Learning Exam 2

At present, the record for LTM duration is held by what animal? How long did it remember it's training?

Record is held by sea lions, they remember 10 years later.

In the following study ... • Two groups of rats were presented with two stimuli. • For Group D, S1 & S2 signaled different foods. • For Group E, S1 & S2 signaled the same food. • Then both groups were taught that S1 = food and S2 now = nothing. • Which group had the hardest time learning this new discrimination - learning to respond to S1 & not S2? Why?

Group E had the hardest time learning this because the stimuli's features were the same.

How does the Retrieval Theory of LTM account for the disruptive effects of ECS during training?

The animal isn't given time to encode & consolidate/elaborate the information, so there aren't enough CUES for retrieval!

According to the Feature Theory, how do animals solve categorical discriminations?

The animal knows what features to look for when discriminating.

How does the Configural Theory explain animals' general success on the transpositional test?

The animal responds to any stimuli with similar features.

How can we explain the pre-exposure effect using the Configural Theory of discrimination?

The animals were exposed to stimuli that were different but also had shared features, which they habituated through extra exposure.

Briefly describe an experimental example of the pre-exposure effect....

There was a control group and experimental group of rats that were then trained in a T-maze. Triangle represented correct choices & circle represented incorrect choices. Experimental group learned faster because they had preexposure.

How do animals typically do on a delayed-matching-to-sample task? What animal can sustain a 4min retention interval?

They don't do well if the retention interval isn't short. Dolphins.

How is memory demonstrated in a radial maze?

They have to remember either the arms it has visited, or those it has not visited.

According to Rescorla-Wagner, the slides that are used in categorical discrimination tasks are actually what?

They're compound stimuli

How does the element of surprise explain the partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE)?

When animals are on a PRF schedule, expectation is lower. Not as surprised by it's absence, so extinction takes longer.

What is retroactive interference?

When new information interferes with the ability to recall old information.

What is proactive interference?

When old information interferes with the ability to encode or recall new information.

What is reactivation?

When the memory of an event is reactivated by presenting some of the cues that were present during the event.

What is spreading activation?

Activation of one node causes the activation of other, nearby nodes.

Briefly describe a negative patterning discrimination.

A reward is delivered during 2 separate Stimuli, but not during the compound of them.

Briefly describe the matching-to-sample technique.

A sample stimulus is presented. After the animal has directed attention to it, 2 comparison stimuli are presented. Task is to choose the stimulus that matches the sample.

It is possible to make 2 stimuli appear to become more similar by having them signal the same outcome. This is called _____ _____.

Acquired Equivalence

According to the Configural Theory of discrimination, how should we view stimuli? How should we view compounds?

All stimuli are compounds and all compounds are stimuli.

According to the Decay Theory of forgetting, why is memory lost from STM?

An event is lost from STM because its trace decays with the passage of time.

Why is it so hard to test the duration of animal LTM?

Animals die, researchers die, labs run out of money.

According to the Exemplar Theory, how do animals solve categorical discriminations?

Animals rely on mental representations/examples; to which they compare all new stimuli.

What is the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE)?

Animals that have been trained on a PRF schedule of reinforcement and are more resistant to extinction.

Most studies in which animals demonstrate the ability to discriminate between stimuli on the basis of the category to which they belong use visual stimuli, but not all. Give an example of one that did not.

Auditory: Carp were played excerpts of blues music (S+) and Bach (S-) if they hit the button they didn't get any food (corn/potato chips) They got it, and transferred to brand new stimuli!

According to Kohler's Relational Learning theory of discrimination, how do animals learn to discriminate between 2 stimuli?

Based on how they relate to one another.

In one study, chimpanzees were given a pair of objects to play with - either 2 identical objects or 2 different, non-identical objects. When later given a choice between playing with 2 new identical objects or 2 new non-identical objects, they chose the pair with the opposite relationship of the first pair. Briefly explain why they did this and what cognitive skill they may have demonstrated.

Because they habituated to the relationship of the sample! They got bored!!

Briefly describe the interesting LTM duration demonstration of the African claw-toed frogs.

Both tadpoles and frogs were trained to move from one side of a chamber to another in order to avoid shock. Tested them 35 days later (after the tadpoles had become frogs) ALL showed excellent retention!

How was the serial position effect tested in dolphins?

Bottle-nosed were presented with a "list" of 6 sounds. Afterwards, presented with test sounds. Task was to indicate whether the test sound was on the list. Were more accurate when the test sound matched one from the end of the list (recency).

In a delayed-matching-to-sample task, what is the retention interval?

Break or time between the sample and test.

STM is limited in its _____ and its _____.

Capacity; Duration

Briefly relate the Exemplar Theory of categorical discrimination to Spence's theory of generalization.

Categorical discrimination is generalization, but using a generic example, not a specific S+.

The LTM capacity record, so far as we know, is held by what animal?

Clarks Nutcracker

How does the Clark's nutcracker demonstrate its impressive LTM capacity?

Collect over 33,000 pine seeds and hide them in over 8,000 different places. Throughout winter and spring, they feed themselves and collect them all!

How do connectionist models of human memory conceptualize memory?

Conceptualizes memory as a spider web.

According to the Consolidation Theory of LTM, information must be _____ immediately after it is presented in order to be stored adequately. What does this mean?

Consolidated/Rehearsed; It has to be elaborated on so that permanent links in the network can be formed.

What is the difference between a CRF and a PRF schedule of reinforcement?

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule (CRF): Reinforce every correct response. Partial Reinforcement Schedules (PRF): do not reinforce every correct response.

What evidence is used to claim that radial maze learning is an example of STM, and not LTM?

Duration has to be short or they lose the behavior. Capacity is limited because they can only preform well up to 24 arms.

What do we know about the old saying, "an elephant never forgets"?

Elephants learn slowly, remember for up to 8 years.

What kinds of studies provide evidence that supports the Consolidation Theory of LTM?

Evidence in studies on the influence of ECS on memory.

How is surprise an important factor in extinction?

Extinction happens faster if the ABSENCE of the US is surprising.

How is trace conditioning a demonstration of STM?

For training to be successful, a memory of the CS must exist and persist until the US occurs & Delay has to be short.

According to the Retrieval Theory of LTM, why does forgetting occur?

Forgetting is the result of retrieval failure.

Studies with pigeons demonstrate that, like us, over time they loose the exact memory of the training stimulus (S+), but they remember the gist of it. In other words, when tested with several stimuli similar to the S+, there is more _____ over time.

Generalization

I put rats in a radial maze and allow them to make 4 choices before removing them from the maze and placing them back in their home cages for 3hrs. After this interval, I put them back in the radial maze. Based on research findings discussed in class, what should I expect the rats to do?

If it was 4 hours or less the rats should still be able to complete the task.

How is proactive interference demonstrated in the radial maze?

In a radical maze, when trials are one right after the other, rats do increasingly worse as the trials go on. They seem to forget which arms they have visited this time, and will instead visit arms they didn't visit last time.

How is the delayed-matching-to-sample technique a demonstration of memory?

In order to succeed, the animal must remember the sample.

What is the difference between an input unit and an output unit?

Input unit: Causes the activation of other units: CUE. Output unit: Causes the action

According to the connectionist model of memory, in Pavlovian conditioning, what is the input unit? What is the output unit?

Input unit= CS. Output unit= US.

According to the Decay Theory of forgetting, the strength of a trace is not influenced at all by what? Why is this a problem for this theory?

It is a problem because forgetting is never due to the presence of other stimuli, but sometimes it is.

According to the Decay Theory of forgetting, the strength and persistence of a trace is determined by what?

It is determined by the intensity and duration of the stimulus.

So far, the longest LTM duration demonstrated by rats is 90days. Why must we not jump to the conclusion that their memory is not as good as that of other animals who can remember things for longer durations?

It is impressive- Rats live less than the other animals who can remember things for longer.

If I train an animal on a task, then shock its brain with ECS, then place it in the training chamber for 15sec before test, how well will it perform? Why?

It will do well because it has time for reactivation after being shocked.

If I train an animal and then, after a short delay, shock its brain with ECS, what will be the effect on memory? According to the Consolidation Theory of LTM, why is this?

It will impair their memory. If there is a short delay they don't have time to recall the information.

In one study, chimpanzees were able to correctly sort tools & food items into 2 separate piles. This could be a demonstration of abstract categorization. There could be another explanation for these findings, though. What is it?

It's possible that the food all shared notable features (edible, or salivation).

How did Spence explain learning in a discrimination task?

Learning is about the absolute properties of stimuli, not the relationship between them.

How does the delayed-matching-to-sample technique differ from the matching-to-sample technique?

MTS technique, with delay between sample and test.

What is a radial maze?

Maze shaped like as asterisk.

What happens in trace conditioning?

The US is presented after the CS has been turned off for a brief amount of time.

According to the connectionist model of memory, how are networks created (or, how do nodes get connected with each other)?

Networks occur when there is a change in the strength of a connection between an input & output unit.

Once S+ and S- are established, and a new stimulus is presented in the direction that is away from the S-, the rate of responding is actually higher to the new stimulus than to the original S+. This is called a _____ _____.

Peak Shift

In what way do pigeons and monkeys perform better than dolphins on tests of the serial position effect?

Pigeons and monkeys can remember the beginning of a list better than dolphins.

How was the serial position effect tested in pigeons & monkeys?

Pigeons and monkeys were presented with "lists" of slides Afterwards, presented with test slides. Task was to indicate whether the slide was on the list. Demonstrated primacy AND recency- more accurate if the test slide came from the beginning or end.

Briefly describe a study in which animals demonstrated the ability to discriminate between stimuli on the basis of the category to which they belong.

Pigeons shown a set of slides containing various scenes. Half of them contain trees, half do not. Slides were shown 1 at a time, and pecks at a key were rewarded only when a scene with a tree shown (S+). Pigeons were good at it, and transferred this discrimination to new slides!

How was deliberate forgetting tested (and proven!) in pigeons?

Pigeons were given a standard DMTS training. Next, trials were given in which the sample stimulus was followed by one of 2 lights: Red: "forget cue"- not test them. Green: "remember cue" - test them They were eventually tested following the red light (forget cue). FAILED ON THE TEST- They deliberately exercised some control over what went into memory.

Give an example of a study that supports the Feature Theory of categorical discriminations.

Pigeons were shown colored slides of male and female faces Males (S+) Female (S-) Got the association and transferred! Messed up? Hairless? -success. Faces blurred? -success Black & white pictures? -FAIL

What is the pre-exposure effect?

Prior experience with a stimulus helps later learning about that stimulus.

Briefly describe a typical procedure with a radial maze.

Rat is placed in the center. Food is placed at the end of each arm. Task is to collect all the food from all the arms, without repeating an arm. The rat has to remember where it has been.

What is the longest trace interval so far discovered in research? What species demonstrated it?

Rats has the longest interval, which was 12 hours long.

How is the radial maze used to study the capacity of STM?

Rats performed well up to 24 arms, BUT developed a stereotyped pattern with a lot of arms.

How does reactivation provide support for the Retrieval Theory of LTM?

Reactivation does this by saying that stimuli from previous training has presented so they can remember.

If I have a subject on a fixed ratio (FR) schedule of reinforcement, what does this mean?

Reinforce for a set number of correct responses.

If I have a subject on a variable ratio (VR) schedule of reinforcement, what does this mean?

Reinforce for an average number of correct responses.

If I have a subject on a fixed interval (FI) schedule of reinforcement, what does this mean?

Reinforce for the first correct response after a set amount of time.

If I have a subject on a variable interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement, what does this mean?

Reinforce for the first correct response after an average amount of time.

If I pair CS+US in environment A, then extinguish that association in environment B, what happens when I present the CS again in environment A? What is this effect called?

Renewal Effect

How is the delayed-matching-to-sample technique a demonstration of STM, and not LTM?

Retention intervals must be short in duration.

How does the Rescorla-Wagner theory fail to explain negative patterning discrimination?

Spence and RW both claim that they should NOT be able to learn this discrimination, but they do learn anyways.

According to the Retrieval Theory of LTM, what must be present in order for successful retrieval to take place?

Subjects must be in the presence of some of the stimuli that were present at the time of training.

How is scent ruled out as a determining factor of success in a radial maze?

Surgically destroyed sense of smell- Still succeeded. Doused the maze in Old Spice- Still succeeded.

What does it mean to say that an animal is "resistant to extinction"?

Take longer to reach zero responses, so they take longer to give up!

How is dishabituation a demonstration of retroactive interference?

The NEW stimulus causes the animal to forget the OLD stimulus.

How is the Retrieval Theory's explanation of the disruptive effects of ECS different from the Consolidation Theory's explanation of those effects?

The Retrieval gives more time after the shock for reactivation, while the consolidation theory doesn't give enough time before the shock to consolidate what they learned.

If I train an animal and then, after a long delay, shock its brain with ECS, what will be the effect on memory? According to the Consolidation Theory of LTM, why is this?

The disruptive effects decrease because they have time to recall the information they learned.

According to Rescorla-Wagner, how do animals learn to respond only to stimuli that contain certain features in a categorical discrimination task?

The features acquire associative strength!

Briefly explain the frustration theory explanation of the partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE).

The frustration that builds up over nonreinforced trials gets associated with the eventual reward, and becomes a signal that reward is coming (CS). The animal keeps responding, because it keeps getting frustrated!

If a CS-US association has reached asymptote, is there a LARGE or SMALL loss of associative strength on the first extinction trial? Why?

The greater the associative strength= the greater the expectation= the greater the loss on each extinction trial.

What ability does the matching-to-sample task demonstrate?

The key is the ability to transfer to new "triads" (sets of 3 stimuli) (which they do!)

How did Spence explain the success of animals on the transpositional test?

The new stimulus still falls under the gradient of the original S+, and even further from the inhibitory energy of the S-.

Pigeons are taught that S+ is a navy blue square, and S- is a light blue square. I then give them a choice between the navy blue square and a black square. If Kohler's Relational Learning theory of discrimination is correct, how should the pigeons respond on this transpositional test? Why?

The pigeons learned to choose the darker colored shape because they knew it equaled a reward. They transpose the relationship. The dark feature is encoded in their memory.

According to the connectionist model of memory, what determines the level of activity of the Output unit (or the strength of a response)?

The result of the sum of the strengths of the associated Inputs.

How does the Configural Theory of discrimination explain negative patterning discrimination?

The separate stimuli, as well as the compound, are all separate EVENTS. This discrimination is easy!

How is Rescorla-Wagner's explanation of categorical discrimination similar to the Configural Theory of discrimination?

The slides are compounds because features acquire associative strength.

What is the serial position effect?

The tendency to remember the first and last items on a list the best.

According to the Configural Theory of discrimination, if I create an S+, and then present a new stimulus with similar elements, what will happen? Why?

There is more responding because there are more excitatory features.

If I train rats in a black & white chamber, and then leave them in their home cages for a delay of several days, memory of the training will be impaired. If, however, I put them in the chamber for 15sec before testing them, they will not show such a memory deficit. Why?

When they are placed into the chamber again for 15 seconds before the test their memories are reactivated.

How do we usually test hypotheses regarding whether or not an animal is using a particular piece of information in the environment, or a particular skill in order to complete a task?

When we are investigating HOW an animal completes a task, we make a guess and then attempt to mess it up!

Do the same factors that influence serial learning in humans (such as delays & distracters) do so in animals as well?

Yes.