Leadership chapter 9

Achievement Orientation

-Atkinson proposed that a person's tendency to exert effort toward task accomplishment depends partly on the strength of his/her motivation to achieve success (i.e., achievement orientation). -McClelland said that individuals with a strong need for achievement strive to accomplish socially acceptable endeavors and activities. -Achievement orientation is a component of the Five Factor Model or OCEAN model of personality dimension of conscientiousness. -Achievement orientation is often a key success factor for people who advance to the highest levels of organizations.

Using operant principles to improve followers' motivation and performance requires several steps.

-Clearly specify what behaviors are important. -Determine if those behaviors are currently being punished, rewarded, or ignored. -Find out what followers find rewarding and punishing. -Be wary of creating perceptions of inequity when administering individually tailored rewards. -Do not limit oneself to administering organizationally sanctioned rewards and punishments. -Administer rewards and punishments in a contingent manner whenever possible.

Goal Setting

-From the leader's perspective, goal setting involves setting clear performance targets and helping followers create systematic plans to achieve them. -According to Locke and Latham, goals are the most powerful determinants of task behaviors. -Goals direct attention, mobilize effort, help people develop strategies for achievement, and help people continue exerting effort until goals are reached. This leads, in turn, to even higher goals.

Locke and Latham's research identified several common aspects of goal setting.

-Goals that were both specific and difficult resulted in consistently higher effort and performance when contrasted to "do your best" goals. -Goal commitment is critical. Goals set either by leaders unilaterally or through participation with followers can lead to necessary levels of commitment. -Followers exerted the greatest effort when goals were accompanied by feedback; followers getting goals or feedback alone generally exerted less effort.

Organizational justice consists of 3 components.

-Interactional justice is the degree that people are given information about reward procedures and are treated with dignity and respect. -Distributive justice concerns followers' perceptions of whether the level of reward or punishment is commensurate with an individual's performance or infraction. -Procedural justice relates to the process that rewards and punishments are administered.

Empowerment has two key components:

-Leaders delegate leadership and decision making down to the lowest level possible. -Leaders equip followers with the resources, skills, and knowledge necessary to make good decisions.

Surveys have important findings for leaders.

-People generally like their occupations but may not like the pay, benefits, or their boss. -People with longer tenure or in higher positions tend to have higher global and facet satisfaction ratings than those newer to or lower in the organization (i.e. hierarchy effect). -People who are happier with their jobs tend to have higher life satisfaction ratings.

Affectivity refers to one's tendency to react to stimuli in a consistent emotional manner, either positively or negatively

-People with negative affectivity tend to focus on the disadvantages of a situation. -People with positive affectivity tend to have optimistic approaches in new situations.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

According to Maslow, people are motivated by 5 basic types of needs

Macro psychological components:

Motivation Learning Stress

The operant approach utilizes the following components to change the direction, intensity, or persistence of behavior.

Reward Punishment Contingent rewards and punishments Noncontingent rewards and punishments Extinction

Micro psychological components:

Self-determination Meaning Competence Influence

Herzberg identified two factors of satisfaction.

The factors that led to satisfaction at work were labeled motivators. The factors that led to dissatisfaction at work were labeled hygiene factors.

Needs

are internal states of tension or arousal, or uncomfortable states of deficiency.

Leaders who know about different motivational theories

are more likely to choose the right theory for a particular follower and situation. -Choosing the best theory may result in higher-performing and more satisfied employees.

Motivational theories

are useful in certain situations but not as applicable in others.

Most performance problems

can be attributed to unclear expectations, skill deficits, resource/ equipment shortages, or a lack of motivation.

Life satisfaction

concerns a person's attitudes about life in general.

Performance

concerns behaviors directed toward the firm's mission/goals or the products or services resulting from those behaviors. -Differs from effectiveness i.e., making judgments about the adequacy of behavior based on criteria.

According to two-factor theory

efforts directed toward improving hygiene factors will not increase followers' motivation or satisfaction.

Leaders

have the most difficulty recognizing and correcting motivation problems.

Motivation

is anything that provides direction, intensity, and persistence to behavior. -Not observable; must be inferred from behavior.

Organizational justice

is based on the idea that people who are treated unfairly are less satisfied, productive, and committed to their organizations and are likely to initiate collective action and engage in counterproductive work behaviors.

Functional turnover

is healthy for an organization, such as when followers retire, do not fit into the organization, or are substandard workers.

Job satisfaction

is how much one likes a specific kind of job or work activity. -Satisfied workers engage in organizational citizenship behaviors.

Facet satisfaction

is the degree that employees are satisfied with different aspects of work (pay, benefits, promotion policies, working hours and conditions).

Global satisfaction

is the overall degree that employees are satisfied with their organization and their job.

Dysfunctional turnover

is unhealthy and occurs when an organization's best and brightest become dissatisfied and leave.

To motivate employees to work harder

leaders must determine where their followers are on the needs hierarchy and ensure that all lower-order needs are satisfied before appealing to their higher-order needs.

The Pygmalion effect

occurs when leaders express high expectations for followers. These expectations alone lead to higher-performing followers and teams.

The Golem Effect

occurs when leaders have little faith in their followers' ability to accomplish a goal. These expectations result in a self-fulfilling prophecy and low performance.