Leadership

The University of Michigan Studies

Identified two dimensions of leader behavior: - Employee oriented: emphasizing personal relationships - Production oriented: emphasizing task accomplishment Michigan originally said employee and production were two ends of the same continuum.

LMX Criticisms

Inadvertently supports the development of privileged groups in the workplace; appears unfair and discriminatory; The basic theoretical ideas of the theory are not fully developed •How are high-quality leader-member exchanges created? •What are the means to achieve building trust, respect, and obligation? What are the guidelines?; Most current LMX scales do not measure exchange; few measure the reciprocity between leader and follower even thought that is what LMX claims to be... could be redundant with transformational leadership, contingent rewards/behaviors

Walter & Scheibe (2013)

LQ. Age and leadership, focus on emotions. Older adults: have decreases in emotion recognition, but increases in emotion understanding and regulation. experience more positive moods. often positively related with passive behaviors. mixed relationships with change-oriented behaviors, relationship behaviors. inverted U relationship with leader emergence. often decreases in task effectiveness.

Lee et al. (2017)

LQ. How do I get my way? Meta-analysis on influence tactics. tactics are specific behaviors. what are the actual EFFECTS of these tactics on relationship, task outcomes? Rational persuasion is the only tactic which held stable positive relationships with both categories of outcomes regardless of moderating factors. moderators: direction, measurement, alone/in combination, direction of the tactic- is it given to someone below, above, beside you? 1. update from prior meta analysis done til 2000. 2. sorted out task and relationship outcomes. 3. test moderators. Rational persuasion: logical arguments to persuade in the attempt to attain task objectives. (POSITIVE, SUPPORTED) Exchange: explicit or implicit rewards for compliance. (POSITIVE, NOT SUPPORTED) Inspirational appeal: arouse target's enthusiasm by appealing to values/ideals. (POSITIVE, SUPPORTED) Apprising: explaining that doing something will benefit the target personally, or help them progress in their career. (POSITIVE, SUPPORTED). Collaboration: provide resources and help if the target will carry out a request. it's about the request. such as showing them how to do the request. (POSITIVE< SUPPORTED) Ingratiation: making a target feel better about a request before or during the influence attempt. flattery, praise. (POSITIVE, SUPPORTED). Consultation: seeking the target's participation or planning in an activity in which the targets help will be needed. (POSITIVE, SUPPORTED). Personal appeals: promote feelings of friendship before asking for help with an activity. (POSITIVE, NOT SUPPORTED). Legitmating: establish the appropriateness of a request or verify the authority to make a request. policies and hierarchies. (NEGATIVE, NOT SUPPORTED) Coalition: seek help from others to influence a target (NEGATIVE, NOT SUPPORTED). Pressure: demand, threats, continual checking, reminders (NEGATIVE, NOT SUPPORTED). direction (STRONGER WHEN DOWNWARD for several task, relationship outcomes), measurement (more positive for IBQ), singular/combination (more effective alone oftentimes for tasks), study setting (higher in private than public sample)

Ronay et al (2019)

LQ. Playing the trump card: why we select overconfident (inaccurate and exaggerated perception of one's abilities or knowledge) leaders. Five studies, multiple methods. Field, cross sectional political, experimental. Study 1 - field study with Hr consultants. Study 2 - lab study to parse out intra- and interpersonal aspects of overconfidence Study 3 - experiment manipulating competence to see selection decisions Study 4 - cross sectional study in context of 2016 US primaries Study 5 - agent-based simulation measured overconfidence using item-confidence paradigm across all studies: compares correctness to self-reported confidence. Why? overconfidence buffers stress, which improves performance. regardless of competence, confidence increases leadership potential.

Judge & Piccolo (2009)

LQ. The bright and dark sides of leader traits. The trait approach is not as simple as people make it out to be. Puts forth a conceptual model of leader trait emergence effectiveness. mentions theoretical underpinnings of the approach: evolutionary theory, behavioral genetics, socioanalytic theory (why traits relate to emergence: getting along and getting ahead) Dark traits: narcissism, hubris (pride), social dominance, machiavellianism (manipulative). Bright side of bright traits: conscientious leaders uphold ethical standards. Dark side of bright traits: self-confidence leader pursues risky decision. Bright side of dark traits: dominant leader takes control of ambiguous situation. Dark side of dark traits: narcissistic leader manipulates stock price to coincide with exercise of personal stock options

Blake and Mouton (1964)

Managerial Grid (copyright) used in organizational training and development. renamed Leadership Grid. explains how leaders help organizations to reach their purposes through two factors: concern for production and concern for people authority-compliance, country-club management (friendly, low concern for results), impoverished management, middle of the road, team management, paternalism/maternalism (benevolent dictator), opportunism (any combination of behaviors)

DeRue et al. 2011

PPsych. Proposes an integrated model where behaviors mediate the relationship between traits and effectiveness. Meta-analysis of trait and behavioral theories of leadership. Looked at their relative effects. Combined, they explain 31% of the variance in leadership effectiveness. Leader behaviors explain more variance than leader traits. Traits predicted affective and relational criteria more than performance-related criteria. those who are high in Conscientiousness and Extraversion are more likely to be evaluated as effective leaders, and individuals high in Conscientiousness and agreeableness tend to improve the performance of the groups they lead. the large negative relationship we found between passive leadership behaviors and effectiveness suggests that even engaging in suboptimal leadership behaviors is better than inaction

House (1971)

Path-goal theory. How leaders motivate followers to accomplish designated goals. enhance follower performance and satisfaction by focusing on motivation. leadership motivates when it makes the path to the goal clear and easy to travel through coaching and direction, removing obstacles and roadblocks to attaining the goal, and making the work itself personally satisfying. basis is in Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory whether a behavior is motivating depends on follower characteristics (needs for affiliation, preferences for structure, desires for control, self-perceived level of task ability) and characteristics of the task (formal authority system, primary work group, task itself) for a task that is structured, unsatisfying, or frustrating: leader should be supportive. for followers who are authoritarian, leaders should be directive. for tasks that are ambiguous or in organizations with unclear rules, leaders should be directive. when a task is ambiguous: participative leadership is good. achievement orientation is also good. as a theory, explicitly left open for inclusion of other variables, originally focuses on directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented. leaders should adapt their behaviors depending on the followers and situation.

Skills Approach to Leadership

Primarily descriptive and behavioral theory of leadership; focuses on problem-solving, social judgment skills, knowledge competencies through the lens of career experience, and environmental influences. a DESCRIPTIVE approach.

The Ohio State studies

Survey-based. Asked followers to assess the number of times their leaders engaged in certain behaviors. starting with a list of 1,800, narrowed down to 150 questions. It became the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire. given to people in education, military, and industry. Stogdill (1963) later made an abridged version, the LBDQ-XII. two factors: initiating structure, and consideration. Ohio State said these were two different factors, NOT on the same continuum.

The three foundational studies of the behavior approach

The Ohio State Studies: based on Stogdill (1948)'s finding that leadership is more than just traits. at the same time as the University of Michigan studies on leadership in small groups. also at the same time as Blake and Mouton's work on managers' use of task and relationship behaviors.

Gender and Leadership

The number of women managers is rising but is still relatively low in the top levels of management. Stereotypes suggest women are supportive and concerned with interpersonal relations. Men are seen as task-focused.

Fayoll (1916)

The primary functions of management: planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling.

leadership

a process in which an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal (Northouse)

emotional intelligence

ability to perceive and express emotions, to use emotions to facilitate thinking, to understand and reason with emotions, and to effectively manage emotions within oneself and in relationships with others.

legitimate power

associated with having status or formal job authority

referent power

based on followers' identification and liking for the leader

task behaviors

behaviors that facilitate goal accomplishment: Help group members achieve objectives

relationship behaviors

behaviors that help subordinates feel comfortable with themselves, each other, and the situation

Kellerman (2012)

book; legitimate power no longer means leadership; followers are acquiring more power now

leadership and management (similarities)

both involve influence, working with people, accomplishing goals, similar activities

Mann (1959)

critique of the trait approach. review of leader trait findings. the six traits of a leader: intelligence, masculinity, adjustment, dominance, extraversion, and conservatism.

coercive power

derived from having the capacity to penalize or punish others

reward power

derived from having the capacity to provide rewards to others

information power

derived from possessing knowledge that others want or need

history of leadership definitions

dominance (20s), traits (30s), group activities (40s), behavior (60s), organizational behaviors (70s), influence and transformation (80s), authentic/spiritual/servant/adaptive (00s)

personal power

expert power, referent power. likable and knowledgeable.

Stogdill (1974)

follow-up of Stogdill (1948). Turns out both traits and situations matter for leadership. Traits like self-confidence, responsible, risk-taking, etc.

Simonet and Tett (2012)

had 43 experts sort activities associated with leadership and management. found some overlap, but leadership involved motivating intrinsically, creative thinking, strategic planning, tolerance of ambiguity, and reading people. management involved rule orientation short-term planning, motivating extrinsically, orderliness, safety concerns, and timeliness.

trait approach today

in practice, we look for "profiles" and certain characteristics for filling roles (Ronay et al. 2019) and big data (Oswald et al. 2020) and person-centric approaches--within-person variation (Weiss & Rupp, 2011; Fleeson, 2001) and qualitative approaches (Pratt & Bonaccio, 2016) and aging workforce (Walter and Scheibe, 2013)

traits most consistently related to leadership

intelligence/cognitive ability (but intelligence should not differ from followers too much), confidence, determination, integrity

Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995)

leader-member exchange (LMX) theory; leaders do not treat each subordinate the same; LMX quality can range from low to high

leadership and behavioral genetics

leaders are born in the sense that identical twins reared apart shared similarities in leadership emergence. heritability of emergence and effectiveness in the 30%-60% range. but it's complex, definitely interacts with environment

leadership and management differences (Rost, 1991)

leadership is multidimensional influence, management is unidimensional force. leadership dates back further (Aristolte), management started with industrialization. Management main goal is to reduce chaos--planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling. Leadership main goal is produce change and movement.

position power

legitimate, reward, coercive, information

Stogdill (1948)

major review which stated that there was not a universal set of traits that differentiated leaders and non-leaders across situations. Leadership is mostly determined by situations.

Goleman (1995, 1998)

make bold claims about how much EQ matters. Treats it as a set of personal competencies like self-awareness, confidence, self-regulation, conscientiousness, and motivation. as well as social competencies like empathy and social skills (communication, conflict management).

Mayer-Salovery-Caruso (2000)

make soft claims about how much EQ matters. The Mayer-Salovery-Caruso Emtotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) assesses one's ability to perceive, facilitate, understand, and manage emotion.

LMX Theory

makes the dyadic relationship between leaders and followers the focal point of the leadership process

Rockstuhl et al. (2012)

meta analysis in JAP LMX and culture. LMX has stronger effects in horizontal and individualistic cultures (Western) regarding LMX with OCB, justice perceptions, satisfaction, turnover, leader trust. Culture does not moderate the relationship between LMX and performance, organizational commitment, and transformational leadership.

Dulebohn et al. 2012

meta analysis in JOM antecedents of LMX are leader behaviors/perceptions, follower characteristics, interpersonal relationship characteristics, and contextual variables. leader variables explain most of the variance in LMX; leaders make the relationship. Type of scale used, work setting does not moderate findings. LMX explains behavioral, attitudinal, perceptual (justice) outcomes. future directions: more focus on leader behaviors as antecedents of LMX; work context; multilevel; non-Western cultures; long-term longitudinal beyond 1 year.

Lord et al. (1986)

meta analysis of leader traits. three traits of a leader: intelligence, masculinity, and dominance.

Judge et al (2002)

meta-analysis of 222 correlations from 73 samples from 78 studies leadership and personality studies between 1967-1998. extraversion most strongly related to leadership. followed by conscientiousness, openness, low neuroticism. Agreeableness only weakly related. ECONA. together, R = .53 with leader emergence, and R = 0.39 with leadership effectiveness. critique: questionable conceptualization of leadership effectiveness: how leaders are regarded not equal to whether they have effective teams, etc. perceived influence not same as effectiveness.

assigned leadership

occupying a position in an organization

Kaiser, Hogan, and Craig (2008)

outcomes of leadership studies. 1. leader emergence 2. leader effectiveness, which is measured in two ways (a): evaluations by followers (affective) and group outcomes (objective).

Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991)

qualitative review of leader traits. six traits of a leader: drive (ambition/energy), motivation (personalized vs. socialized), integrity, confidence (they say this can improved), cognitive ability (probably the least trainable), and task knowledge. also noted that followers' perceptions of leaders matter.

Hersey and Blanchard (1969)

situational approach. used extensively in leadership development and training. different situations demand different kinds of leadership. leadership consists of a directive and a supportive dimension, and each has to be applied appropriately in a given situation. to know how, you must know your followers' competence and commitment. low competence, low commitment: coaching. low competence, high commitment: directing. high competence, low commitment: supporting. high competence, high commitment: delegating. followers move forward and backward along the developmental continuum. leaders must adapt. Situational Leadership II model.

French and Raven (1962); Raven (1965)

six bases of power: referent, expert, legitimate, reward, coercive. information (added in 65)

conceptual skills

skills that involve the ability to picture the organization as a whole and the relationship among its various parts (Katz, 1955)

Mumford et al (2000)

study of more than 1,800 Army officers, representing six grade levels, from second lieutenant to colonel. used several new measures and tools to assess skills, experiences, and situations. the capability model. rather than focusing on unchangeable traits or on what leaders do (behavior), the capability model focuses on the knowledge and skills that make effective leadership possible. five components: competencies (problem solving skills, social judgment skills, knowledge) individual attributes (generalized cognitive ability, crystallized cognitive ability, motivation, personality), leadership outcomes (effective problem solving, performance), career experiences, and environmental influences (technology, facilities, expertise of subordinates, and communication). career experiences connect attributes and competencies. environmental influences connect attributes and outcomes.

human skills

the ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both individually and in groups (Katz, 1955)

Katz (1955)

the bridge between trait and skills approaches focus on more developable things. technical skill, human skill, conceptual skill. suggests importance of particular leadership skills varies depending where leaders reside in management hierarchy top managers: mostly human and conceptual, little technical. middle managers: technical, human, and conceptual. supervisory managers: mostly technical, human, little conceptual.

initiating structure

the degree to which a leader structures the roles of followers by setting goals, giving directions, setting deadlines, and assigning tasks

consideration

the extent to which a leader is friendly, approachable, and supportive and shows concern for employees

LBDQ-XII

the most widely used instrument in leadership research. weaknesses: strengths:

technical skills

the specialized procedures, techniques, and knowledge required to get the job done (Katz, 1955)

Stogdill (1974)

there are as many definitions of leadership as there are leaders. also: initiating structure, consideration.

coerce

to influence others to do something against their will. E.g., manipulating penalties and rewards. is not leadership because it goes against working WITH followers to achieve a common goal.

behavioral approach

what leaders do and how they act. all boils down to two kinds of behaviors: task behaviors and relationship behaviors. a framework, not a theory. DeRue et al. (2011): change-oriented behaviors, as well.

emergent leadership

when others perceive an individual as the most influential member of a group, regardless of a title. achieved via communication, social interactions.

path goal theory: criticisms

1. complexity. it has a bunch of propositions, but balancing all of them is unlikely in practice. 2. only partial support in research. some parts of the the theory have received more attention than others (eg participative understudied).

trait approach: strengths

1. great for personal awareness: gives us mental benchmarks. 2. intuitive: matches popular media depictions of leaders. 3. century of research on the topic. meta-analyses. 4. deep understanding of one key component of leadership (the leader). 5. builds off of/maps onto personality research. 6. could inform other approaches--e.g., implicit theories of leadership: what did scholars THINK was important for leadership back in the 30s, how has that changed?

skills approach: strengths

1. leader-centered model. considers all levels of leaders. 2. intuitively appealing. available to everyone when leadership can be developed. 3. expansive view with several parts, like problem solving social judgment skills, knowledge, individual attributes, career experiences, environmental influences. 4. well-suited for developmental programs and training curricula. 5. builds off of trait research rather than trying to replace it. 6. considers context. 7. appealing from a theoretical perspective.

behavior approach: strengths

1. major shift in leadership research, away from traits/skills. starting to think about situations a little. 2. research support for the basic tenants. 3. conceptually clear. 4. heuristic: provides a broad map when understanding complexities of leadership.

trait approach: weaknesses

1. never resulted in a definitive list of leader traits. 2. fails to take situations into account. 3. is highly subjective in determining the most important traits 4. overly focused on traits, rather than their consequences. 5. traits are not easily changed, so it's not great from a developmental/training perspective. 6. has misguided implications in selection. 7. what about traits over time? Some traits do change.

situational strength: criticisms

1. not a ton of research on SL II. 2. are the four levels of development distinct? 3. how are competence and commitment weighted? is this trajectory linear? 4. Vecchio (1987) and subsequent work failed to validate this approach. done with teachers and military cadets and banking workers. 5. what about demographic characteristics? 6. what about 1-1 versus group contexts? 7. Questionnaires about this approach use the four predetermined behaviors rather than opening it up to other behaviors. These have correct answers.

behavior approach: weaknesses

1. not clearly shown how behaviors relate to performance outcomes. 2. never resulted in a universal style of leadership. 3. implies that most effective leadership style is high-high, but this is not always the case. 4. easy business applications. Grid seminars.

path goal theory: strengths

1. theory-driven (Vroom, 1964 expectancy). 2. expanded beyond two classes of leader behavior to include four, then eight. 3. one of the first contingency theories. 4. very practical.

skills approach: weaknesses

1. too general, not precise enough. 2. does not do well in predicting outcomes. is somewhat non-falsifiable. doesn't put forth how social judgment skills, problem solving skills relate to outcomes. 3. is not conceptually different enough from trait model to warrant a new approach. 4. rooted in Army research. can this model generalize?

situational approach: strengths

1. useful in applied settings. used in most Fortune 500 companies. 2. practical and intuitive. 3. prescriptive. tells you what to do in various situations. 4. emphasizes leader flexibility. 5. tailored to follower needs.

House (1996)

20 years later, lessons learned about path-goal theory. now included 8 classes of leadership behaviors: directive supportive participative achievement-oriented new additions included: work facilitation group-oriented decision process work-group representation and networking value-based leadership behavior.

trait approach

A leadership perspective that attempts to determine the personal characteristics that great leaders share. renewed interest with Obama elected in 2008--charisma. It doesn't put forth any hypotheses about behaviors, situations

expert power

Based on followers' perceptions of the leader's competence