Leadership Dynamics Ch 6-9
Path-Goal Theory (House, 1971) Description Perspective Motivational Principles
(based on Expectancy Theory) - Subordinates will be motivated if they believe: they are capable of performing their work that their efforts will result in a certain outcome that the payoffs for doing their work are worthwhile
Leader-Member Relations
- Refers to the group atmosphere and the degree of confidence, loyalty, and attraction of followers for leader
LMX Outcomes for Employees (Harris, Wheeler & Kacmar, 2009)
Benefits of High LMX Disadvantages of Low LMX
TL Strengths
Broadly researched. Intuitive appeal. Process-focused. Broader leadership view. Strong follower. Yukl 1999.
Contingency Theory Approach Overall Scope
By measuring Leader's LPC score and the 3 situational variables, it is possible to predict whether a leader will be effective in a particular setting
Chapter 7
Chapter 7 Path - Goal Theory
Chapter 8
Chapter 8 Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Chapter 9
Chapter 9 Transformational Leadership
Leadership Profiles
Contingency theory supplies data on leadership styles that could be useful to organizations in developing leadership profiles for human resource planning.
Position Power
Designates the amount of authority a leader has to reward or punish followers
Contingency Theory Strengths
Empirical support Broadened understanding. Predictive Not an all-or-nothing approach. Leadership profiles.
LMX Criticisms
Inadvertently supports the development of privileged groups in the workplace; appears unfair and discriminatory The basic theoretical ideas of LMX are not fully developed How are high-quality leader-member exchanges created? What are the means to achieve building trust, respect, and obligation? What are the guidelines? Because of various scales and levels of analysis, measurement of leader-member exchanges is being questioned
Desire for Control Internal Locus of Control
Internal locus of control Leadership that allows subordinates to feel in charge of their work & makes them an integral part of the decision-making process Participative Leadership
Management-by Exception Passive
Intervenes only after standards have not been met or problems have arisen
Path-Goal Theory Conditions of Leadership Motivation Generates when...
It increases the number and kinds of payoffs subordinates receive from their work Makes the path to the goal clear and easy to travel through with coaching and direction Removes obstacles and roadblocks to attaining the goal Makes the work itself more personally satisfying
How Does the LMX Theory Approach Work? (Descriptively)
It suggests that it is important to recognize the existence of in-groups & out-groups within an organization Significant differences in how goals are accomplished using in-groups vs. out-groups Relevant differences in in-group vs. out-group behaviors
LMX Theory Description Perpective Assumption
LMX theory challenges the assumption that leaders treat followers in a collective way, as a group. LMX - Directed attention to the differences that might exist between the leader and each of his/her followers
Dimensions of Leadership
LMX theory makes the dyadic relationship between leaders and followers the focal point of the leadership process
LMX Strengths
LMX theory validates our experience of how people within organizations relate to each other and the leader. LMX theory is the only leadership approach that makes the dyadic relationship the centerpiece of the leadership process. LMX theory directs our attention to the importance of communication in leadership. Solid research foundation on how the practice of LMX theory is related to positive organizational outcomes.
How Does the LMX Theory Approach Work?
LMX theory works in two ways: it describes leadership and it prescribes leadership In both - the central concept is the dyadic relationship
Reasons for leader mismatch, ineffectiveness
LPC style doesn't match a particular situation; stress and anxiety result Under stress, leader reverts to less mature coping style learned in earlier development Leader's less mature coping style results in poor decision making and consequently negative work outcomes
TL Criticisms
Lacks conceptual clarity Dimensions are not clearly delimited Parameters of TL overlap with similar conceptualizations of leadership Measurement questioned Validity of MLQ not fully established Some transformational factors are not unique solely to the transformational model TL treats leadership more as a personality trait or predisposition than a behavior that can be taught TL is elitist and antidemocratic Suffers from heroic leadership bias TL is based primarily on qualitative data Has the potential to be abused
Nonleadership Factor
Laissez-Faire The absence of leadership A hands-off, let-things-ride approach Refers to a leader who abdicates responsibility Delays decisions gives no feedback, and makes little effort to help followers satisfy their needs
Nonsupportive / Weak group norms
Leader needs to help build cohesiveness and role responsibility
Task Situations Requiring Leader Involvement Unclear and Ambiguous
Leader needs to provide structure
Task Situations Requiring Leader Involvement Highly Repetitive
Leader needs to provide support to maintain subordinate motivation
Achievement Oriented Leadership
Leader who challenges subordinates to perform work at the highest level possible: Establishes a high standard of excellence for subordinates Seeks continuous improvement Demonstrates a high degree of confidence in subordinates' ability to establish & achieve challenging goals
Directive Leadership
Leader who gives subordinates task instruction including: What is expected of them How task is to be done Timeline for task completion Clear standards of performance Clear rules & regulations
Participative Leadership
Leader who invites subordinates to share in the decision-making: Consults with subordinates Seeks their ideas & opinions Integrates their input into group/organizational decisions
Supportive Leadership
Leader who is friendly and approachable: Attending to well-being & human needs of subordinates' Using supportive behavior to make work environment pleasant Treating subordinates as equals & give them respect for their status
Early Studies LMX View
Leader's work unit as a whole was viewed as a series of vertical dyads; leader forms unique relationship with each subordinate
Relationship-motivated (High LPCs)
Leaders are concerned with developing close interpersonal relationships
Transactional Leaders -
Leaders do not individualize the needs of subordinates nor focus on their personal development Exchange things of value with subordinates to further Subordinate agendas
Inspirational Motivation
Leaders who communicate high expectations to followers Inspiring followers through motivation to commitment and a part in shared vision of the organization L's use symbols & emotional appeals to focus group members to achieve more than self-interest; team spirit promoted
Individualized Consideration
Leaders who provide a supportive climate in which they listen carefully to the needs of followers Leader's act as coaches and advisors encouraging self-actualization
Contingency Theory Approach Assessment based on
Leadership Styles Situational Variables
Management-by Exception
Leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative feedback, and negative reinforcement Two forms Active - Passive -
Leadership Making Phase 3 Mature Partnership
Marked by high-quality leader-member exchanges Experience high degree of mutual trust, respect, and obligation toward each other Tested relationship and found it dependable High degree of reciprocity between leaders and subordinates May depend on each other for favors and special assistance Highly developed patterns of relating that produce positive outcomes for both themselves & the organization
Other Transformational Perspectives Kouzes & Pozner (1987, 2002)
Model consists of 5 fundamental practices Enable leaders to get extraordinary things accomplished 1. Model the way Exemplary leaders set a personal example for others by their own behavior 2. Inspire a shared vision Effective leaders inspire visions that challenge others to transcend the status quo to do something for others 3. Challenge the Process Leaders are like pioneers - are willing to innovate, grow, take risks, & improve 4. Enable Others to Act Leaders create environments where people can feel good about their work & how it contributes to greater community 5. Encourage the Heart Leaders use authentic celebrations & rituals to show appreciation & encouragement to others
Phases in Leadership Making Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995) Exchanges
P1 Low quality P2 Medium quality P3 High quality
Phases in Leadership Making Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995) Roles
P1 Scripted P2 Tested P3 Negotiated
Phases in Leadership Making Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995) Interests
P1 Self P2 Self and Other P3 group
Path-Goal Theory Applications
PGT offers valuable insights that can be applied in ongoing settings to improve one's leadership. Informs leaders about when to be directive, supportive, participative, or achievement oriented. The principles of PGT can be employed by leaders at all organizational levels and for all types of tasks.
Integrates Motivation (Path-Goal Theory Strengths)
Path-goal theory attempts to integrate the motivation principles of expectancy theory into a theory of leadership.
Path-Goal Theory Approach Focus
Path-goal theory is a complex but also pragmatic approach Leaders should choose a leadership style that best fits the needs of subordinates and their work
Useful theoretical framework (Path-Goal Theory Strengths)
Path-goal theory is a useful theoretical framework for understanding how various leadership behaviors affect the satisfaction of subordinates and their work performance.
Practice Model (Path-Goal Theory Strengths)
Path-goal theory provides a practical model that underscores and highlights the important ways leaders help subordinates.
Path-Goal Theory Approach Overall Scope
Path-goal theory provides a set of assumptions about how different leadership styles will interact with subordinate characteristics and the work situation to affect employee motivation
Intuitive appeal
People are attracted to TL because it makes sense to them.
Atwater & Carmeli, 2009
Perceived high-quality leader-member exchange is positively related to feelings of energy in employees.
Pseudotransformational Leadership
Personalized Leadership
TL Application
Provides a general way of thinking about leadership that stresses ideals, inspiration, innovations, and individual concerns Can be taught to individuals at all levels of the organization Able to positively impact a firm's performance May be used as a tool in recruitment, selection, promotion, and training development Can be used to improve team development, decision-making groups, quality initiatives, and reorganizations The MLQ helps leaders to target areas of leadership attributes
High LPC
Relationship Oriented Situations with some degree of certainty; not completely in or out of leader's control Moderately Favorable Effective in Categories - 4, 5, 6, & 7
Early Studies LMX Linkages Formal employment contract (defined-roles) = out-group
Relationships marked by formal communication based on job descriptions
Later Studies (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) Results
Researchers found that high-quality leader-member exchanges resulted in: Less employee turnover More positive performance evaluations Higher frequency of promotions Greater organizational commitment More desirable work assignments Better job attitudes More attention and support from the leader Greater participation Faster career progress
Early Studies LMX Linkages (Or relationships)
Researchers found two general types of linkages (or relationships) - those based on Expanded/negotiated role responsibilities (extra-roles) = in-group Formal employment contract (defined-roles) = out-group
How Does Contingency Theory Work? (Example)
Situation - Leader-Member Relation - Good Task Structure - High Position Power - High Category - 1 Low LPC - (Individual who is task-oriented will be effective)
Intellectual Stimulation
Stimulates followers to be creative and innovative Challenge their own beliefs and values those of leader and organization Leader supports followers to try new approaches develop innovative ways of dealing with organization issues
Subordinate Characteristics
Strong need for affiliation Preference for Structure Desire for Control Perception of their own ability - specific task
Broadly researched
TL has been widely researched, including a large body of qualitative research centering on prominent leaders and CEOs in major firms.
Model of Transformational Leadership Bass (1985)
TL motivates followers to do more than the expected by: raising consciousness about the value and importance of specific and idealized goals Transcends self-interest for the good of the team or organization Addressing Higher Level needs
Broader leadership view
TL provides a broader view of leadership that augments other leadership models.
Process-Focused
TL treats leadership as a process occurring between followers and leaders.
Focus of Transformational Leaders
TLs empower and nurture followers TLs stimulate change by becoming strong role models for followers TLs commonly create a vision TLs require leaders to become social architects TLs build trust & foster collaboration with others
Leadership styles
Task-motivated (Low LPCs) Relationship-motivated (High LPCs)
Task Stucture
The degree to which requirements of a task are clear and spelled out
How Does the Path-Goal Theory Approach Work? Cont.
The leader's job is to help subordinates reach their goals by directing, guiding, and coaching them along the way Leaders must evaluate task and subordinate characteristics and adapt leadership style to these The theory suggests which style is most appropriate for specific characteristics
Yukl 1999
Evidence supports that TL is an effective form of leadership.
How Does the Contingency Theory Approach Work?
Focus of Contingency Theory Strengths Criticisms Application
How Does the Path-Goal Theory Approach Work?
Focus of Path-Goal Theory Strengths Criticisms Application
Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL)
Focus on the vertical linkages leaders formed with each of their followers Leader's relationship to a work unit viewed as a series of vertical dyads
Other Transformational Perspectives Bennis & Nanus (1985)
Four Leader Strategies in Transforming Organizations Clear vision of organization's future state TL's social architect of organization Create Trust by making their position known and standing by it Creatively deploy themselves through positive self-regard
Strong need for affiliation
Friendly and concerned leadership is a source of satisfaction Supportive Leadership
Path-Goal Theory (House, 1971) Description Perspective
Goal Motivational Principles
Leader Style Measurement Scale (Fiedler)
High LPCs = Relationship-motivated Low LPCs = Task-motivated
Task Situations Requiring Leader Involvement Weak formal authority
If formal authority system is weak, the leader needs to assist subordinates by making rules and work requirements clear
How Does Contingency Theory Work?
If individual's style matches appropriate category in the model, leader will be effective If individual's style does not match appropriate category in the model, leader will not be effective
Later Studies LMX (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)
Initial research primarily addressed differences between in-groups and out-groups; later research addressed how LMX theory was related to organizational effectiveness Later research focus on the quality of leader-member exchanges resulting in positive outcomes for: Leaders Followers Groups Organizations in general
Leadership Making Phase 1 Stranger
Interactions within the leader-subordinate dyad are generally rule bound Rely on contractual relationships Relate to each other within prescribed organizational roles Experience lower quality exchanges Motives of subordinate directed toward self-interest rather than good of the group
Path-Goal Theory Criticisms
Interpreting the meaning of the theory can be confusing because it is so complex and incorporates so many different aspects of leadership; consequently, it is difficult to implement. Empirical research studies have demonstrated only partial support for path-goal theory. It fails to adequately explain the relationship between leadership behavior and worker motivation. The path-goal theory approach treats leadership as a one-way event in which the leader affects the subordinate.
LMX Theory Description Perpective Development
LMX theory first described by Dansereau, Graen, & Haga (1975), Graen & Cashman (1975), and Graen (1976)
Path-Goal Theory Major Components
Leader Behaviors Subordinate Characteristics Task Characteristics Motivation
Task Motivated (Low LPCs)
Leaders are concerned primarily with reaching a goal
Desire for Control External Locus of Control
Leadership that parallels subordinates feelings that outside forces control their circumstances Directive Leadership
LPC
Least Preferred Coworker
Situational Variables
Most Favorable - Leader-Member Relations Task Stucture Position Power
Phases in Leadership Making Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995) Influences
P1 One Way P2 Mixed P3 Reciprocal
Early Studies LMX Linkages Expanded/negotiated role responsibilities (extra-roles) = in-group
Relationships marked by mutual trust, respect, liking, and reciprocal influence Receive more information, influence, confidence, and concern than out-group members
Strong Follower
TL emphasizes followers' needs, values, and morals.
Low LPC
Task Oriented Situations going smoothly Situations out of control Very Favorable Very Unfavorable Effective in Categories - 1, 2, 3, & 8
Contingent Reward
The exchange process between leaders and followers in which effort by followers is exchanged for specified rewards
LMX Theory Description Perpective Revisions
Theory has undergone a number of revisions since its inception and continues to interest researchers
Path-Goal Theory (House, 1971) Description Perspective Goal
To enhance employee performance and satisfaction by focusing on employee motivation
Types of Leadership
Transactional Transformational
Task Situations Requiring Leader Involvement
Unclear and ambiguous Highly repetitive Weak formal authority Nonsupportive/weak group norms
Contingency Theory Application
Useful in answering a multitude of questions about the leadership of individuals in various types of organizations Helpful tool to assist upper management in making changes to lower level positions to ensure a good fit between an existing manager and a certain work context
Path-Goal Theory Strengths
Useful theoretical framework Integrates motivation Practical Model
Encompassing approach - TL
describes a wide range of leadership influence Specific: one-to-one with followers Broad: whole organizations or entire cultures follower(s) and leader are inextricably bound together in the transformation process
Transformational Leadership elements
is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals includes assessing followers' motives, satisfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings
Out-Group Subordinates
less compatible with Leader usually just come to work, do their job & go home
In-Group Subordinates
more information, influence, confidence & concern from Leader more dependable, highly involved & communicative than out-group
Partnerships are transformational
moving beyond self-interest to accomplish greater good of the team & organization
Transformational Leadership
"occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality" (1978)
Leadership Making LMX Uhl-Bien
A prescriptive approach to leadership that emphasizes that a leader should develop high-quality exchanges with all of her or his subordinates, rather than just a few.
Charisma
A special personality characteristic that gives a person superhuman or exceptional powers and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the person being treated as a leader (Weber, 1947)
Task Characteristics Obstacles
Anything in the work setting that gets in the way of subordinates They create excessive uncertainties, frustrations, or threats for subordinates Leader's responsibility is to help subordinates by - Removing the obstacles Helping subordinates around them Assisting with obstacles will increase Subordinates' expectations to complete the task Their sense of job satisfaction
LMX Application
Applicable to all levels of management and different types of organizations Directs managers to assess their leadership from a relationship perspective Sensitizes managers to how in-groups and out-groups develop within their work unit Can be used to explain how individuals create leadership networks throughout an organization Can be applied in different types of organizations - volunteer, business, education and government settings
Perception of their own ability - specific task
As perception of ability and competence goes up, need for highly directive leadership goes down. Directive leadership may become redundant, possibly excessively controlling
Later Studies LMX, cont.
Atwater & Carmeli, 2009 Harris et al., 2009
Participative Leadership Group Members and Task Characteristics
Autonomous Need for Control Need for Clarity Ambiguous Unclear Unstructured
Predictive
Because Contingency theory is predictive, it provides relevant information regarding the type of leadership that is most likely to be effective in particular contexts.
Leadership Making Phase 2 Acquaintance
Begins with an "offer" by leader/subordinate for improved career-oriented social exchanges Testing period for both, assessing whether the subordinate is interested in taking on new roles leader is willing to provide new challenges Shift in dyad from formalized interactions to new ways of relating Quality of exchanges improve along with greater trust & respect Less focus on self-interest, more on goals of the group
How Does the LMX Theory Approach Work? (Perscriptively)
Best understood within the Leadership Making Model (Graen & Uhl-Bien) Leader forms special relationships with all subordinates Leader should offer each subordinate an opportunity for new roles/responsibilities Leader should nurture high-quality exchanges with all subordinates Rather than concentrating on differences, leader focuses on ways to build trust & respect with all subordinates - resulting in entire work group becoming an in-group
Contingency Theory Approach Focus
By assessing the 3 situational variables, any organizational context can be placed in one of the 8 categories represented in the Contingency Theory Model After the nature of a situation is determined, the fit between leader's style and the situation can be evaluated
Path - Goal Theory
Centers on how leaders motivate subordinates to accomplish designated goals PGT
Chapter 6
Chapter 6 Contingency Theory
Charismatic Leadership Theory (House, 1976)
Charismatic leaders act in unique ways that have specific charismatic effects on their followers
Not an all or nothing approach
Contingency theory contends that leaders should not expect to be effective in every situation; thus companies should strive to place leaders in optimal situations according to their leadership style.
Empirical Support
Contingency theory has been tested by many researchers and found to be a valid and reliable approach to explaining how to achieve effective leadership.
Broadened Understanding
Contingency theory has broadened the scope of leadership understanding from a focus on a single, best type of leadership (e.g., trait approach) to emphasizing the importance of a leader's style and the demands of different situations.
Path-Goal Leadership Basic Idea
Defines Goals Clarifies Path Removes Obstacles Provides Support
Focus of Transformational Leaders Overall Scope
Describes how leaders can initiate, develop, and carry out significant changes in organizations
Idealized Influence Charisma
Describes leaders who act as strong role models for followers followers identify with leaders and emulate them Leader's have very high standards of ethical and moral conduct followers deeply respect & trust L's L's provide a vision and sense of mission
Task Characteristics
Design of subordinates' task Organization's formal authority system Primary work group of subordinates
Leadership Making Phases LMX Uhl-Bien
Develops over time (a) stranger phase (b) acquaintance phase (c) mature partnership phase
Directive Leadership Group Members and Task Characteristics
Dogmatic Authoritarian Ambiguous Unclear Rules Complex
Preference for Structure
Dogmatic & authoritarian Leadership provides psychological structure, task clarity & greater sense of certainty in work setting Directive Leadership
Contingency Theory Approach
Effective leadership is contingent on matching a leader's style to the right setting
Contingency Theory Criticisms
Fails to fully explain why leaders with particular leadership styles are more effective in some situations than others Criticism of LPC scale validity as it does not correlate well with other standard leadership measures Cumbersome to use in real-world settings Fails to adequately explain what should be done about a leader/situation mismatch in the workplace
Empirically grounded generalizations
Fiedler's generalizations about which styles of leadership are best and worst
Types of Leadership Defined Burns (1978)
Focuses on the exchanges that occur between leaders and their followers Process of engaging with others to create a connection that _______ motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower Focuses on the leader's own interests rather than the interests of their followers
Atmosphere (Leader-Member Relations)
Good - high degree of subordinate trust, liking, positive relationship Poor - little or no subordinate trust, friction exists, unfriendly
Achievement Leadership Group Members and Task Characteristics
High expectations Need to excel Ambiguous Challenging Complex
Harris et al., 2009
High-quality leader member exchange appears to compensate for the drawbacks of not being empowered.
Early Studies LMX In-group/out-group status based on
How well subordinate works with the leader and how well the leader works with the subordinate Whether subordinates involve themselves in expanding their role responsibilities with the leader Whether subordinates negotiate to perform activities beyond the formal job description
Charismatic Leadership -
Transforms follower's ________ ; tries to link identity of followers to collective identity of the organization _____ this link by emphasizing intrinsic rewards & de-emphasizing extrinsic rewards Throughout process leaders Express ____ expectations for followers help followers gain sense of self-confidence and self-efficacy
Supportive Leadership Group Members and Task Characteristics
Unsatisfied Need Affiliation Need Human touch Repetitive Unchallenging Mundane and Mechanical
Path-Goal Theory Challenge to Leader
Use a Leadership Style that best meets subordinates' motivational needs choose behaviors that complement or supplement what is missing in the work setting enhance goal attainment by providing information or rewards provide subordinates with the elements they need to reach their goals
Early Studies LMX Called
Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL)
Management-by Exception Active
Watches follower closely to identify mistakes/rule violations
Strong Position Power
authority to hire or fire, give raises in rank or pay
Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX)
conceptualizes leadership as a process that is centered on the interactions between a leader and subordinates
Transactional Leadership
contractual management
Leader's effectiveness
depends on how well the leader's style fits the context
3 Factors (Situational Variables)
determine the favorableness of various situations in organizations
Contingency theory
is a leader-match theory (Fiedler & Chemers, 1974) Tries to match leaders to appropriate situations
Transformational Leadership
is a process that: changes and transforms individuals frequently incorporates charismatic and visionary leadership involves an exceptional form of influence that moves followers to accomplish more than what is usually expected of them
Disadvantages of Low LMX
limited trust and support from supervisors few benefits outside the employment contract
Weak Position Power
no authority to hire or fire, give raises in rank or pay
Benefits of High LMX
preferential treatment increased job-related communication ample access to supervisors increased performance-related feedback
High Task Structure
requirements/rules - are clearly stated/known path to accomplish - has few alternatives task completion - can be clearly demonstrated limited number - correct solutions exist
Low Task Structure
requirements/rules - not clearly stated/known path to accomplish - has many alternatives task completion - cannot be clearly demonstrated/verified unlimited number - correct solutions exist
Other theories focus on the follower and the context (LMX)
situational leadership, contingency theory, and path-goal theory.
Path - Goal Theory Emphasis on relationship between
the leader's style the characteristics of the subordinates the work setting
Some theories focus on leaders
trait approach, skills approach and style approach
