Leadership 6,7,8

transformational leadership continued again

Bass adopted the terms authentic and pseudotransformational to distinguish between ethical and unethical transformational leaders Authentic transformational leaders are motivated by altruism and marked by integrity; allow followers free choice, followers are viewed as ends in themselves Pseudotransformational leaders are self-centered; they manipulate followers for their own goals

negotiation continued

Fisher, Ury, and Patton's principled negotiation model of problem solving: 1. Separate the people from the problem 2. Focus on interests, not positions 3. Invent options for mutual gain 4. Insist on objective criteria

transactional leadership

Leadership expert Bernard Bass and his colleagues found that transactional leadership has both active and passive elements: Active transactional leaders engage in contingent reward and management-by-exception. Passive-avoidant or laissez-faire leaders wait for problems to arise before taking action, or they avoid taking any action at all.

social proof

Looking at others to determine how we should behave Uncertainty increases the impact of social proof Bystander effect Recognize counterfeit evidence of social proof

Going voice to values

Mary Gentile, director of Giving Voice to Values, outlines seven pillars or foundational concepts that equip us to act on our ethical choices: 1. Recognize that certain values are widely shared. 2. Acknowledge the power of choice. 3. Treat values conflicts as normal. 4. Consider your personal and professional purpose. 5. Play to personal strengths. 6. Find your unique voice. 7. Anticipate rationalizations for unethical behavior.

Moral judgement continued

Models of cognitive development provide important insights into the process of ethical decision making. 1. Contextual variables play an important role in shaping ethical behavior. 2. Education fosters moral reasoning. 3. A broader perspective is better. Consider the needs and viewpoints of others outside your immediate group or organization.

Transformational leadership attributes

Nine charismatic and transformational attributes universally associated with outstanding leadership: 1. Motive arouser 2. Foresight 3. Encouraging 4. Communicative 5. Trustworthy 6. Dynamic 7. Positive 8. Confidence builder 9. Motivational

authority

Obeying authority allows organizations, communities, and societies to coordinate their activities. We often comply with the appearance of authority, not real authority. Consider credentials and the relevance of those credentials.

more on responsible leadership

Only responsible leadership incorporates globalization and stakeholder theory. Responsible leadership theory is in the beginning stages of development, which accounts for many of its shortcomings. Additional theoretical development may address what is perhaps the greatest concern about responsible leadership, which is whether this perspective can serve as a general theory of leadership ethics.

cautions of authentic leadership

Overstates the importance of authenticity Equates authenticity with morality Differing interpretations of authentic behavior Authenticity can be defined as a personal characteristic or as a perception

Communication of Expectations

Pygmalion Effect Self-fulfilling prophecy named after the prince in Greek mythology Acknowledges that we tend to live up to the expectations others place on us, as in leaders' impact on followers Golem effect The idea that negative expectations can lower performance

yukl's tactics

Rational persuasion Apprising Inspirational appeals Consultation Collaboration Ingratiation Personal appeals Exchange Coalition tactics Legitimizing tactics Pressure

more on taoism

Taoist principles provide an ethical framework for such important trends or themes in leadership studies as empowerment, innovation, teamwork, spirituality, and collaboration. Taoism speaks most directly to the leader's use of power and privilege. The Taoist perspective also addresses environmental issues.

aesthetic beautiful leadership

The aesthetic perspective emphasizes the sensory and emotional dimension of organizational life. Successful leaders generate strong positive emotions and attributions. For example, President John F. Kennedy was youthful, energetic, and glamorous. Ethics is integral to aesthetic leadership.

servant leadership

The basic premise of servant leadership is that leaders should put the needs of the followers before their own needs. Servant leaders are less likely to cast shadows by taking advantage of the trust of followers, acting inconsistently, or accumulating money and power.

compliance gaining

These are verbal tactics that leaders and others use to get their way. Gary Yukl of the State University of New York at Albany identified 11 common proactive managerial influence tactics used in the organizational setting. These are listed on the next slide and discussed in detail in the book.

scarcity

This principle is based on the notion that when opportunities are less available, they appear more valuable. This principle is most influential when items or information are newly scarce. We find scarcity hard to resist.

transactional leaders

Transactional leaders emphasize instrumental values, such as responsibility, fairness, and honesty, which make routine interactions go smoothly. Transactional leaders take a utilitarian approach, judging the morality of actions based on their outcomes. Transactional leaders are concerned with protecting their interests rather than in promoting the interests of the group. They are more likely to be controlling.

Normative leadership theories

Transformational Leadership The term transformational leader was the product of a book written by James MacGregor Burns, a former presidential adviser, political scientist, and historian Moral commitments are at the heart of Burns's definition of transforming leadership. Transformational leaders focus on terminal values such as liberty, equality, and justice. Transformational leaders are driven by duty; they are guided by universal ethical principles They are altruistic

transformational vs. charismatic leadership

Transformational v. Charismatic Leadership Charismatic leaders are more person centered; followers have a strong connection to the leader approaching idol worship; their success as leaders is based on their personal characteristics and are result focused Transformational leaders raise the morality of both the leaders and followers; transformational leaders prescribe how leaders should act; and they are much less prone to ethical abuses

liking

We are more likely to comply with the requests of people we like Liking is based on: 1. physical appearance 2. similarity 3. compliments 4. contact and cooperation 5 association

The toulmin model

Professor Stephen Toulmin developed one widely used model for developing arguments: Claim based on fact Grounds or proof to support the claim Warrant makes the link from the grounds to the claim Backing with additional evidence Qualifiers Rebuttals

authentic leadership

Proponents of Authentic Leadership Theory (ALT) identify authenticity as the "root construct" or principle underlying all forms of positive leadership. The practice of authentic leadership leads to sustainable (long-term) and veritable (ethically sound) organizational performance.

component 3 - moral focus / motivation

Psychologists report that self-interest and hypocrisy undermine moral motivation. Sometimes individuals want to do the right thing, but their integrity can be "overpowered." Others never intend to follow an ethical course of action but engage in moral hypocrisy instead. Both self-interest and hypocrisy encourage leaders to set their moral principles aside.

disadvantages off taosim

there are some serious disadvantages to Taoist ethics: In their attempt to follow nature, Taoists encourage leaders to empty themselves of, among other things, reason. Although Taoism has much to say about the shadow of power and our relationship to the world around us, it is silent on many common ethical dilemmas. One final concern should be noted: Taoism's firm conviction that humans, in their natural state, will act morally seems to deny the power of evil.

5 strengths of servant leadership

1. Altruism: Concern for others (followers) comes before the self 2. Simplicity: Having one goal in mind—to serve others 3. Self-awareness: Servant leaders take time to listen to themselves and others and to reflect 4. Moral sensitivity: Servant leaders are acutely aware of the importance of pursuing ethical purposes that bring meaning and fulfillment to work 5. Ongoing development

Strategies for improving organization-wide performance should focus on building follower self-efficacy or self-confidence by:

1. Breaking down tasks into manageable segments and providing followers with the time to practice their skills 2. Delivering constructive suggestions about how to improve performance or how to carry out tasks 3. Modeling skills as well as positive thinking and how to deal with failure 4. Verbal persuasion backed with reasons why the follower will succeed

Four channels leaders use to signal high or low expectancies

1. Climate: the social and emotional atmospheres leaders create for followers 2. Feedback: leaders give more frequent positive feedback when they have high expectations of followers 3. Input: refers to the attention and focus given to followers 4. Output: high performers are given more opportunities to speak

transformational leadership

According to Bass and Avolio, transformational leadership is characterized by the following: Idealized influence: They become role models for followers and put followers' needs above their own Inspirational motivation: Motivate by providing meaning and challenge to the tasks of followers, and they arouse team spirit Intellectual stimulation: Transformational leaders stimulate innovation and creativity Individualized consideration: Act as coaches or mentors who foster personal development

Pros of the foursquare protocol

Advantages (Pros) Highlights the importance of justice and fairness Applies broad principles to individual situations Situates the decision maker Recognizes the influence of self-interest Incorporates both intuition and reason

Pros and Cons of Lonergan/Baird Method

Advantages (Pros) Is widely used Emphasizes the importance of paying attention and gathering data Incorporates ethical principles, reason, and emotion Recognizes the importance of follow-through Disadvantages (Cons) Overlooks many other types of ethical conflicts Used as a tool rather than as part of an ongoing process

Pros and Cons of Nash's 12 Questions

Advantages (Pros) of Nash's 12 Questions Highlights the importance of gathering facts Encourages perspective taking Forecasts results and consequences over time Disadvantages (Cons) of Nash's 12 Questions Is extremely time consuming May not always reach a conclusion Ignores implementation

applications of aesthetic beautiful leadership

Applications of Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership: Recognize the physical dimension of leadership View leadership as a performing art Make aesthetic judgments Decide like an artist

applications off servant leadership

Applications of Servant Leadership Focus on followers Act as a steward Cultivate self-awareness Pursue elevating purposes

applications of taoism

Applications of Taoism Use "soft" tactics Focus on being, not doing Temper your use of power and privilege Follow nature's example

applications of transformational leadership

Applications of Transformational Leadership Start small Employ the full range of leadership behaviors Recognize the universal appeal of transformational leadership

focus on followership ethics

Arizona State University professor Jeffrey Kassing's five strategies workers use to express dissent to the organizational leaders Direct-factual appeals Solution presentations Repetition Circumvention Threatening resignation

transformational leadership continued

Bass found that transformational leadership uses both transactional and transformational elements. The transformational leader uses the active elements of the transactional approach (contingent reward and management-by-exception) along with idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Evidence from more than 100 empirical studies establishes that transformational leaders are more successful than their transactional counterparts.

aesthetic beautiful leadership continued

British leadership professor Donna Ladkin identifies three components that contribute to a beautiful leadership performance: The first is mastery. An ethical/beautiful leader is competent and possesses the necessary skills and abilities to perform in a given moment. The second component is coherence. The beautiful, ethical leader is authentic, acting in a way that is consistent with his or her message and purpose. The third component is purpose. The beautiful leader serves the best interests of the community and improves the human condition.

components of moral actions

Business ethics educators Charles Powers and David Vogel identify six factors or elements that underlie moral reasoning and behavior and that are particularly relevant in organizational settings. Moral imagination Moral identification and ordering Moral evaluation Tolerating moral disagreement and ambiguity Integrate managerial competence with moral competence Moral obligation

the foursquare protocol

Catholic University law professor and attorney Stephen Goldman's protocol method: Protocol Element 1: Close description of the situation. Protocol Element 2: Gathering accumulated experiences in similar situations. Protocol Element 3: Recognize the significant distinctions between the current problem and past ones. Protocol Element 4: Situating yourself to decide.

cautions of aesthetic beautiful leadership

Cautions of Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership Ignores the rational dimension of leadership Definitions of beauty vary Performances can be dishonest

Aggressive tactics include:

Competence attacks Character attacks Insults Teasing Ridicule Maledictions Profanity Physical appearance attacks Threats Nonverbal indicators that express hostility

Component 1

Component 1. Moral Sensitivity (Recognition) Moral sensitivity (recognizing the presence of an ethical issue) is the first step in ethical decision making because we can't solve a moral problem unless we first know that one exists. Empathy and perspective skills are essential to this component of moral action. We may even deceive ourselves into thinking that we are acting morally when we are clearly not, a process called ethical fading. We can take steps to enhance our ethical sensitivity.

Component 1 continued

Component 1. Moral Sensitivity (Recognition) cont'd. Paying attention to our emotions can be an important clue that we are faced with an ethical dilemma. Anger, disgust, and contempt are other-condemning emotions. Shame, embarrassment, and guilt are self-conscious emotions that encourage us to obey the rules and uphold the social order. Sympathy and compassion are other-suffering emotions. Gratitude, awe, and elevation are other-praising (positive) emotions that open us up to new opportunities and relationships.

Component 2

Component 2. Moral Judgment Moral judgment has generated more research than the other components of Rest's model. Harvard psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg argued that individuals progress through a series of moral stages just as they do physical ones. Kohlberg identified three levels of moral development, each divided into two stages.

commitment and consistency

Consistency reduces the need for careful thought and reduces the likelihood of regret or dissonance after making a decision. Once we make a commitment, no matter how minor, we want to remain consistent.

criticisms of servant leadership

Cynicism: The first response when this model is presented; some equate servant leadership with passivity A misunderstanding that equates service with weakness Misplaced goals: A problem for both servant leaders and followers Members of some minority groups, particularly African Americans, associate the word servant with a history of slavery, oppression, and discrimination

decision making formats

Decision-making guidelines or formats can help us make better ethical choices. Taking a systematic approach encourages teams and individuals to carefully define the problem, gather information, apply ethical standards and values, identify and evaluate alternative courses of action, and follow through on their choices.

cautions of taoism

Denies reason Rejects codes and laws Is ambiguous about many moral issues Does not adequately explain evil

applications of responsible leadership

Develop your sense of social responsibility Encourage corporate social responsibility Play the roles of the responsible leader Broaden your focus to outside the organization

Cons of the foursquare protocol

Disadvantages (Cons) Undervalues other important ethical values and principles Hard to recognize what is relevant and significant and what is not Self-interest may still influence our decisions

cautions of transformational leadership

Equating success with transformation Leader centric Fosters dependency Offers no guarantee against unethical behavior

Ethical issues in influence

Ethical Issues in Influence The key for leaders is not whether to exercise influence but how to do so in an ethical manner. This chapter examines the ethical issues surrounding four sets of influence tools important to leaders: Compliance gaining The communication of expectations Argumentation Negotiation

A dual process approach

Ethical thinking activates both cognitive and emotional areas of the brain. The dual process perspective is based on the premise that both logic and emotion are essential to making good ethical choices. As neuroscientists have discovered, we can't make good ethical choices without employing our feelings.

decision making formats continued

Ethicist Rushworth Kidder's nine steps that can help bring order to confusing ethical issues: 1. Recognize that there is a problem 2. Determine the actor 3. Gather the relevant facts 4. Test for right-versus-wrong issues 5. Test for right-versus-right values 6. Apply the ethical standards and perspectives 7. Look for a third way 8. Make the decision 9. Revisit and reflect on the decision

Nash's 12 questions

Ethics consultant Laura Nash offers 12 questions that can help businesses and other groups identify the responsibilities involved in making moral choices. Question 1: Have you defined the problem accurately? Question 2: How would you define the problem if you stood on the other side of the fence? Question 3: How did this situation occur in the first place? Question 4: To whom and to what do you give your loyalties as a person or group and as a member of the organization? Question 5: What is your intention in making this decision? Question 6: How does this intention compare with the likely results? Question 7: Whom could your decision or action injure? Question 8: Can you engage the affected parties in a discussion of the problem before you make your decision? Question 9: Are you confident that your position will be as valid over a long period of time as it seems now? Question 10: Could you disclose without qualm your decision or action to your boss, your CEO, the board of directors, your family, or society as a whole? Question 11: What is the symbolic potential of your action if understood? Misunderstood? Question 12: Under what conditions would you allow exceptions to your stand?

Lonergan/Baird Method

Ethics expert Catharyn Baird used philosopher Bernard Lonergan's model to develop a framework for making ethical choices Step 1: Be attentive—Consider what works and what doesn't. Step 2: Be intelligent—Sort through the data. Step 3: Be reasonable—Evaluate the options. Step 4: Be responsible—Act with courage.

responsible leadership

European researchers Nicola Pless and Thomas Maak believe that leaders can help their corporations become a force for global good through exercising responsible leadership. Maak and Pless define responsible leadership "as a values-based and principle driven relationship between leaders and stakeholders who are connected through a shared sense of meaning and purpose through which they raise to higher ethical levels of motivation and commitment for achieving sustainable value creation and responsible change."

Moral character

Executing the plan of action takes character. The positive character traits described in Chapter 3 contribute to ethical follow-through. Courage, prudence, integrity, humility, reverence, optimism, compassion In addition to virtues, other personal characteristics contribute to moral action. Those with a strong will or internal locus of control Successful implementation also requires competence.

concepts of servant leadership

Five concepts that appear to be central to Servant Leadership 1. Stewardship: Being a servant leader means acting on behalf of others. 2. Obligation: Servant leaders take their obligations or responsibilities seriously. 3. Partnership: Servant leaders view followers as partners, not subordinates. 4. Emotional healing: Servant leaders help followers and organizations recover from disappointment, trauma, hardship, and broken relationships. 5. Elevating purpose: Servant leaders also serve worthy missions, ideas, and causes.

focus on follower ethics

Followers have the greatest impact on leaders when they develop psychological ownership, foster trust, and practice transparency. Psychological ownership: Authentic followers feel like they "own" the organizations where they work and volunteer. Trust: They build trust with their leaders by taking on challenges without being asked. Transparency: By sharing their thoughts, values, and feelings, they help create transparent relationships with their leaders.

more on authentic leadership

For authenticity to have a positive influence on organizational behavior, observers must perceive that a leader's behavior is authentic. Authenticity then becomes a product of perception, not of personal beliefs and behaviors. Being authentic is no longer enough. Leaders must also appear authentic.

4 components of authenticity

Four Components of Authenticity 1. Self-awareness means being conscious of, and trusting in, our motives, desires, feelings, and self-concept. 2. Balanced processing describes remaining objective when receiving information. 3. Internalized moral perspective refers to regulating our behavior according to our internal standards and values, not according to what others say. 4. Relational transparency is presenting the authentic self to others, openly expressing true thoughts and feelings appropriate for the situation.

taoism continued

Images (Cont'd.) Third image: Water provides an important insight into how leaders ought to influence others by illustrating that there is great strength in weakness. Fourth image: Valley. Taoists highlight the importance of the yin, or feminine side of leadership, which is represented by the valley metaphor. Leaders should seek to be valleys (which reflect the yin) rather than prominent peaks (which reflect the yang). Fifth image: The clay pot, which celebrates emptiness by elevating nothing to higher status than something.

Ethical Decision making & behavior

In recent years, a growing number of scholars have challenged the cognitive approach to ethical decision making. One critic is University of Virginia psychologist Jonathan Haidt. Haidt calls his approach to ethical decision making the Social Intuitionist Model to highlight the role that intuition and social norms play in moral determinations. Neuroimaging studies reveal that ethical decision making is not localized in one portion of the brain but involves several different regions.

cautions of responsible leadership

In the early stages of development Overlaps other theories Corporations are resistant to an expanded social role Liberal bias Focuses exclusively on business leadership

Negotiation

Involves influencing those who actively disagree The goal of negotiation is to reach a settlement that satisfies both sides Leaders of all kinds engage in negotiation Ethical issues in negotiation generally fall into three categories: The choice of tactics The distribution of benefits The impact of the settlement on those who are not at the bargaining table

Pros of Kidder's Theory

Is thorough Considers problem ownership Emphasizes the importance of getting the facts straight Recognizes that dilemmas can involve right-right as well as right-wrong choices Encourages the search for creative solutions Sees ethical decision making as a learning process

Cons of Kidder's Theory

It is not easy to determine who has the responsibility for solving a problem The facts are not always available, or there may not be enough time to gather them Decisions don't always lead to action

components of moral actions continued

James Rest of the University of Minnesota developed what may be the most widely used model of moral behavior. He started with the end product—moral action—and then determined the steps that produce such behavior. He concluded that ethical action is the result of four psychological subprocesses: 1. Moral sensitivity (recognition) 2. Moral judgment 3. Moral focus (motivation) 4. Moral commitment

Component 2 continued

Kohlberg's Three Levels of Moral Development Level I: Preconventional Thinking Level II: Conventional Thinking Level III: Postconceptual or Principled Reasoning

Argumentation

Leaders generally rely on arguments when they want to influence others who take a different side on controversial issues Argumentation is focused on ideas Verbal aggressiveness is hostile communication that attacks the self-concepts of others instead of issues

resisting influence

Leaders must resist unethical influence attempts Reciprocation (Give and Take) Reciprocation—the obligation to repay others—is a universal norm of human society that encourages cooperation. The power of reciprocation is long lasting. The reciprocity norm can lead to disastrous decisions. One way to resist the power of reciprocity is by turning down the initial favor.

applications of authentic leadership

Recognize the significance of authenticity Develop the four components of authenticity Foster authenticity in others

responsible leadership continued

Responsible leadership, then, manifests itself in the following roles: The leader as steward The leader as servant The leader as coach The leader as architect The leader as storyteller The leader as change agent The leader as citizen

Moral Judgement

Rest developed the Defining Issues Test (DIT) to measure moral development. Hundreds of studies using the DIT reveal that moral reasoning generally increases with age and education. Principled leaders can boost the moral judgment of a group by encouraging members to adopt more sophisticated ethical schemas.

cautions off servant leadership

Seems unrealistic May not work in every context Poses the danger of serving the wrong cause or offering unwise service The term servant carries a negative connotation

Argumentation expert Dominic Infante identifies five skills that make up argumentative competence:

Stating the controversy in propositional form Inventing arguments Presenting and defining your position Attacking other positions Managing interpersonal relations

taoism

Taoism (pronounced "Dowism") is one of the world's oldest philosophies, dating back to ancient China (600-300 BC). The Tao is the shapeless, nameless force or "nonbeing" that brings all things into existence, or being, and then sustains them. Ethical leaders and followers develop te, or character, by acting in harmony with the Tao, not by following rules and commandments. Taoists rely on images or metaphors drawn from nature and daily life to illustrate the characteristics of model leaders. First image: An uncarved block of stone or wood is nameless and shapeless, like the Tao itself. Second image: A child serves as another reminder that wise leaders don't get caught up in the pursuit of power and privilege but remain humble

component 3 continued

moral focus/motivation People are more likely to give ethical values top priority when rewarded through raises, promotions, public recognition, and other means for doing so. Emotions also play a part in moral motivation. Sympathy, disgust, guilt, and other moral emotions prompt us to take action. Positive emotions such as joy and happiness make people more optimistic and more likely to live out their moral choices and to help others.

ethical blind spots

moral judgement 1. Overestimating our ethicality. 2. Forgiving our own unethical behavior. 3. In-group favoritism. 4. Implicit prejudice. 5. Judging based on outcomes, not the process.