Latin American History Cumulative Exam

The workers were paid low wages, worked for only four months a year between several other plantations -- to add to that, job findings were relatively scarce for them. America owned half of Cuba's sugar by the end of World War One, owing to overproduction coupled with too few workers -- plus an excess of American loans to Cuba.

In what way does the sugar industry's plummet affect workers?

A product of the Monroe administration in the United States, it stipulated that Western powers (including the States themselves) keep out of the affairs of Latin American countries; however, this did not stop the States from sifting through the pockets of Cuba.

What is the Monroe Doctrine?

In addition to being the capital of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata, it was a major stronghold for the revolutionary forces; its denizens were referred to as "porteños," which literally translates to "people of the port."

What was Buenos Aires's significance in the Latin American wars?

A more modest plot of acreage, referring to either a vineyard, cottage, or farmhouse, positioned adjacent to a plantation.

What was a finca?

Spanish for "commandment," mainly under the Barrillas administration (1885-1892) in Guatemala.

What was a mandamiento?

Since the revolutions were mainly political ones, as opposed to social ones, there was little change implemented on the hierarchy favored by the Creoles, on the subjugation of women, on the subjugation of the working class, on the subjugation of the Africans, and on the subjugation of the indigenous.

What exactly is true about the progress (or lack thereof) in Latin American history?

A city in Ecuador where Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin reconvened to discuss a strategy for fighting off the loyalists; while there is a great deal of speculation as to what was said, but the two went separate paths afterwards.

What is Guayaquil?

The first and second Emperors of Brazil, respectively; they had secured Brazil's independence, becoming one of the very few independent countries to have a monarchy as its form of government -- at least until 1888, following Pedro III's abdication from the throne and the end of slavery. Those monarchies not only granted Brazil "instant legitimacy"; they also helped grant the elites a degree of prestige and privilege.

Who were Pedro I and Pedro II?

People who are European Spanish by birth, but have been born and raised in the colonies; while placed a peg below the peninsulares, they nevertheless boasted much higher societal strata over Native Americans, Africans, and biracial people. As such, many of them were able to position themselves as revolutionary leaders, though their motives were less than altruistic; the revolutions seemed to have little to no bearing whatsoever on their ability to maintain their wealth and the hierarchies they benefitted from.

Who were creoles?

Deriving from the Spanish word for "mansion," referring to wealthier land owners; procured Indigenous laborers who worked for little to no pay, but produced less profitable harvests for local consumption.

Who were haciendas?

Often owned by the haciendas; large acreage of farm land that was often worked at by slaves and unpaid laborers.

Who were latifundias?

Referring specifically to Porifiro Diaz's tenure as dictator of Mexico; he sent the rurales to the site of one agrarian rebellion, killing the rebels he captured by shooting them, using the rurales to crack down on more revolts. Diaz reduced his own salary, as well as the salary of his government employees, attacked smuggling, and pushed for modernization of Mexico -- enlisting the services of the cientificos, or scientific consulate. He also lowered tarriffs and adopted the gold standard for Mexico; by 1890, Mexico has paid off all its debts to the United States.

What exactly was "order and progress" like for Mexico around the turn of the century?

A form of capitalism that is reliant on cottage industries working well within the parameters of their home country; it was deemed a highly inferior form of commerce -- Mexico suffered because of its reliance on it, largely because of their devout adherence to tradition.

What is commercial capitalism?

A form of capitalism whereupon two or more countries can freely trade with one another; considered the gold standard of capitalism due to its success with Westernized powers.

What is international capitalism?

A variant on republicanism which stresses more of the elements of freedom, liberty, and equality; this was more often stated on paper more times than it was ever put into practice -- given how the revolutions sought to change the way we were governed, as opposed to using the revolutions to lend themselves to women's rights, anti-racism, and to rectifying the caste systems. However, though, there was a liberal movement that gained major traction in Mexico that stressed major emphasis on the separation of church and state.

What is liberalism?

An ideology that stresses pride in being part of the cultures, traditions, and citizenship of a country or region; "Viva los Americanos" (Long live the Americans) was the slogan of choice for the Latin American revolutions, given how easily it banded people together -- particularly in their identity as Americans.

What is nationalism?

Embraced widely by Mexican dictator Porifiro Diaz, who extolled the virtues of order and progress, running on the liberal ticket for reforms. Diaz believed that if we embraced a more optimistic outlook on our country's future, then we are on our way to doing our part to attain that outcome.

What is positivism?

The theory or practice of regional, rather than centralized, systems of administration or economic, sociocultural, or political affiliation; following the shift from a monarchy to a republic, Brazil's incompetent centralized system lent itself more to a regionalistic mode of government -- São Paulo, for example, prospered heavily during these times, in spite of boasting the highest level of debt of all the regions in Brazil.

What is regionalism?

Typically defined as the ideology of living as a citizen in a state with popular sovereignty; was the guiding force for many a revolution's gubernatorial principles.

What is republicanism?

Signifying the desire of the colonized to throw off the yoke of the Spanish; prior to these revolutions, none of the colonies shared any commonality whatsoever -- many of the Latin American countries were primarily divided geographically, in addition to attitudes toward caste systems and ideals of government.

What is significant about the Wars of Independence in Latin America?

Fought from 1868 to 1878, known as the Great War; led by Céspedes, ends with the Pact of Zanjón, as signed by General Campos with Lt. General Grajales and the rebels of Zanjón, in 1878; a compromise is reached whereupon manumission of slaves and Chinese immigrants was a given, along with greater freedom of the press and greater freedom to peaceably assemble.

What is the Ten Years' War?

While there was a massive change in leadership, land ownership, constitution, trade and foreign policy, as well as a less draconian caste system, there were several things that remained constant: one-man rule, a weakened economy, the stronghold of the Catholic Church on Latin America, as well as an education system that tended to favor educated Creole middle-class males.

What is the importance of colonial legacy in Latin America?

Specifically, in the case of Pedro I and II, as well as Iturbide's brief ascension to the throne of Mexico, there were attempts to establish particular countries as credible in the eyes of the world -- to give an impression of great prestige and to mask the mindset of "we've defeated the Spaniards, now what?" that loomed within moments of the countries' independences. For example, Iturbide staged a lavish coronation ceremony in 1821 in the Cathedral -- using what he had learned from the Spanish coronation rituals.

What is the importance of legitimacy in Latin America?

America had established trade relations with Cuba around the mid-to-late 1860s, just after fighting the Civil War; while they did not colonize Cuba, their presence was still greatly felt through the people who served Cuba's government -- while the Cubans had initially courted American alliance to help them win their independence from Spain, they gradually grew to resent the overarching "big stick" mentality of the Americans. They also got Puerto Rico as a result of the Spanish-American War, in spite of the Monroe Doctrine.

What is the significance of foreign influence/intervention in Latin America?

Even after the Revolutions, there was still a hesitance to question the institution of slavery or their attitudes towards Africans; for instance, Mexico had outlawed slavery -- but was rather lax on their caste system, which lent itself easily to restricted rights for Africans.

What is the significance of racism in Latin America?

Occupying the areas that are now known as Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina; it was a major revolutionary stronghold against both the British and the Spanish peninsulars; however, much of the battles fought in the region were mainly between armies from Buenos Aires and either royalist or revolutionary armies from provincial towns.

What is the significance of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata?

Considered the "cry of Ipiranga," those were the words spoken by Dom Pedro, son of Jõao I of Portugal, on the banks of the Ipiranga River on 7 September 1822; symbolic of the Brazilians' yearning to break free from the Portuguese crown and catalyst of the Brazilian war for independence. While Jõao returned to Portugal, Pedro remained to be Pedro I, the first Emperor of Brazil.

What is the significance of the words "I remain"?

It consisted primarily of lawyers, clergymen, military personnel, and judges, among others -- and proved to be very disastrous, as many of them could not truly see eye to eye on many aspects.

What is true about the first Constitutional Assembly of Brazil?

The Spanish monarchy's entanglement in the American and French Revolutionary Wars -- as well as the Napoleonic Wars -- had severely weakened its governmental infrastructure and bankrupted it, forcing the Spanish to turn to the Americas to try and replenish themselves.

What role did the American and French Revolutionary Wars play in forming the Latin American revolutions?

The sole lasting remnant of the colonial chokehold on Latin America, it provided a sense of legitimacy, a spiritual purpose, a financial purpose, and a sense of community; it controlled about 80% of the land it occupied.

What role did the Catholic Church play in Latin American society?

In 1880, it was a short-lived system in Cuba whereupon an ex-slave was still under the obligation to work for his former master for eight years. However, in 1886, it was abolished entirely, two years before the projected date of release. Master would pay them a monthly wage and provide them room and board -- both factors of which were at the master's own whim.

What was patronato?

A document that had a strong nationalist undertone; for example, it gave the Mexican people all rights to their oil -- given that it had earlier been occupied by foreign oil companies -- and paved the way for land to be redistributed to peasants, among other things. It also spelled out wage and hour laws, entitlements and benefits, as well as the right to unionize and strike for workers.

What was the Constitution of 1917?

1888: manumission, the absolute prohibition of slavery; any legal document that has justified slavery is now considered null and void from that point on; it was approved by every member of Parliament.

What was the Golden Law?

In Brazil, the Law of Free Birth (1871); anybody who was born to slaves would remain free, but the master still has the right to procure your labor until you hit the age of twenty-one. While not a very big step forward, it nevertheless signaled growing opposition to slavery.

What was the Rio Branco Law?

America's involvement in trying to get Spain to back off Cuba had more to do with the disaster of the U.S.S. Maine -- long thought to be an attack, but what was actually a freak accident. The war, which saw Spain not only relinquish Cuba, but give the Philippines and Puerto Rico to the States, spelled the beginning of America snooping into Cuba's affairs.

What was the Spanish-American War?

Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado proposed the amendment, which would prevent America from annexing Cuba as one of their territories.

What was the Teller Amendment?

Fought between Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay over territory; Brazil courts the alliance of Paraguay to get at Argentina, but eventually betrays the Paraguayans, leading Paraguay to fight back at Brazil, winning.

What was the Triple-Alliance War?

Bolivar mused on the nature of his backfired attempt to organize a mass mutiny against the Spanish colonizers, and called upon Europe to assist them in the Latin American struggle for liberation.

What was the significance of the Jamaican letter to the Latin American revolution?

Common lands to be reclaimed by the villagers, as per Article 27 of the Constitution of Mexico (1917); part of the division of land to the commoners following the 1917 Mexican Revolution.

What were ejidos?

Economies wherein international trade makes up a large chunk of economy.

What were export economies?

Groups that would often take control of the government immediately following a revolution or coup d'état; there were many occurrences of them in Mexico, which contributed a great deal to their political instability and rocky footing as a post-colonial country.

What were juntas?

A shared sense of community as Americans ("Viva los Americanos"), as well as similar attitudes towards religion (Roman Catholicism prevailed in almost all Spanish-speaking colonies).

What were some examples of unifying factors for Latin American countries?

Prior to the independence war, Cuba's sugar plantations were among the most prestigious in the world; however, in 1868, they took a massive hit. Before the Grito de Yara, there were about two thousand; before the war ended, less than a thousand; in 1890, less than one hundred -- larger sugar mills would buy out the smaller ones, as the mills would control the land used for harvesting and milling the sugarcane.

What's the significance of the sugar industry in Cuba?

1912: A mass force consisting of United States Marine Corps and Cuban Army personnel opens fire on PIC (Independent Party of Color) protesters; thousands dead as a result; the PIC were staunch advocates for the sociopolitical advancement of Afro-Cubans.

Which event was considered a racist massacre in Cuban history?

Venezuela, Argentina, Mexico, and Brazil.

Which four countries played a major role in the Latin American revolution movement?

Considered the "founding father" of the Mexican republic, he was considered a highly-respected general and a war hero -- once Iturbide's right-hand man, he helped to spearhead the coup that ousted Iturbide off the throne. The extent of his position was such that, after having his right toe dismembered by cannon blasts, he had it buried with full military honors.

Who was Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna?

In a bizarre twist of irony, he led the Mexican independence movement from the side of the once-loyalist Creole elite -- a move prompted by the new liberal Constitution of Spain. In 1821, he was crowned Mexico's only emperor; he was able to achieve this by staging a mass uprising of subjects in support of him -- and staged a lavish coronation ceremony in the Mexico City Cathedral. After closing down the newly-formed congress, he was ousted by a military-led coup shortly after.

Who was Augustin de Iturbide?

A Cuban planter who, after freeing his slaves in 1868, makes the outright declaration of independence from Spain, the Grito De Yara.

Who was Carlos Manuel de Céspedes?

Successor to Palma; his racial code in Cuba helps to further the divide between the Creole elites and the Afro-Cuban commoners.

Who was Charles Magoon?

The leader of the Anenecuilco movement for Mexico's Revolution, and whose very likeness -- broad sombrero, black mustache, bandolier strapped across his chest, and riding upon a white stallion -- became the icon of the Mexican Revolution itself.

Who was Emiliano Zapata?

The highly-touted candidate for Reformists, had begged and pleaded with Diaz to share more of his power -- but eventually got more and more radical, promising the return of lands taken from indigenous communities, and banded with the Anenecuilco (a group of indigenous people whose land was lost to sugar plantations), one of whom would be Zapata. Eventually, he was ousted by a general, with the approval of the U.S. ambassador for Mexico, and eventually executed in 1913.

Who was Francisco Madero?

The successor to Hidalgo, insofar as grassroots efforts to liberate Mexico were concerned, and laid down more of a groundwork for independence: an end to slavery and to the caste system, as well as the subjugation of the indigenous (he himself was a mestizo). Like Hidalgo, he was executed by royalist forces.

Who was Jose Maria Morelos?

Leader of the Cuban junta movement (or "Cuba Libre," as it was called) after a sojourn in New York City; while in New York, he churned out all sorts of propaganda to arouse the sympathies of the American public in the fight for the Cuban independence movement.

Who was José Martí?

He led the revolutions as delegate for the Viceroyalty of the Rio De La Plata; he had led a combined patriot army of Argentinean and Chilean denizens in western Argentina and planned a surprise attack against Chilean royalists; when he and company reached Santiago, they received much adulation for their efforts before heading onward to Peru.

Who was José de San Martin?

Ruler of Argentina from 1829 to 1852, considered to "exemplify caudillo rule"; represented the pampa's interests, and had his picture placed on church alters, forcing everyone to worship it (and wear red ribbons to support him); anyone caught doing neither would be beaten senselessly by his secret police.

Who was Juan Manuel de Rosas?

President of Guatemala; like Carrera, espoused liberal ideology, but imposed internal peace and established central control through the jefes politicos, or departmental governors assigned to do his bidding (1871-1885).

Who was Justo Rufino Barrios?

A Creole Catholic priest who sparked a mass rebellion -- primarily of indigenous and mestizo fighters -- against the Spanish; his rhetoric of revolution, as well as the terms and conditions of it (including protections for Native Americans, mestizos, and Africans), alienated him from fellow Creole intellectuals. He was among many to use the Catholic religion as a means of banding people together -- of creating a collective identity of Americans. He was captured by the Spanish, forced to repent, and eventually executed; the Spaniards made an example of him by placing his severed head in a metal cage near the Guanajuato granary.

Who was Miguel Hidalgo?

One of the more prominent generals of the Mexican Revolution, rallied together a ragtag army of former cowboys, miners, railroad workers, and oil field roustabouts -- compare to the network of peasant guerrillas that Zapata himself assembled. He was assassinated in 1923.

Who was Pancho Villa?

Overthrew Morazán as leader of Guatemala; heavily championed the rights of the indigenous peoples and was considered their "savior."

Who was Rafael Carrera?

A Venezuelan revolutionary born into aristocracy, he nevertheless cajoled the llaneros into joining his cause; they had fought off Spanish forces and liberated Bogota before venturing onward to Peru, where he fought off a Royalist stronghold at the Battle of Ayacucho.

Who was Símon Bolivar?

Ruled from 1902 to 1906, relied heavily on support from the United States and thus curries favors to the U.S. gov't. He wins re-election in 1905, but is quickly overthrown by a series of guajiro revolts.

Who was Tomas Estrada Palma?

Initially a high-ranking general under the watch of Madero, he organized the coup that called for Madero's assassination in 1913 called the Ten Tragic Days. He was also the 35th President of Mexico from 1913 to 1914 -- and died while undergoing arrest in El Paso, Texas.

Who was Victoriano Huerta?

Seasoned veterans of the Ten Years' War, employed by Martí to drum up support for the Cuban Revolutionary Party around the turn of the 20th century; however, in spite of Maceo being Afro-Cuban and Gomez being a Creole, there were no promises that Cuba would be free of any social inequity.

Who were Maximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo?

Venezuelan and Colombian herders, the equivalent of the Argentinean gaucho in their cowboy-esque lifestyle; primarily Mestizo and of allegiance to the Spanish crown, given their distrust of the predominantly Creole revolutionaries.

Who were llaneros?

Mixed race commoners who rebelled against Palma's regime; as such, Magoon's appointment as Provisional Leader signals the creation of a new race code -- one that would directly affect the Cuban Army, a majority of the personnel being Afro-Cuban.

Who were the Guajiros?

Spaniards -- by birth and by citizenship -- who lived in the colonies; named on account of the Iberian Peninsula; professed loyalty to the Spanish crown and held all the major positions in colonial society.

Who were the Peninsulares?

A predominantly-Creole class of wealthy war heroes who fought in the independence wars or who partook in coups -- and who usurped a great degree of power as a result of their military prowess, in addition to their ability to pander to every sort of ethnic group under the sun.

Who were the caudillos?

Wealthy and opulent hacienda owners versus members of the landless laboring class; tensions that began to fuel the Mexican Revolution a great deal.

Who were the hacendados and the peones?

Afro-Cuban rebels who fought to ward off American involvement; easily stifled in the War for Cuban Independence by American forces.

Who were the mambises?

They came into power because of the large power vacuum left by the Spanish Revolutions, and because of the need to establish legitimacy in the wake of post-colonial life.

Why did caudillos come into prominence?