' mobilization of forces although the mobilization was ongoing. After the launch of the invasion, the territories gained by the Soviet Union as a result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact were lost in a matter of weeks. Within six months, the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties, and three more million had been captured. The lucrative export of Soviet raw materials to Nazi Germany over the course of the Nazi-Soviet economic relations (1934-41) continued uninterrupted until the outbreak of hostilities. The Soviet exports in several key areas enabled Germany to maintain its stocks of rubber and grain from the first day of the invasion until October 1941.

OPEC

WHO: 14 member nations; Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. WHEN: Founded during the Baghdad Conference in September 1960. WHERE: Headquarters in Vienna, Austria. WHAT: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; an intergovernmental organization of 14 countries that accounts for 44% of global oil production. It was originally founded to counteract the monopoly of the "Seven Sisters," a group of seven multinational oil companies that dominated the oil market. WHY: The stated mission of OPEC is to "to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets, in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers, and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry." HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: OPEC played a diplomatic role in the Cold War, embodying the "cold," or nonmilitary, aspect of the conflict. On October 17, 1973, OPEC implemented an oil embargo on any nation that had supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. This created a dramatic recession in the United States, who—unlike the USSR—had allied itself with Israel in the conflict. Rising gasoline prices were incidentally disastrous for the American auto industry.

Yalta Conference

WHO: A meeting between Joseph Stalin, Winston Churchill and FDR WHEN: February 4-11, 1945 WHERE: Yalta, Crimea, USSR WHAT: the three leaders agreed to demand Germany's unconditional surrender and began plans for a post-war world. Stalin also agreed to permit free elections in Eastern Europe and to enter the Asian war against Japan, for which he was promised the return of lands lost to Japan in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. Although most of these agreements were initially kept secret, the revelations of the conference particulars became controversial after Soviet-American wartime cooperation degenerated into the Cold War. WHY: To determine the post-war world order, especially regarding war-torn Europe. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Had a major role in Europe's standing after the war such as the division of Germany into 4 parts. Additionally, Stalin backed out of many of the agreements made at the conference such free elections in captured territory (Stalin failed to keep his promise that free elections would be held in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. Instead, communist governments were established in all those countries, noncommunist political parties were suppressed, and genuinely democratic elections were never held), which helped create the Cold War. Many people believe that FDR sold out Eastern Europe during the conference.

Trench Warfare

WHO: Allied Powers (namely France, Great Britain, Russia), Central Powers (namely Germany, Austria-Hungary). WHEN: World War I (July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918). WHERE: Western Front; Luxembourg, Belgium, eastern border of France. WHAT: A type of land warfare that consisted of a large and intricate systems of trenches constructed along the Western Front. Battles were fought from the trenches. WHY: Trench warfare was a result of the development of the German machine gun, a great advancement in firepower technology that was unmatched by advances in transportation or mobility technology. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Because all battles were fought from the trenches, any attacks—even the most successful—only allowed the victorious camp to advance by a matter of meters. Trench warfare led to an enduring stalemate throughout much of the war, and was the cause of the numerous casualties that came as a price for marginal advances along the front. Conditions in the trenches were terrible; disease was widespread, food rations were minimal, and death was commonplace.

League of Nations

WHO: Almost 50 countries, most major powers except for the US and Russia. WHEN: First half of 20th century WHERE: Created in US by Wilson, codified at Versailles WHAT: The League of Nations was an international diplomatic group developed after World War I as a way to solve disputes between countries before they erupted into open warfare. A precursor to the United Nations, the League achieved some victories but had a mixed record of success, sometimes putting self-interest before becoming involved with conflict resolution, while also contending with governments that did not recognize its authority. The League effectively ceased operations during World War II. Congress did not ratify the treaty, and the United States refused to take part in the League of Nations. League efforts include the Geneva Protocol, devised in the 1920s to limit what is now understood as chemical and biological weaponry, and the World Disarmament Conference in the 1930s, which was meant to make disarmament a reality but failed after Adolf Hitler broke away from the conference and the League in 1933. WHY: The League of Nations has its origins in the Fourteen Points speech of President Woodrow Wilson, part of a presentation given in January 1918 outlining of his ideas for peace after the carnage of World War I. Wilson envisioned an organization that was charged with resolving conflicts before they exploded into bloodshed and warfare. The League was codified in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The United Nations was modeled after the League but with increased international support and extensive machinery to help the new body avoid repeating the League's failures.

Rotten Apple Theory

WHO: America; five member panel formed by Mayor John Lindsay WHEN: 1970 WHERE: New York City Police Department WHAT: Knapp Commission to Investigate Alleged Police Corruption; argues that deviant police officers brought undesirable traits into policing professions when they were hired; views police deviance as work of isolated individuals who evade detection during the screening and selection process WHY: creation of commission a result of publicity of police corruption made by Patrolman Frank Serpico & Sergeant David Durk HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: police department were accused of using this theory to minimize backlash against corruption

T.S. Eliot

WHO: American-English poet, playwright, literary critic, and editor, a leader of the Modernist movement in poetry WHEN: 20th century WHERE: America and England WHAT: Eliot exercised a strong influence on Anglo-American culture from the 1920s until late in the century. His experiments in diction, style, and versification revitalized English poetry, and in a series of critical essays he dismantled old orthodoxies and built new ones. The publication of Four Quartets led to his recognition as the greatest living English poet and man of letters, and in 1948 he was awarded both the Order of Merit and the Nobel Prize for Literature. WHY: HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Eliot was a significant influence on dozens, if not hundreds, of notable poets and writers to follow.

George Kennan

WHO: An American diplomat and historian best known for his successful advocacy of a "containment policy" to oppose Soviet expansionism following World War II. WHEN: 20th century WHERE: The world WHAT: Kennan suggested that the Russians were acutely sensitive to the logic of military force and would temporize or retreat in the face of skillful and determined Western opposition to their expansion. Kennan then advocated U.S. counterpressure wherever the Soviets threatened to expand and predicted that such counterpressure would lead either to Soviet willingness to cooperate with the United States or perhaps eventually to an internal collapse of the Soviet government. This view subsequently became the core of U.S. policy toward the Soviet Union. WHY: Kennan questioned the wisdom of the United States' attempts to conciliate and appease the Soviet Union. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Containment became the basis of US policy in the Cold War era and contributed to proxy conflicts like the wars in Vietnam and Korea.

Dadaism

WHO: An art movement of the European avant-garde. WHEN: Early 20th century. WHERE: Western European cities. WHAT: Developed in reaction to World War I, the Dada movement consisted of artists who rejected the logic, reason, and aestheticism of modern capitalist society, instead expressing nonsense, irrationality, and anti-bourgeois protest in their works. Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. Key figures in the movement included Hugo Ball, Marcel Duchamp and Emmy Hennings. WHY: It arose as a reaction to World War I and the nationalism that many thought had led to the war. Influenced by Voltarire's "Candide" and its mockery of idiocies of society. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Dadaism was the first conceptual art movement where the focus of the artists was not on crafting aesthetically pleasing objects but on making works that often upended bourgeois sensibilities and that generated difficult questions about society Dadaism was a precursor to surrealist art. The themes of accident and coincidence's value in art were celebrated by both groups.

Mustapha Kemal (Ataturk)

WHO: Atatürk was a Turkish nationalist leader and founder and first president of the republic of Turkey. WHEN: First half of 20th century WHERE: Turkey WHAT: He launched a programme of revolutionary social and political reform to modernise Turkey. These reforms included the emancipation of women, the abolition of all Islamic institutions and the introduction of Western legal codes, dress, calendar and alphabet, replacing the Arabic script with a Latin one. Abroad he pursued a policy of neutrality, establishing friendly relations with Turkey's neighbours. "Ataturk" means "Father of the Turks." WHY: In May 1919, Atatürk began a nationalist revolution in Anatolia, organising resistance to the peace settlement imposed on Turkey by the victorious Allies. In 1921, Atatürk established a provisional government in Ankara. The following year the Ottoman Sultanate was formally abolished and, in 1923, Turkey became a secular republic with Atatürk as its president. He established a single party regime that lasted almost without interruption until 1945. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Under Ataturk's leadership, the role of Islam in public life shrank drastically, European-style law codes came into being, the office of the sultan was abolished and new language and dress requirements were mandated. Atatürk's government had joined the League of Nations, improved literacy rates and given women the right to vote.

Sigmund Freud

WHO: Austrian psychoanalyst. WHEN: 1856-1939. WHERE: Austria, Germany WHAT: An Austrian physician who set up a practice to handle the condition of "hysteria". Published the Interoperation of Dreams in 1900 which was widely held in the field but now mostly discredited. Theories stressed the irrationality of the human condition. Not the first psychologist but the most popular. The field rose from a desire to understand the insane. WHY: His work inspired the practice of lifestyle counseling and behavior modification as an industry. Now psychology is a branch of medicine, mostly studying brain chemicals. Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater degree than people suspect. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: His work was in contrast to the current rigorous form of Victorian sexual morality across Europe whose sexual delicacy and frigidity is often caricatured. Inspired the artistic movement of surrealism with his work on human subconscious and its effects on behavior. The theory that dreams and myths were stronger influences than reality on artist work made a huge impression on creativity.

Existentialism

WHO: Camus, Sartre, Ionesco, Beckett, de Beauvoir, Heidegger... WHEN: Post-war period; second half of the 20th century. WHERE: Europe, most notably France. WHAT: The philosophical theory proposing that the individual simply exists in anxiety, with no real purpose, until he or she can bring meaning to life and live it passionately. It is up to the individual to find meaning to life and pursue it authentically. WHY: This philosophical current gained prominence following the world wars as a result of the widespread intellectual pessimism of the time. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Existentialism was an outcome of the world wars, and is a testimony to the psychological impacts of wartime atrocities on literature and philosophy. It gave way to a number of sub-genres, such as absurdism (spearheaded by Camus, who had in fact participated in the French Resistance), and numerous novels and plays that are considered central works of 20th century literature.

Fifth Republic:

WHO: Charles de Gaulle, WHEN: started in 1958 WHERE: France WHAT: system of government started following the constitution created by Charles de Gaulle; executive power increased at expense of National Assembly; 1959 CDG inaugurated as first president of Fifth Republic; 1962 CDG pushed a Constitutional Amendment that provided for direct popular election of president in 1965 he became first French president elected by popular election; WHY: triggered by Algiers Crisis of 1958 → Algeria wanted to separate from France but there were many pieds noirs that wanted to stay a part of France; CDG (who had retired from politics 10 years earlier) called on the nation to suspend government & create new constitutional system; parliament unable to choose a government, popular protests & inability to form political consensus regarding Algeria HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: replaced former parliamentary republic with semi-presidential (dual-executive) system that split power between Prime Minister and President

Cixi:

WHO: Chinese empress dowager & regent WHEN: 1861-1908 ruled the Chinese government in the Qing dynasty WHERE: China WHAT: supported technology & military reforms; self-strengthening movement (modernization program, necessary to adopt Western military technology & armaments to be competitive with the western world); schools were created for study of foreign languages; modern custom service instituted, Chinese foreign office installed WHY: she was an imperial concubine to Xiafeng Emperor; he died; she gave birth to a son who became the Tongzhi Emperor and she became the empress dowager after she overthrew the regency council of eight elders HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: maintained authority over Manchu imperial house -- became one of most powerful women in the history of China

Chiang Kai-shek

WHO: Chinese military and political leader who served as KMT leader beginning in 1925, expelling Chinese communists from the party and leading a successful unification of China. From 1949 until his death, Chiang led the KMT government in exile in Taiwan, which many countries continued to recognize as China's legitimate government. WHEN: 1920s-70s WHERE: China and Taiwan WHAT: Chiang led a successful military campaign against local warlords in northern China and consolidated control within his own party by expelling the Communists in a brutal coup in 1927. In 1928, he formed a new central government out of Nanking, with himself as head of state. Despite a professed focus on reform, Chiang's government concentrated on battling Communism within China as well as confronting Japanese aggression. When the Allies declared war on Japan in 1941, China took its place among the Big Four. Civil war broke out in 1946, ending in a victory by Mao Zedong's Communist forces and the creation of the People's Republic of China, after while Chiang led from exile. WHY: When uprisings against the ruling Qing (Manchu) dynasty broke out in China in 1911, Chiang returned home and joined the struggle, which ended in the overthrow of the Manchus and the formation of a Chinese republic. In 1918, he joined the Nationalist Party (KMT). HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Chiang's policies alienated peasants, which precipitated the rise of Mao (who appealed to the peasant masses). Upon his defeat by Mao, Chiang fled with the remnants of his Nationalist government to Taiwan. Backed by American aid, Chiang launched Taiwan on the path of economic modernization, and in 1955 the United States signed an agreement guaranteeing Taiwan's defense. Many countries continued to recognize Chiang's government in exile as the legitimate Chinese government, and it would control China's seat in the United Nations until Chiang's death.

Taiping Rebellion

WHO: Chinese rebels vs the Qing dynasty WHEN: 1850-1864 WHERE: China (especially Nanjing) WHAT: The Taiping Rebellion was a revolt against the Qing dynasty in China, fought with religious conviction over regional economic conditions, and lasting from 1850 to 1864. The Taiping forces were run as a cult-like group called the God Worshipping Society by self-proclaimed prophet Hong Xiuquan, and resulted in the rebels seizing the city of Nanjing for a decade. Hong preached an early form of communism that stressed sharing property, mixed with religious ideas and laws based on the 10 Commandments; his promise of free land brought in thousands more followers. The Taiping Rebellion eventually failed, however, and led to the deaths of more than 20 million people. Hong was found dead in May 1864, believed to have been poisoned, though it's unknown whether it was suicide or assassination. WHY: The violent First Opium War against Great Britain, fought from 1839 to 1842, ended with the Treaty of Nanjing that damaged imperial prestige and allowed the British many advantages. It had the side effect of allowing an influx of Christian missionaries into the country, contributing to Hong's Christian leanings. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The Taiping Rebellion is believed to have claimed between 20 million and 70 million lives, making it one of the deadliest conflicts in human history. The Qing dynasty was so weakened by the rebellion that it never again was able to establish an effective hold over the country. Both the Chinese communists and the Chinese Nationalists trace their origin to the Taipings.

Third World (Tiers Monde)

WHO: Coined by Alfred Sauvy. The Third World was normally seen to include many countries with colonial pasts in Africa, Latin America, Oceania and Asia. WHEN: Cold War Era, second half of 20th century WHERE: Africa, Latin America, Oceania and Asia WHAT: The term "Third World" arose during the Cold War to define countries that remained non-aligned with either NATO or the Communist Bloc. The name was a reference to the Third Estate, the commoners of France who, before and during the French Revolution, opposed the clergy and nobles, who composed the First Estate and Second Estate, respectively. WHY: This terminology provided a way of broadly categorizing the nations of the Earth into three groups based on political and economic divisions. The Cold War was so polarizing and globally dominant that a country's choice to support the US, USSR, or neither denoted its status. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Since the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the term Third World has been used less and less. It is being replaced with terms such as developing countries, least developed countries or the Global South. The concept itself has become outdated as it no longer represents the current political or economic state of the world.

Total War

WHO: Conceptualized by 19th-century Prussian military strategist Carl von Clausewitz WHEN: The two 20th-century world wars are usually regarded as total, or at least the most total of history's wars, although they were limited in numerous ways. WHERE: WHAT: Military conflict in which the contenders are willing to make any sacrifice in lives and other resources to obtain a complete victory, as distinguished from limited war. WHY: Throughout history, limitations on the scope of warfare have been more economic and social than political (territorial disputes do not generally lead to total war). The most deadly conflicts have been fought on ideological grounds in revolutions and civil and religious wars. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The fear of nuclear war during the COld War era severely inhibited the major powers in waging wars themselves, thus substituting deliberate restraint for the more impersonal economic/political constraints that limited warfare in the past.

Austria-Hungary

WHO: Emperor Franz Joseph 1 (1848-1916), Emperor Karl I (1916-1921), Archduke Franz Ferdinand. WHEN: 1867-1918. WHERE: Present-day Austria and Hungary. WHAT: Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in WWI. WHY: Austria-Hungary opposed Russian expansion into the west, and sought to profit from the timely weakness of the Ottoman Empire. After the Balkan War of 1878, Austria-Hungary had gained administrative control of Bosnia-Herzegovina, and it assumed sovereignty over the territory in 1908 following rising support for Bosnian ethnic nationalism in the Balkans. Russia, in particular, encouraged nationalism in the region following trade restrictions placed by Britain and Germany in the Bosporus. This caused intense diplomatic disagreements and negotiations for much of the months leading to WWI. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The roots of WWI lie in Austria-Hungary. Ethnic nationalist currents in the regions escalated throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, ultimately culminating in the assassination of the Archduke and heir to the throne, Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. While the war was of course attributable to numerous tensions and power struggles in the region, this incident is widely recognized as the trigger that initiated the conflict.

Virginia Woolf

WHO: English writer. WHEN: 1882-1941. WHERE: London, England. WHAT: Pushed to writing and education by her free thinking parents she was a part of a wave of Modernist writers. Part of the artistic collective Bloomsbury Group. Published novels in the interwar period. Her best-known works include the novels Mrs. Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse and Orlando (1928). Her poor mental health plagued her throughout her time, ending in her suicide in 1941. WHY: She was known for her use of inner monologue. She attempted to reveal the contradiction of modernity, practice liberal ethics and express socialist leanings. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Woolf became one of the central subjects of the 1970s movement of feminist criticism, and her works have since garnered much attention and widespread commentary for "inspiring feminism", an aspect of her writing that was unheralded earlier.

Theatre of the Absurd:

WHO: European & American dramatists (Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, Jean Genet, Arthur Adamov, Harold Pinter) WHEN: 1950s & early 60s WHERE: Europe & America WHAT: works of drama that argued that the human situation is essentially absurd, devoid of purpose → agreed with Albert Camus' existentialism; some shared a pessimistic vision of humanity struggling to find purpose & control its fate; humankind is left to feel hopeless, bewildered & anxious; did away with logical structure of traditional theatre; believe that death & after life are equally absurd; actions are pointless & everything will lead to same end WHY: aftermath of WWII provided social environment to stimulaate absurd views for popular development especially in France HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: innovations were absorbed into mainstream of theatre

Algeciras Conference

WHO: European Powers, notably France, Germany, and Britain, and the United States. WHEN: January to April, 1906. WHERE: Algeciras, Spain. WHAT: A conference convened in Algeciras in 1906. It aimed to settle the debate concerning the diplomatic and political status of Morocco, a territory that the French government had deemed a target for expansion. Germany opposed such expansion, not out of an anticolonial sentiment but rather due to competitive motives of glory and prestige. WHY: The Algeciras Conference was originally convened to address the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905 between Germany and France, which concerned the fate of Moroccan sovereignty and conflicts between German and French expansion. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The Algeciras Conference was an important precursor to the First World War. Indeed, it reinforced the Entente Cordiale (signed two years prior) between France and Britain, which provided British support for French control of Morocco. This strengthened their alliance and creating a more pronounced opposition with Germany. The conference also brought about widespread frustration in Germany—among the press, the political parties, and the public—which laid the groundwork for war in Germany.

Gadget Revolution:

WHO: Europeans/ Americans WHEN: late 1950s- late 1970s WHERE: the West, America, Europe WHAT: use of war technology to create a better life for people; the spreading of technology to the household including items such as washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TV's & stereos WHY: developments in wartime in synthetics & rubber; leisure & recreation increased; expansion of social security reduced the need to accumulate savings for hard times HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: marked the beginning of the digital revolution; led to the rise of the military industrial complex/ military technological complex; increased living standards; purchase of consumer goods increased

Information Age

WHO: Everyone WHEN: mid-20th century to today WHERE: the West WHAT: A period in human history characterized by the shift from traditional industry that the Industrial Revolution brought through industrialization, to an economy based on information technology. The onset of the Information Age is associated with the Digital Revolution, just as the Industrial Revolution marked the onset of the Industrial Age. In a commercialized society, the information industry is able to allow individuals to explore their personalized needs, therefore simplifying the procedure of making decisions for transactions and significantly lowering costs for both the producers and buyers. WHY: The Information Age formed by capitalizing on computer microminiaturization advances. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: This evolution of technology in daily life and social organization has led to the fact that the modernization of information and communication processes has become the driving force of social evolution. It has created a situation in which workers who perform easily automated tasks are forced to find work that is not easily automated, being replaced by computers that can do their jobs faster and more effectively. This has generated increased opportunity in developing countries and the globalisation of the workforce.

Corporatism

WHO: Fascist Italy; Benito Mussolini WHEN: 1922-1943 WHERE: Italy WHAT: the theory of organizing society into "corporations" subordinate to the state; workers & employers would be organized into industrial & professional corporations serving as organs of political representation & controlling the persons & activities within their jurisdiction; mostly talked about in the context of Italy WHY: aim to adopt corporatism was to strengthen Mussolini's claim to nationalism at the expense of the left wing of the centrist parties & the right wing of the syndicalists (advocate direct action by working class to abolish capitalist order and establish workers organized in production units); corporatism was viewed as a useful form of social organization that could provide vehicle for broad-based & socially harmonious class participation in economic production HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Corporatism in fascist Italy reflected the will of the country's dictator, Mussolini, rather than the adjusted interests of economic groups

Bloody Sunday

WHO: Father Gapon; industrial workers WHEN: 1905 WHERE: St. Petersburg, Russia WHAT: unarmed demonstrators led by Father Gapon were fired upon by soldiers of the Imperial Guard as they marched towards Winter Palace to present petition to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to elevate the moral & religious status of the workers & demand need for food→ Gapon's work acted as a union for the workers in St. Petersburg WHY: industrial workers began to organize after having been emancipated as serfs and experiencing the conditions of the factory; police agents wanting to prevent the Labor Movement from being dominated by revolutionary influences formed labor unions & encouraged workers to concentrate on making economic gains rather than engaging in political & social problems HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: provoked public outrage at Tsarist autocracy; series of massive strikes that spread to industrial centers of Russian Empire; considered the beginning of the active phase of the Revolution of 1905 & eventually the 1917 Revolution; Tsar ends the Russo-Japanese war & accepts concessions; establishes the duma; attempts to restore civil liberties

Alexander II

WHO: Former tsar/emperor of Russia who instituted rapid modernization. WHEN: 1855-81 WHERE: Russia WHAT: His liberal education and distress at the outcome of the Crimean War, which had demonstrated Russia's backwardness, inspired him toward a great program of domestic reforms, the most important being the emancipation (1861) of the serfs (others included the expansion of railroads and judicial reform). A period of repression after 1866 led to a resurgence of revolutionary terrorism and to Alexander's own assassination. WHY: Liberal education and the (negative) outcome of the Crimean War HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The modernization of Russian institutions, though piecemeal, was extensive. In Alexander's reign, Russia built the base needed for emergence into capitalism and industrialization later in the century. At the same time, Russian expansion, especially in Asia, steadily gathered momentum, paving the way for the later phases of Russian imperialism in Asia..

New Youth

WHO: Founded by Chen Duxiu WHEN: Founded in September, 1915. Beginning with the issue of September 1, 1920, La Jeunesse began to openly support the communist movement in Shanghai. And with the June 1923 issue, it became the official Chinese Communist Party theoretical journal. WHERE: China - Founded in Shanghai but moved to Beijing WHAT: Being influenced by the 1917 Russian October Revolution, La Jeunesse increasingly began to promote Marxism and its philosophy. The trend accelerated after the departure of Hu Shih who later became the Republic of China (non-communist) Education Minister. Beginning with the issue of September 1, 1920, La Jeunesse began to openly support the communist movement in Shanghai. And with the June 1923 issue, it became the official Chinese Communist Party theoretical journal. It was shut down in 1926 by the Nationalist Government. La Jeunesse influenced thousands of Chinese youngsters including many leaders of the Chinese Communist Party. WHY: Supported and published Communist ideology and introduced it to Chinese youths on a massive scale. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: played an important role in initiating the New Culture Movement and spreading the influence of the May Fourth Movement.

Nasser

WHO: Gamal Abdel Nasser WHEN: 1950s, Suez Crisis 1956 WHERE: Egypt WHAT: In 1956, 99.95 percent of Egyptian voters elected Gamal Abdel Nasser as the first president of the Republic of Egypt. Nasser, who toppled the Egyptian monarchy in 1952 in a military coup, was the only presidential candidate on the ballot. In the same ballot, Nasser's new constitution, under which Egypt became a one-party socialist state with Islam as the official religion, was approved by 99.8 percent of voters. Nasser ruled as an effective and popular leader and promulgated a new constitution that made Egypt a socialist Arab state, consciously nonaligned with the prevalent communist and democratic-capitalist systems of the Cold War world. Nasser nationalized the British and French-owned Suez Canal, intending to use tolls to pay for a high dam project. At the end of October 1956, Israel, Britain, and France attacked Egypt in a joint operation. The Suez Canal was occupied, but Soviet and U.N. pressure forced Israel, Britain, and France to withdraw, and the Suez Canal was left in Egyptian hands in 1957. WHY: Nasser faced a major crisis when the United States and Great Britain reversed their decision to finance a high dam on the Nile River in light of an Egyptian arms agreement with the USSR. In response, Nasser nationalized the British and French-owned Suez Canal. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Nasser's Aswan High Dam was completed with Soviet assistance, providing a major boost to the Egyptian economy. His economic policies and land reforms improved the quality of life for many Egyptians, and women were granted many rights during his tenure. His ascendance ended 2,300 years of rule by foreigners and monarchs, and his independent policies won him respect not just in Egypt but throughout the world.

Zimmermann Telegram

WHO: German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmermann WHEN: 1917 WHERE: Germany, US, Mexico WHAT: A message from the German foreign secretary, Arthur Zimmermann, to the German ambassador to Mexico proposing a Mexican-German alliance in the case of war between the United States and Germany. The message was intercepted and deciphered by British intelligence in January 1917. Zimmermann instructed the ambassador, Count Johann von Bernstorff, to offer significant financial aid to Mexico if it agreed to enter any future U.S-German conflict as a German ally. If victorious in the conflict, Germany also promised to restore to Mexico the lost territories of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson learned of the telegram's contents on February 26; the next day he proposed to Congress that the U.S. should start arming its ships against possible German attacks. WHY: Germany sought Mexico's support in case of a war with the US HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Germany had already aroused Wilson's ire—and that of the American public—with its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare and its continued attacks against American ships. Public opinion in the United States now swung firmly toward American entrance into World War I. On April 2, Wilson went before Congress to deliver a message of war. The United States formally entered the conflict four days later. The decryption was described as the most significant intelligence triumph for Britain during World War I, and one of the earliest occasions on which a piece of signals intelligence influenced world events.

Munich Conference

WHO: Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy WHEN: 1938 WHERE: Europe, Munich WHAT: permitted German annexation of Sudetenland in western Czechoslovakia in exchange for peace in the rest of Europe, three million people in Sudetenland were of German origin WHY: to avoid a world war in Europe - Czechoslovakia was allied with France & the Soviet Union & Great Britain HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: when Hitler annexed the remainder of Czechoslovakia and invaded Poland he broke the agreement and WWII began; became a symbol of the futility of appeasing expansionist totalitarian states through treaties; buyed the Allies time to increase their military preparedness

Harry Truman

WHO: Harry Truman WHEN: Lived: 1884-1972, President: 1945-1953 WHERE: United States WHAT: Truman made the decision to use the atomic bomb against Japan, helped rebuild postwar Europe, worked to contain communism and led the United States into the Korean War (1950-1953). WHY: Forced to handle the end of World War II and the rising power of the Soviet Union (at the origins of the Cold War) HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: During Truman's initial months in office, the war in Europe ended when the Allies accepted Nazi Germany's surrender on May 8; the United Nations charter was signed; and the president participated in the Potsdam Conference to discuss postwar treatment of Germany with Great Britain's Winston Churchill (1874-1965) and the Soviet Union's Joseph Stalin (1878-1953). In an effort to end the war in the Pacific and prevent the massive U.S. casualties that could result from an invasion of Japan, Truman approved the dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (on August 6) and Nagasaki (on August 9). Japan's surrender was announced on August 14, 1945; however, Truman's use of the atomic bomb continues to be one of the most controversial decisions of any American president. In the aftermath of the war, the Truman administration had to contend with deteriorating U.S.-Soviet relations and the start of the Cold War (1946-1991). The president adopted a policy of containment toward Soviet expansion and the spread of communism. In 1947, he introduced the Truman Doctrine to provide aid to Greece and Turkey in an effort to protect them from communist aggression. That same year, Truman also instituted the Marshall Plan, which gave billions of dollars in aid to help stimulate economic recovery in European nations. (The president defended the plan by stating that communism would thrive in economically depressed regions.) In 1948, Truman initiated an airlift of food and other supplies to the Western-held sectors of Berlin, Germany, that were blockaded by the Soviets. He also recognized the new state of Israel.

Night of the Long Knives

WHO: Hitler WHEN: June 1934 WHERE: Germany WHAT: blood purge of Nazi leaders by Hitler & Heinrich Himmler's SS forces that were perceived as opponents to the regime, last chancellor of Weimar republic, Ernst Rohm (leader of SA); at least 85 people died but high estimates run from 700-1000 WHY: Hitler feared that the paramilitary SA (street fighters) was getting too strong; Rohm wanted to merge the SA with the regular army & continuously called for a "second revolution" to redistribute wealth that scared Hitler HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: German generals agreed to merge the office of the president of the Right and the supreme head of the armed forces with that of chancellor aka Hitler; Hitler became head of state, commander in chief & leader of the only political party; provided legal grounding for Nazi regime as German courts ignored legal prohibition against extrajudicial killings to demonstrate loyalty to the regime

Ho Chi Minh

WHO: Ho Chi Minh WHEN: Lived 1890-1969, Founded the Indochina Communist Party in 1930, President of Vietnam: 1945-1969 WHERE: Indochina/Vietnam WHAT: Leader of Vietnamese Communist Forces/ Communist North Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh led the Vietnamese nationalist movement for more than three decades, fighting first against the Japanese, then the French colonial power and then the US-backed South Vietnamese. He was President of North Vietnam from 1954 until his death. At the end of World War Two the Viet Minh announced Vietnamese independence. The French refused to relinquish their colony and in 1946, war broke out. After eight years of war, the French were forced to agree to peace talks in Geneva. The country was split into a communist north and non-communist south and Ho became president of North Vietnam. He was determined to reunite Vietnam under communist rule. By the early 1960s, North Vietnamese-backed guerrillas, the Vietcong, were attacking the South Vietnamese government. Fearing the spread of communism, the United States provided increasing levels of support to South Vietnam. By 1965, large numbers of American troops were arriving and the fighting escalated into a major conflict. WHY: essentially sought to create a Communist Vietnam and fought for Vietnamese reunification and independence from the French and later the U.S. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: He helped found the Indochinese Communist Party in 1930 and the League for the Independence of Vietnam, or Viet Minh, in 1941. At World War II's end, Viet Minh forces seized the northern Vietnamese city of Hanoi and declared a Democratic State of Vietnam (or North Vietnam) with Ho as president. Hồ Chí Minh led the Việt Minh independence movement from 1941 onward, establishing the Communist-ruled Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 and defeating the French Union in 1954 at the battle of Điện Biên Phủ. He would serve in that position for the next 25 years, becoming a symbol of Vietnam's struggle for unification during a long and costly conflict with the strongly anti-Communist regime in South Vietnam and its powerful ally, the United States.

Samuel Beckett

WHO: Irish writer who wrote in English & France WHEN: b. 1906 - d. 1989; wrote Waiting for Godot in 1952 WHERE: Ireland, France WHAT: Waiting for Godot - play in which two characters wait for the arrival of someone named Godot who never arrives WHY: post WWII feeling of existentialism & what happens when human existence has no meaning or purpose and therefore all communication breaks down; logical construction & argument gives way to irrational & illogical speech and eventually silence HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: seen as an allegory of the Cold War or of the French Resistance to the Germans; a metaphor for Ireland's view of mainland Britain; the epitome of the theater of the absurd (life is absurd/ pointless); awarded Nobel Prize for Literature

Balfour Declaration

WHO: It was made in a letter from Arthur James Balfour, the British foreign secretary, to Lionel Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild (of Tring), a leader of British Jewry. It concerned Palestinians and Israelis. WHEN: 1917 WHERE: Palestine/Britain WHAT: A statement of British support for "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people", aka the establishment of an independent Israeli state. It was seen as a betrayal by the Arabs who had fought alongside the British. The Balfour Declaration was endorsed by the principal Allied powers and was included in the British mandate over Palestine, formally approved by the newly created League of Nations. WHY: Britain's support for the Zionist movement came from its concerns regarding the direction of the First World War. Aside from a genuine belief in the righteousness of Zionism, held by Lloyd George among others, Britain's leaders hoped that a statement supporting Zionism would help gain Jewish support for the Allies. They hoped also that the settlement in Palestine of a pro-British Jewish population might help to protect the approaches to the Suez Canal in neighbouring Egypt and thus ensure a vital communication route to British colonial possessions in India. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The influence of the Balfour Declaration on the course of post-war events was immediate: According to the "mandate" system created by the Versailles Treaty of 1919, Britain was entrusted with the administration of Palestine, with the understanding that it would work on behalf of both its Jewish and Arab inhabitants. Eventually, an independent Israel was founded in 1948.

Tito

WHO: Josip Broz Tito was a Yugoslav communist revolutionary and statesman. He was secretary-general (later president) of the Communist Party (League of Communists) of Yugoslavia, and president (1953-80) of Yugoslavia. Tito was the chief architect of the "second Yugoslavia," a socialist federation that lasted from World War II until 1991. He was the first Communist leader in power to defy Soviet hegemony, a backer of independent roads to socialism (sometimes referred to as "national communism"), and a promoter of the policy of nonalignment between the two hostile blocs in the Cold War. WHEN: 20th century (died in 1980) WHERE: Yugoslavia WHAT: During World War II, he was the leader of the Partisans, often regarded as the most effective resistance movement in occupied Europe. While his presidency has been criticized as authoritarian and concerns about the repression of political opponents have been raised, some historians consider him a benevolent dictator. He was a popular public figure both in Yugoslavia and abroad. Viewed as a unifying symbol, his internal policies maintained the peaceful coexistence of the nations of the Yugoslav federation. WHY: Tito was faced with a choice: either continue the Westward course and give up one-party dictatorship or seek reconciliation with a somewhat reformed new Soviet leadership. Tito came to conceive of his internal and foreign policy as being equidistant from both blocs. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: He preached peaceful coexistence but built an army that, in 1991, delivered the coup de grâce to the dying Yugoslav state. At his death, the state treasury was empty and political opportunists unchecked. He died too late for constructive change, too early to prevent chaos.

Peronism:

WHO: Juan and Evita Peron (president from 1946-1952, 1952-1955, 1973-1974). WHEN: latter half of the 20th century WHERE: Argentina WHAT: political movement of a blend of nationalism and labourism; three flags of social justice, economic independence, political sovereignty; rejects capitalism & communism; adopts corporatism state responsible for compromising conflict b/w managers & workers; strongest support from working class & unions; authoritarian & populist ideology; silenced dissent; anti-imperialism & non-alignment; social security, low income housing projects WHY: gained power under previous presidency working with the labor department - led to increased popularity with labor workers HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: people from the Peronist party have ruled for the past 12 years; Evita Peron was loved by the masses (raise millions in funds to build orphanages, shelters for working women, children's hospitals, schools etc)

Globalism

WHO: Large global economies; entire world. WHEN: Since first migration of Homo sapiens; historians talk about several waves of globalism, but the final (and most dramatic) wave began in 1950 and continues until today. WHERE: The entire world. WHAT: Globalism, and globalization (the process by which globalism occurs), is the interconnection of people, of ideas, and of ideology enabled by technology. It eliminates the possibility for isolationism, and gives rise to a near-global economy. WHY: Globalization has largely been permitted by the continuous development of new technologies. Transportation technology, of course, permits mass movements of people, but information technology has much more rapidly accelerated the movement of ideas and information across large distances. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Globalism has had a number of consequences on the modern world. For one thing, it has transformed the world economy, branching together previously disconnected financial systems and unifying them under a single world market. Secondly, it has permitted cultural exchange and diversity. Some aspects of globalism have been detrimental, however, both on a local and a global scale. Critiques of American global expansion, for instance, denounce the United States of excluding less wealthy nations by forming large blocks and signing deals that favor a handful of wealthy nations (e.g. OPEC deal, dollar regime). Globalism has also contributed to rising nationalist tensions in countries where migration has been unwelcome, creating political divides and heightening xenophobic currents in Europe and the United States.

Kaiser Wilhelm II

WHO: Last Kaiser of Germany (German Emperor, King of Prussia). WHEN: 1859-1941; ruled from June 1888 to November 1918. WHERE: Germany, Prussia. WHAT: When Wilhelm II became Kaiser in 1888, he forced Bismarck to resign as Chancellor of Germany, with whom he disagreed on foreign policy; he found Bismarck to be too conservative and careful. This began his project of German expansion, his so-called New Course, to ensure its "place in the sun," and ultimately brought about the First World War. Wilhelm II was known for his nationalism and his temper, causing him to make decisions based on emotions and impulse. WHY: HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: One of the most influential and recognizable figures of World War I, Wilhelm II led Germany into WWI. He was heavily criticized for a number of blunders and general incompetence before the break of the war, but was opposed to the mobilization of German troops following the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and other crises and tensions in Europe at the time. He was not very influential during the war, as the German Empire was largely governed by military leaders von Hindenburg and Ludendorff during this time.

Lenin

WHO: Lenin was the founder of the Russian Communist Party, leader of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, and the architect, builder, and first head of the Soviet Union. WHEN: Early 20th century. WHERE: The Soviet Union/Russia WHAT: Sought to co-opt the peasants and bring peace to the countryside ("Peace, Land, Bread"), introduces the idea of the party, radicalizes workers (Soviets). Lenin believed that the revolution must be led by the proletariat. Following the deposition of the tsar, Lenin called for a Soviet government, one that would be ruled directly by soldiers, peasants and workers. Lenin led the October Revolution (essentially a coup) and launched what came to be known as the Red Terror, a vicious campaign Lenin used to eliminate the opposition within the civilian population. Once in power, Lenin faced widespread discontent leftover from the civil war he helped to instigate. To ease the tension, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy, which allowed workers to sell their grain on the open market. WHY: Lenin was greatly influenced by and followed the teachings of Karl Marx. Class conflicts in Russia and anti-peasant bias contributed to his revolutionary leanings. Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese war put a strain on the country's domestic budget, and citizens from all walks of life began to vocalize their discontent over the country's political structure and called for reform (exacerbated by the St. Petersburg Massacre). HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: "Leninism," the doctrine codified and conjoined with Karl Marx's works by Lenin's successors to form Marxism-Leninism, became the Communist worldview. Lenin has been regarded as both the greatest revolutionary leader and revolutionary statesman in history, as well as the greatest revolutionary thinker since Marx. Lenin did follow through on the peace part of his slogan, ending the war with Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

WHO: Lenin; Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire. WHEN: March 3, 1918. WHERE: Brest-Litovsk, Soviet Union. WHAT: The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a treaty that marked Russian withdrawal from WWI. In the treaty, Bolshevik Russia gave up the Baltic states to the German Empire, recognized the independence of Ukraine, and ceded certain provinces to the Ottomans. The terms of the treaty, established by the Germans, were extremely harsh on the Russians. WHY: Lenin signed the treaty, despite the large loss of Russian territory, in order to restore peace in Soviet Russia after years of conflict and war. He saw it as a way of delivering on at least part of his slogan: "Peace, Land, Bread." HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Russian withdrawal from WWI did not bring peace to the country for very long, as the Russian Revolution escalated to become a violent internal conflict. In signing this treaty, Russia was implicitly helping the German war effort by eliminating the burden of an eastern opponent. This represented a betrayal of the Allied cause, and historians have argued that it helped create the foundations for the Cold War. The treaty also increased division within Russia, as many saw it as an attack on national dignity. Less significantly, the draconian Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was used to justify the harsh terms imposed on Germany in the Treaty of Versailles a year later.

Maoism:

WHO: Mao Zedong WHEN: 1950-1970s WHERE: China WHAT: political theory defined by the revolutionary force of the peasantry rather than the proletariat; guerilla warfare by rural populations against established institutions; national liberation in third world countries (anti-imperialist); party cannot be separate from popular masses; agrarian socialism; emphasizes the martial spirit WHY: China was weak & divided; national problems with the reunification of China & expulsion of foreign occupiers; disillusionment with Confucianism; radical anti-imperialist feeling HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: became the defining policy of the Communist Party; implementation of Maoist thought led to 70 million deaths during peacetime due to famines (land reforms) and other campaigns (see below); by the 1940s Mao had revolutionized & "proletarianized" the peasantry; violent nature of Maoism and inability to achieve economic growth led to new emphasis on education & management professionalism after Mao death; by 1980s Maoism was mostly a symbol for the late leader; rebels in Nepal & India that have engaged in guerilla warfare cite Maoism as a main influence

Marie Curie:

WHO: Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, in Physics, and with her later win, in Chemistry, she became the first person to claim Nobel honors twice. WHEN: 1867-1934 WHERE: Poland, France WHAT: Curie's efforts, with her husband Pierre Curie, led to the discovery of polonium, radium and the further development of X-rays. WHY: Inspired by Henri Becquerel's discovery of radioactivity HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Marie Curie made many breakthroughs in her lifetime. Remembered as a leading figure in science and a role model for women, she has received numerous posthumous honors. Several educational and research institutions and medical centers bear the Curie name. Her discovery of radioactivity contributed to the development of x-rays (called "little Curies" in the field during WWI), which forever altered the course and efficiency of medicine. Curie had massive influence on subsequent generations of nuclear physicists and chemists.

Vichy France:

WHO: Marshal Philippe Petain WHEN: July 1940-September 1944 WHERE: Southern part of metropolitan France & French colonial empire WHAT: represented the "free zone" during WWII; Paris remained the de jure capital of France but the government chose to relocate to Vichy become the de facto capital; France operated as a de facto client state of Nazi Germany; WHY: defeat of France by Germans; Franco-German Armistice divided France into two zones: one under German military occupation & one left to France in full sovereignty; Petain ordered military representatives to sign armistice with Germany & established an authoritarian regime when the National Assembly granted him full powers; HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Third Republic was dissolved; Vichy government tightened supervision of economy & labor unions came under tight government control; independence of women reversed; media tightly controlled & stressed anti-semitism & anti-Bolshevism; Germany kept 2 million French soldiers hostage to ensure that Vichy would reduce military forces, pay heavy tribute in gold & supplies to Germany

Pancho Villa

WHO: Mexican revolutionary and Civil War general. WHEN: 1878-1923; most influential around 1910 to 1920. WHERE: Mexico. WHAT: Raised on a large and wealthy hacienda in Northern Mexico in 1910, he became the leader of a land reform movement upset with the regime of President Diaz. At the time 50% of Mexicans worked on estates and 20% of land was foreign owned. Villa lead a revolt against Diaz in unison with other provincial revolutionaries. After Diaz resigned, he was also involved in a struggle for political control of Mexico in it's Civil War in 1914. His role in the long struggle for constitutional reform ended in 1917 with a new constitution with land reform, labor codes, and secular public schooling. He retired to a large farm in Northern Mexico where he was assassinated in 1923. WHY: His support of Madero in the struggle for reform insured the success of the Mexican revolution. His ability to step away from power in the revolutionary struggle is rare in the post-colonial wave. Led an attack on Columbus, Texas in 1916 which killed 18 Americans. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: He was posthumously honored as a hero of revolutionary causes. Allowed entertainment to promote his image and even film battles.

Mohandas Gandhi

WHO: Mohandas Gandhi WHEN: Lived: 1869-1948, Mostly involved in his movements during the 1920s-1940s WHERE: India WHAT: an Indian activist who was the leader of the Indian independence movement against British rule. Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. he set about organising peasants, farmers, and urban labourers to protest against excessive land-tax and discrimination. Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for various social causes and for achieving Swaraj or self-rule. Gandhi famously led Indians in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt March in 1930, and later in calling for the British to Quit India in 1942. WHY: Fought for Indian Independence from Great Britain. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Revered the world over for his nonviolent philosophy of passive resistance. He began his activism as an Indian immigrant in South Africa in the early 1900s, and in the years following World War I became the leading figure in India's struggle to gain independence from Great Britain. Known for his ascetic lifestyle-he often dressed only in a loincloth and shawl-and devout Hindu faith, Gandhi was imprisoned several times during his pursuit of non-cooperation, and undertook a number of hunger strikes to protest the oppression of India's poorest classes, among other injustices. After Partition in 1947, he continued to work toward peace between Hindus and Muslims.

FLN

WHO: National Liberation Front; the armed wing during the war was the National Liberation Army (ALN) WHEN: 1954-now WHERE: Algeria WHAT: directed the Algerian war of independence (1954-1962) against France; in 1956 it was reorganized to resemble a provisional government (5 member executive boy & legislative body) becoming a socialist political party; as a political party it promoted socialist-Islamic ideology WHY: created by Revolutionary Committee of Unity and Action (young Algerian militants) that sought to reconcile warring faction of nationalist movement & wage war against French colonial powers HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: considered responsible for >16,000 Algerian civilians

Friedrich Nietzsche

WHO: Nietzsche was a German classical scholar, philosopher, and critic of culture, who became one of the most-influential of all modern thinkers. His attempts to unmask the motives that underlie traditional Western religion, morality, and philosophy deeply affected generations of theologians, philosophers, psychologists, poets, novelists, and playwrights. WHEN: Second half of 19th century WHERE: Germany, Switzerland WHAT: Prominent elements of his philosophy include his radical critique of truth in favor of perspectivism; his genealogical critique of religion and Christian morality, and his related theory of master-slave morality. WHY: Much of Nietzsche's work is considered a reaction to the increasingly "slave" society and loss of individuality. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Although Nietzsche was an ardent foe of nationalism, anti-Semitism, and power politics, his name was later invoked by fascists to advance the very things he loathed. By World War I, Nietzsche had acquired a reputation as an inspiration for both right-wing German militarism and leftist politics. The history of philosophy, theology, and psychology since the early 20th century is unintelligible without him.

Otto Von Bismarck

WHO: Otto Von Bismarck WHEN: Lived: 1815-1898, Served as Prussian Prime Minister: 1862-1890 WHERE: Prussia/Germany WHAT: Germany's Prime Minister and essentially the founder of the German Empire. WHY: Wanted to unify and later strengthen Germany in world standing/power through masterful diplomacy. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Bismarck initiated decisive wars with Denmark, Austria and France to unite 39 independent German states under Prussian leadership (With all this territory now in Prussian control and its borders secure, Bismarck declared the German Empire in 1871, crowning the King of Prussia, Wilhelm I, as Kaiser of Germany). Although an arch-conservative, Bismarck introduced progressive reforms—including universal male suffrage and the establishment of the first welfare state—in order to achieve his goals. He manipulated European rivalries to make Germany a world power, but in doing so laid the groundwork for both World Wars. In the 1880s Bismarck set aside his conservative impulses to counter the socialists by creating Europe's first modern welfare state, establishing national healthcare (1883), accident insurance (1884) and old age pensions (1889). Bismarck also hosted the 1885 Berlin Conference that ended the "Scramble for Africa," dividing the continent between the European powers and establishing German colonies in Cameroon, Togoland and East and Southwest Africa.

Paul Valery

WHO: Paul Valery was a French poet, essayist, and philosopher. WHEN: 1871-1945 WHERE: France WHAT: He represented France on cultural matters at the League of Nations, and he served on several of its committees. During World War II, the Vichy regime stripped him of some of these jobs and distinctions because of his quiet refusal to collaborate with Vichy and the German occupation, but Valéry continued, throughout these troubled years, to publish and to be active in French cultural life, especially as a member of the Académie française. WHY: After his election to the Académie française in 1925, Valéry became a tireless public speaker and intellectual figure in French society, touring Europe and giving lectures on cultural and social issues as well as assuming a number of official positions eagerly offered to him by an admiring French nation. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Valéry was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 12 different years. He founded the (still operational) Collège International de Cannes, a private institution teaching French language and civilization.

Vatican II:

WHO: Pope John the 23rd WHEN: October 1962 - December 1965 WHERE: Saint Peter's Basilica WHAT: ecumenical council that addressed relations between the Catholic Church and the modern world; calls for the liberalization of the Church WHY: bishops faced challenges driven by political, social, economic & technological change; theological & biblical studies in the 1950s in the Catholic Church had begun to sway away from biblical literalism with a reaction to Catholic modernism; HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: renewal of consecrated life with a revism charism (supernatural graces individual Christians need to fulfill the mission of the Church), efforts towards dialogue with other religions; universal call to holiness; used of vernacular languages instead of Latin; abbreviation of liturgical calendar; reivions of Eucharistic prayers; http://theprogressivecatholicvoice.blogspot.com/2013/06/lasting-achievements-of-second-vatican.html

Porfiriato:

WHO: Porfirio Díaz, soldier and president of Mexico (1877-80, 1884-1911), who established a strong centralized state that he held under firm control for more than three decades. WHEN: 1876-1911 WHERE: Mexico WHAT: The 35 year regime of Porfirio Díaz, an orderly and systematic government with a military spirit. He succeeded in destroying local and regional leadership until the majority of public employees answered directly to him. Even the legislature was composed of his friends, and the press was muffled. He also maintained tight control over the courts. WHY: Porfirio Diaz came into power in the 1870s as a leftist via military coup. Mobilizes the poor (populism) by promising to modernize, bring democracy, redistribute land; doesn't do any of these things. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: When Díaz came to power, the Mexican government was in debt and had very little cash reserves. Therefore, he enthusiastically encouraged investment by foreigners. Conditions were made so advantageous to the suppliers of capital that Mexican industries and workers alike suffered. Foreigners controlled majority of infrastructure and business, profits go to other countries (Britain and France), there was a decline in local production, massive inflation, massive unemployment, and a rise in food prices following switch to cash-crop (wheat) production. Meanwhile, a new generation, which could recall none of the chaos of the days before Porfirio Díaz took charge, began to question the system. As criticism increased, so did repression. This unique confluence of circumstances precipitated the great Mexican Revolution of 1910.

Mexican Constitution of 1917

WHO: Post-Revolution Mexican President Venustiano Carranza and an elected Constitutional Convention (most of whom did not fight in the Revolution) WHEN: 1917, after 7 years of Revolution WHERE: Querétaro, Mexico WHAT: The constitution completely reversed the concept widely held in Mexico that government should take only a limited, passive role. Promises the restoration of lands to native peoples, the separation of church and state, and dramatic economic and educational reforms. The progressive political document, approved by an elected constitutional convention, combined revolutionary demands for land reform with advanced social theory. WHY: With most of central and southern Mexico under Constitutionalist control, Carranza in 1916 convoked a constituent congress in Querétaro to revise and update the constitution of 1857. In the course of fighting, the economic and social demands of the radical precursors had become common slogans as contending revolutionary bands bid for popular support. The constitution of 1917 incorporated the aspirations of those groups involved in the revolution. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The constitution of 1917 set the goals toward which presidents were to work, but it was decades before most of the sweeping reforms promised by the constitution became reality. Carranza was deposed and killed in 1920, and lasting stability eluded Mexico until after World War II, when industrialism spurred by the war grew into a major part of the economy and Miguel Aleman became the first in an unbroken series of civilian presidents. This constitution is still the current Mexican constitution.

Socialism in One Country

WHO: Pursued by Joseph Stalin, propagated by Nikolai Bukharin. WHEN: 1920s-30s WHERE: USSR WHAT: The theory of building up the industrial base and military might of the Soviet Union before exporting revolution abroad. This turn toward national communism was a shift from the previously held position by classical Marxism that socialism must be established globally. WHY: The defeat of several proletarian revolutions in countries like Germany and Hungary ended Bolsheviks' hopes for an imminent world revolution and began promotion of socialism in one country by Stalin. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: It didn't work

Glasnost:

WHO: Soviet Union; Mikhail Gorbachev WHEN: late 1980s WHERE: Soviet Union WHAT: policy of open discussion of political & social issues; increase openness & transparency in government institutions WHY: USSR economy was struggling; citizens were chafing under poor standard of living & lack of freedom HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: began the democratization of the Soviet Union; power of Communist Party reduce; multi candidate elections took place; permitted criticism of government officials & freer dissemination of news & information

Sputnik

WHO: Soviet rocket scientist Sergei Korolev proposed a developmental plan for an artificial satellite to Minister of Defence Industry Dimitri Ustinov. WHEN: Idea: December 1954, Launched: October 4, 1957 WHERE: Launched from Kazach, SSR WHAT: The first artificial Earth satellite. WHY: To demonstrate Soviet technological capabiliy, though many Americans feared more sinister uses of the Soviets' new rocket and satellite technology, which was apparently strides ahead of the U.S. space effort. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Sputnik was some 10 times the size of the first planned U.S. satellite, which was not scheduled to be launched until the next year. The U.S. government, military, and scientific community were caught off guard by the Soviet technological achievement, and their united efforts to catch up with the Soviets heralded the beginning of the "space race." The first U.S. satellite, Explorer, was launched on January 31, 1958.

Sun Yatsen

WHO: Sun Yat-sen was a Chinese physician, writer, philosopher, calligrapher and revolutionary, the first president and founding father of the Republic of China. WHEN: 1866-1925 (early 20th century) WHERE: China WHAT: Sun played an instrumental role in the overthrow of the Qing dynasty (the last imperial dynasty of China) during the years leading up to the Xinhai Revolution. He was appointed to serve as Provisional President of the Republic of China when it was founded in 1912. He later co-founded the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party of China), serving as its first leader. Although Sun is considered to be one of the greatest leaders of modern China, his political life was one of constant struggle and frequent exile. WHY: Sun was troubled by the way China, which had clung to its traditional ways under the conservative Qing dynasty, suffered humiliation at the hands of more technologically advanced nations. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Sun's chief legacy resides in his developing of the political philosophy known as the Three Principles of the People: nationalism, democracy, and the people's livelihood (just society). Sun was a uniting figure in post-Imperial China, and he remains unique among 20th-century Chinese politicians for being widely revered amongst the people from both sides of the Taiwan Strait.

Treaty of Versailles

WHO: The "Big Four": Lloyd George of Britain, Orlando of Italy, Clemenceau of France, and Wilson of US. Mostly the Allied powers, but Germany too (US didn't ratify) WHEN: June 28, 1919 WHERE: Paris and Versailles, France WHAT: World War I officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. Negotiated among the Allied powers with little participation by Germany, its 15 parts and 440 articles reassigned German boundaries and assigned liability for reparations. The war guilt clause of the treaty deemed Germany the aggressor in the war and consequently made Germany responsible for making reparations to the Allied nations in payment for the losses and damage they had sustained in the war. After strict enforcement for five years, the French assented to the modification of important provisions. Germany agreed to pay reparations under the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan, but those plans were cancelled in 1932, and Hitler's rise to power and subsequent actions rendered moot the remaining terms of the treaty. WHY: WWI HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Created the League of Nations. Germany suffered greatly under the treaty (war guilt clause, losing territory and colonies, demilitarization, reparations, division via occupation and more). The combination of a harsh treaty and subsequent lax enforcement of its provisions paved the way for the upsurge of German militarism in the 1930s. The huge German reparations and the war guilt clause fostered deep resentment of the settlement in Germany, and when Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland in 1936 (a violation of the treaty), the Allies did nothing to stop him, thus encouraging future German aggression.

Marshall Plan

WHO: The US, Secretary of State Marshall, several European countries WHEN: 1948-1951 WHERE: Europe WHAT: The Marshall Plan, also known as the European Recovery Program, channeled over $13 billion to finance the economic recovery of Europe between 1948 and 1951. The Marshall Plan successfully sparked economic recovery, meeting its objective of 'restoring the confidence of the European people in the economic future of their own countries and of Europe as a whole.' The plan is named for Secretary of State George C. Marshall, who announced it in a commencement speech at Harvard University on June 5, 1947. WHY: US wants to strengthen alliances against USSR, believes that if they help countries become economically stable, they will stop them from becoming communist. Additionally, the export of dollars to Europe kept the United States from backsliding into depression by providing a market for U.S. capital goods. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The plan promoted European economic integration and federalism, and created a mixture of public organization of the private economy similar to that in the domestic economy of the United States. This reorganization of the European economy provided a more congenial environment for American investment. It also (likely) prevented several nations from adopting communism and increased US support during the Cold War.

Bretton-Woods

WHO: The conference was attended by experts representing 44 states or governments, including the Soviet Union. WHEN: July 1944 WHERE: New Hampshire WHAT: A meeting during World War II to make financial arrangements for the postwar world after the expected defeat of Germany and Japan. The two major accomplishments of the conference were the creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). WHY: To agree upon a series of new rules for the post-WWII international monetary system. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The IMF and the IBRD; the fixed exchange rate regime established at Bretton Woods endured for the better part of three decades. The World Bank was also established at Bretton Woods.

October Manifesto:

WHO: Tsar Nicholas II (strongly resisted with the ideas of the manifesto) WHEN: 1905 WHERE: Russia WHAT: document that marked the end of unlimited autocracy & ushered in the era of constitutional monarchy; promise to guarantee civil liberties (freedom of speech, press, assembly) establish a broad franchise, create a legislative body (the Duma) whose members would be popularly elected and whose approval would be necessary before the enactment of any legislation Revolution of 1905: wave of mass political & social unrest that spread through Russian Empire; worker strikes, peasant unrest & military mutinies → https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905_Russian_Revolution#Causes WHY: threatened by Russian Revolution of 1905 Tsar Nicholas II faced the choice of establishing a military dictatorship or granting a constitution HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: strikes & violence ended when it was published; enthusiasm swept the nation; later there was a return of strikes & violence as the autocracy began to reaffirm its power; executions began again; government attempted to suppress political parties; by 1906/07 Russia was under martial law → short lived success

Treaty of Peace and Amity:

WHO: United States & Japan WHEN: 1854 WHERE: Japan WHAT: first treaty between the US & Japan (Tokugawa shogunate); ended 200 years of Japanese seclusion; opened two ports to US ships seeking provisions; guarantee of good treatment for shipwrecked American sailors; allowed a US consul to be opened in Shomad; contained a most-favored nation (MFN) clause WHY: policy of isolation under the Tokugawa shogunate was coming under challenge - various Western outside countries demanded that ports be opened to them HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: served as a model treaty for Japan to establish diplomatic relations with other Western powers

Americanization

WHO: United States, rest of the world (notably undeveloped and developing nations). WHEN: After the Cold War, starting around 1990. WHERE: The entire world. WHAT: Americanization is the process by which American culture, ideology, and influence are spread across the globe. After the 1990s, the United States was a clear and uncontested hegemonic nation, leading the world economically, militarily, scientifically, industrially, and intellectually. This gave put the country in the position to become equally culturally dominant. WHY: The American rise to global dominance was due to several things. Firstly, following the OPEC oil crisis of 1973, Nixon made a deal that put in place the dollar regime—a system under which the dollar became the standard global currency of exchange. Backed up by the immense financial system that emerged as a result, the dollar regime forced all countries—except for the United States—to deal with two currencies: the dollar for international exchange and local currency for internal exchange. Thus, at all times, currencies were extremely susceptible to fluctuations based on the strength of the dollar. Secondly, the United States' consumer economy made it an extremely attractive market for foreign producers. The American market therefore became a target for exporting countries across the globe. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Americanization has long been criticized, both by Americans and by foreign governments and peoples, as being a form of neocolonialism.

Fourteen Points

WHO: Woodrow Wilson. WHEN: World War I; January 8, 1918. WHERE: United States, Europe. WHAT: A statement of fourteen principles, founded on diplomacy and peace, that intended to make steps towards attenuating tensions in Europe and ending the First World War. The Fourteen Points were presented to Congress on January 8, 1918, by President Woodrow Wilson. He called for freedom of the seas, the rights of neutral powers, self-determination, and peace without annexations. WHY: German transgression of treaties and neutrality agreements, as well as extensive and brutal use of new technology, shifted American opinion in favor of the Allied Powers. Initially a neutral country, the United States thus proposed these principles as a foundation for peace negotiations, in response to aggressive German warfare. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The Fourteen Points not only embodied American interests, but also those of the Allied Powers. This marks the entrance, at least diplomatically, of the United States into the War. Only in 1918, however, did the United States engage its military, when American troops began to land in France in appreciable numbers.

May Fourth Movement

WHO: Young Chinese intellectuals and students WHEN: 1917-1921 WHERE: Beijing (and the rest of China) WHAT: An intellectual revolution and sociopolitical reform movement that occurred in China. The movement was directed toward national independence, emancipation of the individual, and rebuilding society and culture. As part of this New Culture Movement, they attacked traditional Confucian ideas and exalted Western ideas, particularly science and democracy. Moreover, led by Chen and the American-educated scholar Hu Shi, they proposed a new naturalistic vernacular writing style (baihua), replacing the difficult 2,000-year-old classical style (wenyan). On May 4, 1919, more than 3,000 students from 13 colleges in Beijing held a mass demonstration against the decision of the Versailles Peace Conference to transfer the former German concessions in Shandong province to Japan. In the big cities, strikes and boycotts against Japanese goods were begun by the students and lasted more than two months. WHY: In 1915, in the face of Japanese encroachment on China, young intellectuals, inspired by "New Youth" , a monthly magazine edited by the iconoclastic intellectual revolutionary Chen Duxiu, began agitating for the reform and strengthening of Chinese society. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Faced with this growing tide of unfavourable public opinion, the government acquiesced; three pro-Japanese officials were dismissed, the cabinet resigned, and China refused to sign the peace treaty with Germany. The decline of traditional ethics and the family system was accelerated, the emancipation of women gathered momentum, a vernacular literature emerged, and the modernized intelligentsia became a major factor in China's subsequent political developments. The movement also spurred the successful reorganization of the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang), later ruled by Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi), and stimulated the birth of the Chinese Communist Party as well.

La Decada Infama:

WHO: began with the coup d'etat against President Hipolito Yrigoyen by Jose Felix Urib (lieutenant general who ruled from 1930-1932); Agustín Pedro Justo (1932-1938); Roberto Ortiz (fraudentally elected in 1938-1940); Ramon Caustillo (1940-1943) WHEN: 1930-1943 WHERE: Argentina WHAT: marked by rural exodus (rural landowners were ruined by the Great Depression); electoral fraud, persecution of political opposition; government corruption; massive migration from countryside to the city (development of industrial sector) WHY: fascist and conservative sectors of the army were upset with the effects othe Great Depression HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: it pushed the country towards import substitution industrialization (replacing foreign imports with domestic production); poor economic results and discontent led to Revolution of '43 by the Grupo de Oficiales Unidos (nationalist faction of Armed forces) - this coup led to the rise of Juan Peron

February Revolution

WHO: disaffected soldiers, bread rioters, women & industrial strikers gathered to protest WHEN: 1917 WHERE: St. Petersburg, Russia WHAT: mass protests against food rationing; led to violent armed clashes with police & gendarmes (loyal forces of Russian monarchy); 1300 people killed WHY: longstanding discontent with the monarchy; Russia suffering economic & social problems after WWI HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: three days Tsar Nicholas II abdicated (Romanov dynasty & Imperial Russia rule dead); Russian provisional government under Prince Georgy Lvov replaced Russian Council of Ministers

Plan of Ayala:

WHO: drafted by revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata WHEN: Mexican Revolution; announced in 1911 but amended in 1914 WHERE: Mexico WHAT: document renouncing President Madero's betrayal of revolutionary ideals & land reform that he had introduced in the Plan de San Luis Potosi; called for substantial land reforms including redistribution to the peasants WHY: result of Zapata's disapproval of Madero HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: raise Zapata's profiel from the peasantry in the Mexican South; allowed him to depose Huerta (mexican president) see below

Duma

WHO: established by Tsar Nicholas II → promised it would be a representative assembly & its approval would be necessary for the enactment of legislation WHEN: 1906-1917 Revolution WHERE: Russia WHAT: elected legislative body that with the State Council constituted the imperial Russian legislature WHY: came after the Boyar Dumas (10-17th century); initiated as a result of the 1905 revolution HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: constituted the first attempt toward a parliamentary government in Russia

Second Sex

WHO: existentialist author Simone de Beauvoir WHEN: 1949 WHERE: France WHAT: book; discusses the treatment of women through history; fundamental theory is that men fundamentally oppress women by characterizing them as the Other; man occupies the role of the self or subject while women are the object, the other WHY: sprung out of a desire to understand why women are regarded as less than men HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: regarding as major work of feminist philosophy & starting point of second-wave feminism (feminist activity that began in the US in the 60s & lasted two decades - included issues of sexuality, the family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities and official legal inequalities)

Emiliano Zapata:

WHO: leading figure in the Mexican Revolution; main leader of peasant revolution in Morelos; champion of agrarianism WHEN: b. 1879 - d.1919; height 1914 WHERE: Mexico WHAT: formed the Liberation Army of the South that contributed to Diaz's fall; revolutionary leader & now President Francisco Madero disavowed role of Zapatistas; led by Zapata mexican military leader Huerta took power but was ousted by Carranza, Villa & Obregon; Zapata & Villa broke with Carranza & Mexico descended into civil war; Zapata instituted land reforms in Morelos which he controlled; initiated guerilla warfare against Carranza members who in turn invaded Morelos; Zapata took Morelos back but was later killed -- after his followers aligned with Obregon against Carranza WHY: peasant communities were under pressure from landowning classes that monopolized land & water resources for sugar cane production supported by dictator Porfirio Diaz HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: nationalist symbol; considered a martyr; remembered as a visionary who fought for his countrymen 1821 Iterbide: overthrows Spanish rule and creates new Mexican empire (calls himself emperor) Conservative coalition: military/church/large landowners Porfirio Diaz: takes power in 1876 with help of left and poor and loses power in 1910 Gets rid of dissent by brutal repression or manipulation of democratic systems Stuffed the ballot box/ controlled voting processes Opened Mexico to foreign investment - all the profits from that goes back to other countries Initially it is Britain and France Promises leftist type reforms but doesn't ever actually go through the Increases land ownerships of indigenous populations and of the United States The Revolution of 1911 The fall of Diaz and the Presidency of Madero (1911-1912) Unemployment increases; people go to the city 1910: Diaz says that Mexico was not yet ready for democracy when he came into power; had to be dictatorship; now he says Mexico is ready and that he is going to hold free elections Rise of Francisco Madero Competes with Diaz Policy of modern concessions to the poor 1 month before the election Diaz arrests Madero, holds the election and wins the election with 98% of the vote Pancho Villa Begins to consolidate power in the north Populist: local political power in the north Madero escapes from prison and fless to Texas Emiliano Zapata Staunch supporter of indigenous land rights & women

Hundred Days:

WHO: led by set of scholars; Kang Youwei (main architect of the reform); Lihn Qiancho → both originally support Westernization but later join Communist party --- Empress Cixi nullifies the reforms after 103 days WHEN: 1898 WHERE: China WHAT: adoption of western-type values, remodel education system (takes out Confucian model); attempts to modernize military & stimulate economy; supports STEM reforms; corruption attacked; government administration revamped WHY: response to peace treaty for the Sino-Japanese war (it rejected the peace treaty) HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: the reforms threatened the privileged classes of traditional Chinese society; conservative forces rallied behind Cixi & the army; led her to lead a coup d'etat and imprison the emperor; six reformers were executed

Mensheviks

WHO: one of the factions within the Russian social movement WHEN: emerged in 1903; suppressed in 1922 WHERE: Russia WHAT: opposed plan for a party restricted to professional revolutionaries; called for mass party modelled after western European social-democratic parties; proletariat could & should not dominate a bourgeois revolution; willing to work with bourgeois to establish a liberal capitalist regime (a precursor to Socialist society) WHY: dispute within the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) between Lenin & Martov → Martov supporters became known as Mensheviks HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: participated in Dumas & assumed leading roles in soviets & provisional governments; after Bolshevik Revolution they were suppressed; many went into exile

Social Darwinism:

WHO: popularized by Herbert Spencer WHEN: emerged in the 1880s WHERE: Europe, the west WHAT: theory that human groups & races are subject to the same laws of natural selection as Charles Darwin perceived in plants & animals in nature; argued that life of humans in society was a struggle for existence ruled by survival of the fittest; some societies were viewed as better equipped to survive than others; underdeveloped countries viewed as having less fitness than Western countries; Western powers viewed themselves as being culturally & biologically superior WHY: the technology, economy, military & government of the White European was viewed as more advanced than other cultures HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: used to justify Western imperialism, racial & economic desires; used to support laissez-faire capitalism & political conservatism; God had chosen western nations because of their economic & social superiority to rule & lead "unrefined" natives

Russo-Japanese War

WHO: the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan WHEN: 1904-1905 WHERE: Much of the fighting took place in what is now northeastern China. The Russo-Japanese War was also a naval conflict, with ships exchanging fire in the waters surrounding the Korean peninsula (which the war was fought over). WHAT: In 1904, Japan launched a surprise attack on the Russian navy. Eventually, Russia lost the war due to being poorly supplied (spread themselves too thin) and poorly led. WHY: The Russian empire was in need of a warm-water port in the Pacific Ocean, both for purposes of trade as well as a base for its growing navy. With the Russians' history of military aggression, the Japanese initially sought a deal, offering to cede control of Manchuria (northeastern China). Under the terms of the proposal, Japan would have maintained influence over Korea. However, Russia refused Japan's offer and demanded that Korea north of the 39th parallel serve as a neutral zone. As negotiations broke down, the Japanese opted to go to war, staging a surprise attack on the Russian navy at Port Arthur on February 8, 1904. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Changed the balance of power in Asia and set the stage for World War I. Mediator Roosevelt sided with Russia in his refusal to pay indemnities to Japan; the Japanese accused the Americans of cheating them, and days of anti-American rioting in Tokyo ensued. The Asian nation would later question America's role in Asian affairs during the lead-up to World War II. The costly and humiliating series of Russian defeats in the Russo-Japanese War left the Russian Empire demoralized, added to Russians' growing anger at the failed policies of Czar Nicholas II, and would fan the flames of political dissent that ultimately resulted in the overthrow of the government during the Russian Revolution of 1917. This war marked the first time in modern history that an Asian nation defeated a European one in military combat. It would also mark the beginning of warfare involving world powers in the Pacific region.

World Bank

WHO: the world WHEN: 1944-today WHERE: DC WHAT: An international organization affiliated with the United Nations (UN) and designed to finance projects that enhance the economic development of member states. Founded in 1944 at the UN Monetary and Financial Conference (commonly known as the Bretton Woods Conference), which was convened to establish a new, post-World War II international economic system, the World Bank officially began operations in June 1946. Beginning in the mid-1950s, it played a major role in financing investments in infrastructure projects in developing countries, including roads, hydroelectric dams, water and sewage facilities, maritime ports, and airports. WHY: Its first loans were geared toward the postwar reconstruction of western Europe. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Today headquartered in Washington, D.C., the bank is still the largest source of financial assistance to developing countries. Indeed, for dozens of the most heavily indebted poor countries, the largest part of their external debt—in some cases constituting more than 50 percent—is owed to the World Bank and the multilateral regional development banks. According to some, the burden of these debts—which cannot be canceled or rescheduled—has perpetuated economic stagnation throughout the developing world.

Revolution of 1911

WHO: underground anti Chin groups & exiled Chinese Revolutionaries WHEN: 1911-1912 WHERE: China WHAT: various uprisings & revolts; Wuchang uprising = turning point & result of mishandling of Railway Protection Movement; ended with political compromise between Yuan Shikai (Chin military strongman) and Sun Yat-sen (leader of Tongmenghui → secret society & underground resistance movement founding in Japan) WHY: a response to the decline of the Qing state → ineffective to modernize China, confront foreign aggression (Opium Wars = Great Britain got Hong Kong, forced opening of treaty ports, large foreign concession -- Sino-Japanese War = loses Taiwan & Manchuria) HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: got rid of Chin/Qin dynasty ending the imperial system; established new democratic government/ People's Republic of China in 1912

Appeasement:

What: The policy of making concessions to the dictatorial powers in order to avoid conflict. The legacy of the Great War in France and Britain generated a strong public and political desire to achieve 'peace at any price'. Secondly, neither country was militarily ready for war. Widespread pacifism and war-weariness (not too mention the economic legacy of the Great Depression) were not conducive to rearmament. Thirdly, many British politicians believed that Germany had genuine grievances resulting from Versailles. Finally, some British politicians admired Hitler and Mussolini, seeing them not as dangerous fascists but as strong, patriotic leaders. Without consulting the Czech authorities, he pledged to give Germany all the areas with a German population of more than 50 per cent. France was persuaded to agree. Hitler then altered his criteria, demanding all the Sudetenland. At the Munich Conference on 30 September, Britain and France agreed to his demands. Chamberlain was confident that he had secured 'peace for our time'. When: Governed Anglo-French foreign policy during the 1930s. Who: It became indelibly associated with Conservative Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain of Great Britain. Why: The roots of appeasement lay primarily in the weakness of post-World War I collective security arrangements How: The League of Nations was intended to resolve international disputes peacefully. Yet the League's ineffectiveness soon became apparent. In 1931, when Japan invaded Manchuria, the League condemned the action. However, without either the weight of the US or the power of its own army, it was unable to stop Japan. In March 1936, a captious Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland, forbidden under Versailles. The feared Anglo-French reaction never came. Germany and Italy now realized that the democracies were seeking to avoid confrontation, so both countries continued to 'test the limits'.

Lateran Treaty -

When: 1926-1929 Who: It was signed by Benito Mussolini for the Italian government and by cardinal secretary of state Pietro Gasparri for the papacy. What: Made Catholicism the Italian state religion in return for full support by the Vatican for the fascists. The Lateran Treaty was an agreement made in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See, settling the "Roman Question". They are named after the Lateran Palace, where they were signed on 11 February 1929. The Italian parliament ratified them on 7 June 1929. It recognized Vatican City as an independent state, with the Italian government, at the time led by Prime Minister Benito Mussolini, agreeing to give the Roman Catholic Church financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States. In 1947, the Lateran Treaty was recognized in the Constitution of Italy as regulating the relations between the State and the Catholic Church. Historical Significance: Upon ratification of the Lateran Treaty, the papacy recognized the state of Italy, with Rome as its capital. Italy in return recognized papal sovereignty over the Vatican City, a minute territory of 44 hectares (109 acres), and secured full independence for the pope.

Mein Kampf:

When: Published in 1925 Who: A 1925 autobiographical book by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. The work describes the process by which Hitler became antisemitic and outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany. What: Openly announced a frightening political program including ridding Germany of its Jews, whom he blamed for WWI, and the communists, whom he blamed for the Central Powers losing the war → also wanted to punish the allies for the peace settlement that they imposed on Germany → called for lebensraum (living space) in Russia and Eastern Europe for the "superior" Germany "aryan" race, with the "inferior" slavs relegated to forced labor. Why: In Mein Kampf, Hitler used the main thesis of "the Jewish peril", which posits a Jewish conspiracy to gain world leadership. The narrative describes the process by which he became increasingly antisemitic and militaristic, especially during his years in Vienna. He speaks of not having met a Jew until he arrived in Vienna, and that at first his attitude was liberal and tolerant. When he first encountered the antisemitic press, he says, he dismissed it as unworthy of serious consideration. Later he accepted the same antisemitic views, which became crucial to his program of national reconstruction of Germany. How: In the book Hitler blamed Germany's chief woes on the parliament of the Weimar Republic, the Jews, and Social Democrats, as well as Marxists, though he believed that Marxists, Social Democrats, and the parliament were all working for Jewish interests. He announced that he wanted to completely destroy the parliamentary system, believing it to be corrupt in principle, as those who reach power are inherent opportunists.

Black Shirts:

When: The Blackshirts were established as the squadristi in 1919 and consisted of many disgruntled former soldiers. In 1922 the squadristi were reorganized into the milizia and formed numerous bandiere, and on 1 February 1923 the Blackshirts became the Volunteer Militia for National Security (Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale, or MVSN), which lasted until the 8 September 1943 Armistice of Cassibile. The Italian Social Republic, located in the areas of northern Italy occupied by Germany, reformed the MVSN on 8 December 1943 into the National Republican Guard (Guardia Nazionale Repubblicana, or GNR). Who: Existed primarily during the 1920s under the leadership of Mussolini. What: originally the paramilitary wing of the National Fascist Party and, after 1923, an all-volunteer militia of the Kingdom of Italy. Its members were distinguished by their black uniforms and their loyalty to Benito Mussolini to whom they swore an oath. The founders of the paramilitary groups were nationalist intellectuals, former army officers and young landowners opposing peasants' and country labourers' unions. How: Their methods became harsher as Mussolini's power grew, and they used violence and intimidation against Mussolini's opponents. Why: It was given the task of leading fights against their bitter enemies - the Socialists. They may have numbered 200,000 by the time of Mussolini's March on Rome from 27 to 29 October 1922. Historical Significance: By the end of 1920 the Blackshirts were attacking and destroying the organizations not only of socialists but also of communists, republicans, Catholics, trade unionists, and those in cooperatives, and hundreds of people were killed as the Fascist squads expanded in number. A Fascist convention in Naples on October 24, 1922, provided the pretext for the concentration of armed Blackshirts from all over the country for the famous March on Rome that put Mussolini into power. Early the next year, on February 1, 1923, the private Blackshirts were officially transformed into a national militia, the Voluntary Fascist Militia for National Security.

Weimar Republic:

Who: When: The Weimar Republic is an unofficial, historical designation for the German state during the years 1919 to 1933. What: A national assembly was convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the Deutsches Reich was written and adopted on 11 August 1919. In its fourteen years, the Weimar Republic faced numerous problems, including hyperinflation, political extremism as well as contentious relationships with the victors of the First World War. The Great Depression, exacerbated by Brüning's policy of deflation, led to a surge in unemployment. How: In 1933, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor with the Nazi Party being part of a coalition government. The Nazis held two out of the remaining ten cabinet seats. Within months, the Reichstag Fire Decree and the Enabling Act of 1933 had brought about a state of emergency: it wiped out constitutional governance and civil liberties. Hitler's seizure of power (Machtergreifung) was permissive of government by decree without legislative participation. These events brought the republic to an end—as democracy collapsed, the founding of a single-party state began the Nazi era. Why: The people of Germany blamed the Weimar Republic rather than their wartime leaders for the country's defeat and for the humiliating terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Weimar Germany fulfilled most of the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles

Hitler: (20 April 1889 - 30 April 1945)

Who: A German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, When: Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. What: As dictator, Hitler initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939, and was central to the Holocaust. Hitler was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I. In 1923, he attempted to seize power in a failed coup in Munich and was imprisoned. While in jail he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf ("My Struggle"). After his release from prison in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, anti-semitism and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. Under Hitler's leadership and racially motivated ideology, the Nazi regime was responsible for the genocide of at least 5.5 million Jews and millions of other victims whom he and his followers deemed Untermenschen (sub-humans) or socially undesirable. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European theatre. How: By 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, but did not have a majority, and no party was able to form a majority parliamentary coalition in support of a candidate for chancellor. This led to former chancellor Franz von Papen and other conservative leaders persuading President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Shortly after, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act of 1933, which began the process of transforming the Weimar Republic into Nazi Germany, a one-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of National Socialism. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain and France. His first six years in power resulted in rapid economic recovery from the Great Depression, the abrogation of restrictions imposed on Germany after World War I and the annexation of territories that were home to millions of ethnic Germans which gave him significant popular support. Why: Hitler sought Lebensraum ("living space") for the German people in Eastern Europe and his aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the primary cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in Britain and France declaring war on Germany. In June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941, German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe and North Africa. In December 1941, he formally declared war on the United States, bringing them directly into the conflict. Failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats.

Anschluss:

Who: Adolf Hitler achieved the anschluss through annexation When: March 12, 1938 What: Political union of Austria with Germany How: In July 1934 Austrian and German Nazis together attempted a coup but were unsuccessful. An authoritarian right-wing government then took power in Austria and kept perhaps half the population from voicing legitimate dissent; that cleavage prevented concerted resistance to the developments of 1938. The German Nazi minister Hermann Göring ordered Seyss-Inquart to send a telegram requesting German military aid, but he refused, and the telegram was sent by a German agent in Vienna. On March 12 Germany invaded, and the enthusiasm that followed gave Hitler the cover to annex Austria outright on March 13. A controlled plebiscite of April 10 gave a 99.7 percent approval. Why: Having succeeded in gaining Austria, Hitler then used similar tactics to gain the Sudetenland area of Czechoslovakia that contained over three million Germans.

National Socialism:

Who: Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organization by the early 1920s What: National Socialism, more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practices associated with the Nazi Party - officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party - in Nazi Germany, and of other far-right groups with similar aims. Nazism is a form of fascism and showed that ideology's disdain for liberal democracy and the parliamentary system, but also incorporated fervent antisemitism, scientific racism and eugenics into its creed. The National Socialist Program or "25 Points" was adopted in 1920 and called for a united Greater Germany that would deny citizenship to Jews or those of Jewish descent, while also supporting land reform and the nationalization of some industries. In Mein Kampf ("My Struggle"; 1924-1925), Hitler outlined the anti-Semitism and anti-Communism at the heart of his political philosophy, as well as his disdain for representative democracy and his belief in Germany's right to territorial expansion. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying the Germans as a part of what the Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race. It aimed to overcome social divisions and create a German homogeneous society based on racial purity which represented a people's community. The Nazis aimed to unite all Germans living in historically German territory, as well as gain additional lands for German expansion under the doctrine of Lebensraum and exclude those who they deemed either community aliens or "inferior" races. When: The Nazi Party's precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and antisemitic German Workers' Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s the party was renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party - to attract workers away from left-wing parties such as the Social Democrats (SPD) and the Communists (KPD). Why: The term "National Socialism" arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of "socialism", as an alternative to both international socialism and free market capitalism. Nazism rejected the Marxist concept of class conflict, opposed cosmopolitan internationalism and sought to convince all parts of the new German society to subordinate their personal interests to the "common good", accepting political interests as the main priority of economic organization. How: Its extreme nationalism came from Pan-Germanism and the Völkisch movement prominent in the German nationalism of the time, and it was strongly influenced by the anti-Communist Freikorps paramilitary groups that emerged after Germany's defeat in World War I, from which came the party's "cult of violence" which was "at the heart of the movement."The Nazi Party won the greatest share of the popular vote in the two Reichstag general elections of 1932, making them the largest party in the legislature by far, but still short of an outright majority. Because none of the parties were willing or able to put together a coalition government, in 1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul Von Hindenburg, through the support and connivance of traditional conservative nationalists who believed that they could control him and his party. Through the use of emergency presidential decrees by Hindenburg, and a change in the Weimar Constitution which allowed the Cabinet to rule by direct decree, bypassing both Hindenburg and the Reichstag, the Nazis had soon established a one-party state.

Mussolini: (1883-1945)

Who: An Italian politician who was the leader of the National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista; PNF). He ruled Italy as Prime Minister from 1922 to 1943 - constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped the pretense of democracy and established a dictatorship. What: Originally a socialist whose desires for violence and radical change and the war put him in conflict with other socialists → grew to hate Marxism and organized his supporters to break up communist labor rallies → in 1924, he began to implement his fascist corporate state and abolished elections and freedom of the press by 1926 as well as cut labor regulation and curtailed wages. → In 1933, formed the industrial reconstruction institute, which was crucial in reviving the Italian Industrial Sector in the midst of the depression → conquered Ottoman Libya through brutal tactics in 1931 → also pacified the Christian nation of Ethiopia in 1935-36 (Ethiopia had previously defeated Italy forty years earlier) → eventually allied with Hitler as a counterweight against international isolation (league of nations protested his Ethiopian conquest) to form the Axis Powers → Italy officially entered the war on the side of Germany, though he was aware that Italy did not have the military capacity and resources to carry out a long war with the British Empire. When: Lived 1883-1945, In power: from 1923-1943 Why: Essentially the first fascist leader. His views centered on nationalism instead of socialism and later founded the fascist movement which came to oppose egalitarianism and class conflict, instead advocating revolutionary nationalism transcending class lines. How: Ultimately received the premiership when 10,000 of his armed and violent supporters (Black Shirts) marched on Rome and began used the threat of violence to win his party two thirds of parliament in 1923 → The King then handed over power to Mussolini (who stayed in his headquarters in Milan during the talks) by asking him to form a new government. The King's controversial decision has been explained by historians as a combination of delusions and fears; Mussolini enjoyed wide support in the military and among the industrial and agrarian elites, while the King and the conservative establishment were afraid of a possible civil war and ultimately thought they could use Mussolini to restore law and order in the country, but failed to foresee the danger of a totalitarian evolution. → Removed all political opposition through his secret police and outlawing labor strikes, Mussolini and his followers consolidated their power through a series of laws that transformed the nation into a one-party dictatorship. Within five years, Mussolini had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means and aspired to create a totalitarian state.

Fascism:

Who: Began with Benito Mussolini in 1923 → prominent during the 1930s & 1940s under Hitler & Stalin What: Symbol derives from the old Roman emblem of authority in the form of a bundle of sticks and an ax, tied with a ribbon. Fascism is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism, characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition and control of industry and commerce, which came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. When: The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I before it spread to other European countries. Prominent during 1930s and 1940s. How: Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought massive changes to the nature of war, society, the state and technology. The advent of total war and the total mass mobilization of society had broken down the distinction between civilians and combatants. A "military citizenship" arose in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner during the war. The war had resulted in the rise of a powerful state capable of mobilizing millions of people to serve on the front lines and providing economic production and logistics to support them, as well as having unprecedented authority to intervene in the lives of citizens. Why: Fascists believe that liberal democracy is obsolete and they regard the complete mobilization of society under a totalitarian one-party state as necessary to prepare a nation for armed conflict and to respond effectively to economic difficulties. Such a state is led by a strong leader—such as a dictator and a martial government composed of the members of the governing fascist party—to forge national unity and maintain a stable and orderly society. Fascism rejects assertions that violence is automatically negative in nature and views political violence, war and imperialism as means that can achieve national rejuvenation. Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the principal goal of achieving autarky through protectionist and interventionist economic policies.

Nuremberg Laws:

Who: Chancellor and Führer (leader) Adolf Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses on 1 April 1933, and the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April, excluded non-Aryans from the legal profession and civil service. What: Antisemitic and racial laws in Nazi Germany. The two laws were the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour, which forbade marriages and extramarital intercoursebetween Jews and Germans and the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households; and the Reich Citizenship Law, which declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens; the remainder were classed as state subjects, without citizenship rights. The laws were expanded on 26 November 1935 to include Romani people - known at the time as "Gypsies" - and Black people. When: They were introduced on 15 September 1935 by the Reichstag at a special meeting convened at the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). The Nuremberg Laws had a crippling economic and social impact on the Jewish community. Persons convicted of violating the marriage laws were imprisoned, and (subsequent to 8 March 1938) upon completing their sentences were re-arrested by the Gestapoand sent to Nazi concentration camps. How: Jewish citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks. They were actively suppressed, stripped of their citizenship and civil rights, and eventually completely removed from German society. By 1938 it was almost impossible for potential Jewish emigrants to find a country willing to take them. Starting in mid-1941, the German government started mass exterminations of the Jews of Europe. Why: Institutionalized many of the racial theories prevalent in Nazi ideology.

Atlantic Charter:

Who: Determined by U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill What: During World War II, the United States and Great Britain issued a joint declaration in August 1941 that set out a vision for the postwar world. In January 1942, a group of 26 Allied nations pledged their support for this declaration, known as the Atlantic Charter. The document is considered one of the first key steps toward the establishment of the United Nations in 1945. When: From August 9 to August 12, 1941, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met aboard naval ships in Placentia Bay, off the southeast coast of Newfoundland, to confer on a range of issues related to World War II. How: The document that resulted from the Roosevelt-Churchill meetings was issued on August 14, 1941, and became known as the Atlantic Charter. The document, which was not a treaty, stated that the two leaders "deem it right to make known certain common principles in the national policies of their respective countries on which they base their hopes for a better future for the world." Why: The Atlantic Charter included eight common principles. Among them, the United States and Britain agreed not to seek territorial gains from the war, and they opposed any territorial changes made against the wishes of the people concerned. The two countries also agreed to support the restoration of self-government to those nations who had lost it during the war. Additionally, the Atlantic Charter stated that people should have the right to choose their own form of government. Other principles included access for all nations to raw materials needed for economic prosperity and an easing of trade restrictions. The document also called for international cooperation to secure improved living and working conditions for all; freedom of the seas; and for all countries to abandon the use of force.

The Provisional Government:

Who: First by Prince Georgy Lvov and then by Alexander Kerensky. What: The intention of the provisional government was the organization of elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and its convention.The Provisional Government passed very progressive legislation. The policies enacted by this moderate government represented arguably the most liberal legislation in Europe at the time.The independence of Church from state, the emphasis on rural self governance, and the affirmation of fundamental civil rights (such as freedom of speech, press, and assembly) that the tsarist government had periodically restricted shows the progressivism of the Provisional Government. Other policies included the abolition of capital punishment and economic redistribution in the countryside. The Provisional Government also granted more freedoms to previously suppressed regions of the Russian Empire. Poland was granted independence and Lithuania and Ukraine became more autonomous. The main obstacle and problem of the Provisional Government was its inability to enforce and administer legislative policies. When: A provisional government of Russia established immediately following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II of the Russian Empire on 2 March 1917. The provisional government lasted approximately eight months, and ceased to exist when the Bolsheviks gained power after the October Revolution in October 1917.

Dien Bien Phu -

Who: French and Vietnamese forces What: The decisive engagement in the First Indochina War (1946-54). It consisted of a struggle between French and Viet Minh (Vietnamese Communist and nationalist) forces for control of a small mountain outpost on the Vietnamese border near Laos. The Viet Minh victory in this battle effectively ended the eight-year-old war. With French forces in disarray after the battle, the French government sought an end to the fighting; an official settlement was negotiated at an international conference in Geneva. When: The battle was joined in late 1953 How: French forces, who had been rapidly losing ground to the popularly supported Viet Minh, occupied the town of Dien Bien Phu in an attempt to cut the nationalist supply lines into Laos and to maintain a base for forays against enemy forces. They were taken by surprise when the Viet Minh Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap surrounded the base with 40,000 men and used heavy artillery to break the French lines. Despite heavy U.S. aid, the base was overrun on May 7, 1954. Why: The French sense of national humiliation had lasting repercussions on French public opinion and contributed—along with later events in Algeria—to the downfall of the Fourth Republic in 1958. The shock and agony of the dramatic loss of a garrison of around fourteen thousand men allowed French prime minister Pierre Mendes to muster enough parliamentary support to sign the Geneva Accords of July 1954, which essentially ended the French presence in Indochina.

Great Depression:

Who: Occured under Herbert Hoover who failed to manage the crisis (he had continued the previous administration's bad policies of cutting government spending and raising US tariffs to protect US industries, which led to retaliatory tariffs which discouraged world commerce and spread the economic collapse worldwide) → he thought that the market forces would correct themselves) → Hoover was replaced by FDR who quickly launched a new deal of economic policies to combat the problems → US only recovered upon entering WWII. When: 1929-1939 → The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations; in most countries it started in 1929 and lasted until the late-1930s. How: Saturation of the market for consumer goods behind high tariff walls during the later 1920s led to falling profit rates. Additionally, the wealthy had begun to shift their money from investment in manufacturing to speculation on the stock market → if stocks went down, the margin calls went out and investors could be wiped out → by late 1920s, slowdown in production yielded immense debt, especially for farmers → in 1929, the speculators panicked and sold their stock for pennies on the dollar → panic extended to manufacturing and finance sectors → banks called in loans at home and abroad leading to a worldwide crisis What: The Great Depression of 1929-1933 was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place mostly during the 1930s, beginning in the United States. It was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. The Great Depression had devastating effects in countries both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%. Unemployment in the U.S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Farmers faced a worse outlook; declining crop prices and a Great Plains drought crippled their economic outlook. By 1933, the economic decline had pushed world trade to one-third of its level just four years earlier.

New Economic Policy (NEP):

Who: Proposed by Vladimir Lenin When: The Bolshevik government adopted the NEP in the course of the 10th Congress of the All-Russian Communist Party (March 1921) and promulgated it by a decree on 21 March 1921 "On the Replacement of Prodrazvyorstka by Prodnalog". Further decrees refined the policy. Joseph Stalin abolished the New Economic Policy in 1928. What: The New Economic Policy (NEP) was an economic policy of Soviet Russia. Lenin characterized the NEP in 1922 as an economic system that would include "a free market and capitalism, both subject to state control" while socialized state enterprises were to operate on "a profit basis". The NEP abolished prodrazvyorstka (forced grain requisition) and introduced prodnalog: a tax on farmers, payable in the form of raw agricultural product. Other policies included the monetary reform (1922-1924) and the attraction of foreign capital. Why: The NEP represented a more market-oriented economic policy, deemed necessary after the Russian Civil War of 1918 to 1922, to foster the economy of the country, which was almost ruined. The complete nationalization of industry, established during the period of War Communism, was partially revoked and a system of mixed economy was introduced, which allowed private individuals to own small enterprises, while the state continued to control banks, foreign trade, and large industries. How: Lenin understood that economic conditions were dire, so he opened up markets to a greater degree of free trade, hoping to motivate the population to increase production. Under the NEP, not only were "private property, private enterprise, and private profit largely restored in Lenin's Russia," but Lenin's regime turned to international capitalism for assistance, willing to provide "generous concessions to foreign capitalism." Lenin took the position that in order to achieve socialism, he had to create "the missing material prerequisites" of modernization and industrial development that made it imperative for Soviet Russia to "fall back on a centrally supervised market-influenced program of state capitalism". The main policy Lenin used was an end to grain requisitions and instead instituted a tax on the peasants, thereby allowing them to keep and trade part of their produce.

The Five Years Plans:

Who: Stalin announced the start of the first five-year plan for industrialization on October 1, 1928, and it lasted until December 31, 1932. Stalin described it as a new revolution from above. When this plan began, the USSR was fifth in industrialization, and with the great success of the first five-year plan moved up to second, with only the United States in first. When: Five year Plans began in 1928 and were most impactful in their early industrializing stages. From 1928 to 1940, the number of Soviet workers in industry, construction, and transport grew from 4.6 million to 12.6 million and factory output soared. Stalin's first five-year plan helped make the USSR a leading industrial nation. What: The five-year plans for the development of the national economy of the Soviet Union (USSR) consisted of a series of nationwide centralized economic plans in the Soviet Union. Most other communist states, including the People's Republic of China, adopted a similar method of planning. Nazi Germany emulated the practice in its four-year plan (1936-1939) designed by the NSDAP to bring Germany to war-readiness. Altogether, Gosplan launched thirteen five-year plans. Why: The initial five-year plans aimed to achieve rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union and thus placed a major focus on heavy industry. Soviet workers believed in the need for "constant struggle, struggle, and struggle" to achieve a Communist society. These five-year plans outlined programs for huge increases in the output of industrial goods. How: Each five-year plan dealt with all aspects of development: capital goods (those used to produce other goods, like factories and machinery), consumer goods (e.g. chairs, carpets, and irons), agriculture, transportation, communications, health, education, and welfare.

Spanish Civil War:

Who: The Republicans, who were loyal to the democratic, left-leaning and relatively urban Second Spanish Republic, in an alliance of convenience with the Anarchists and Communists, fought against the Nationalists, a Falangist, Carlist, Catholic, and largely aristocratic conservative group led by General Francisco Franco. What: a struggle between leftist revolution and rightist counter-revolution In early 1939, the Nationalists won, and Franco ruled over all of Spain until his death in November 1975. The Nationalist forces received munitions, soldiers, and air support from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republican side received support from the Communist Soviet Union and leftist populist Mexico. Tens of thousands of citizens from non-interventionist countries directly participated in the conflict. They fought mostly in the pro-Republican International Brigades which included thousand of exiles from pro-Nationalist regimes. German involvement began days after fighting broke out in July 1936. Adolf Hitler quickly sent in powerful air and armored units to assist the Nationalists. The war provided combat experience with the latest technology for the German military. Germany also used the war to test out new weapons, such as the Luftwaffe Stukas and Junkers Ju-52 transport Trimotors (used also as Bombers), which showed themselves to be effective. Why: The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country. When: The War took place from 1936 to 1939. How: Once Madrid and Barcelona were occupied without resistance, Franco declared victory and his regime received diplomatic recognition from all non-interventionist governments. Thousands of leftist Spaniards fled to refugee camps in southern France. Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists. With the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Franco in the aftermath of the war, all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the Franco regime.

Winston Churchill: (born November 30, 1874—died January 24, 1965, London)

Who: Winston Churchill What: British statesman, orator, and author who as prime minister rallied the British people during World War II and led his country from the brink of defeat to victory. Churchill kept resistance to Nazi dominance alive, and created the foundation for an alliance with the United States and the Soviet Union. Churchill had previously cultivated a relationship with U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s, and by March 1941, he was able to secure vital U.S. aid through the Lend Lease Act, which allowed Britain to order war goods from the United States on credit. After the United States entered World War II, in December 1941, Churchill was confident that the Allies would eventually win the war. In the months that followed, Churchill worked closely with U.S. President Roosevelt and Soviet Union leader Joseph Stalin to forge an Allied war strategy and post-war world. In meetings in Teheran (November-December 1943), Yalta (February 1945) and Potsdam (July 1945), Churchill collaborated with the two leaders to develop a united strategy against the Axis Powers, and helped craft the post-war world with the United Nations as its centerpiece. When: British Prime Minister, 1940-45, 1951-55 How: He was a lonely figure until his response to Adolf Hitler's challenge brought him to leadership of a national coalition in 1940. With Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin he then shaped Allied strategy in World War II, and after the breakdown of the alliance he alerted the West to the expansionist threat of the Soviet Union. He was also a strong proponent of British Imperialism → organized a series of foreign policy crises in the colonies of Kenya and Malaya, where Churchill ordered direct military action. While successful in putting down the rebellions, it became clear that Britain was no longer able to sustain its colonial rule.

Stalin: (18 December 1878 - 5 March 1953)

Who: a Soviet revolutionary and politician of Georgian nationality. When: Governed the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953 What: he served as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1952 and as Premier of the Soviet Union from 1941 to 1953. Initially heading a collective one-party state government, by 1937 he was the country's de facto dictator. Ideologically a Marxist and a Leninist, Stalin helped to formalise these ideas as Marxism-Leninism while his own policies became known as Stalinism → Stalin sat on the governing Politburo during the Russian Civil War and helped form the Soviet Union in 1922. Stalin's government promoted Marxism-Leninism abroad through the Communist International and supported anti-fascist movements throughout Europe during the 1930s, particularly in the Spanish Civil War. In 1939 he signed a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, resulting in their joint invasion of Poland. Germany ended the pact by invading the Soviet Union in 1941. Despite initial setbacks, the Soviet Red Army halted the German incursion and captured Berlin in 1945, ending World War II in Europe. The Soviets annexed the Baltic states and helped establish pro-Soviet Marxist-Leninist governments throughout Central and Eastern Europe. Stalin led his country through its post-war reconstruction, during which it developed a nuclear weapon in 1949. How: Despite Lenin's opposition, Stalin consolidated power following the former's death in 1924. During Stalin's tenure, "Socialism in One Country" became a central concept in Soviet society, and Lenin's New Economic Policy was replaced with a centralised command economy, industrialisation, and collectivisation. These rapidly transformed the country into an industrial power, but disrupted food production and contributed to the famine of 1932-33, particularly affecting Ukraine. To eradicate those regarded as "enemies of the working class", from 1934 to 1939 Stalin organised the "Great Purge" in which hundreds of thousands—including senior political and military figures—were interned in prison camps, exiled, or executed. Why: Stalin was the subject of a pervasive personality cult within the international Marxist-Leninist movement, for whom Stalin was a champion of socialism and the working class. His autocratic government has been widely condemned for overseeing mass repressions, hundreds of thousands of executions, and between 6-9 million non-combatant deaths through its policies.